Eros as a Globetrotter

MÈTIS N. S. 19 2021 Anthropologie des mondes grecs et romains Dossier : Éros en jeu Éditions de l’ehess • Daedalus Paris • Athènes Sommaire Dossier : Éros en jeu Véronique Dasen – Jeux d’Éros : enjeux et pistes historiographiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Bouvier – Athéna, Éros, ulysse, Nausicaa, des lavoirs, un lion et une balle dans l’Odyssée . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hanna Ammar – Éros et jeux d’enfants dans la céramique attique des ve et ive siècles av. J.-C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carina Weiss – Eros/Amor ist ein Fallensteller oder: Wer anderen eine Falle stellt, tritt selbst hinein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabio Spadini – Éros et le lion. Soulager les peines d’amour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viktoria räuchle – Eros as a Globetrotter. Jeux d’esprit on a Sardonyx Gem in Xanten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Véronique Dasen, Nicolas Mathieu – Margaris ou l’amour en jeu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giulia Sissa – Mille facesse iocos! The Paradigm of Play in ovid’s Art of Love . . . . . . . . 7 13 37 57 79 101 123 147 Varia Vasiliki kousoulini – Cyprus as a Heterotopia in Early Greek Epic Poetry . . . . . . . . . Déborah Bucchi – La matérialité du double d’Hélène ou les pouvoirs figuratifs de la tragédie d’Euripide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ioannis N. Perysinakis – Function of Wealth in Aeschylus’ Persae and Herodotus’ Historiē . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sonia Darthou – La chouette : un signe politique sur les disques du gymnase ? . . . . Madeleine Jost – un paysage religieux : l’Arcadie, théâtre de la vie terrestre des dieux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mélanie Lozat – Courètes, Corybantes, Cabires, Dactyles et Telchines dans la Géographie de Strabon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabian Schulz – The Debate over the Altar of Victory in 384: A Test Case for Bertram raven’s Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Françoise Frontisi-Ducroux, François Lissarrague – Atypota : pour en finir avec l’aniconisme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 197 219 243 265 289 313 333 Viktoria Räuchle LMU Munich Eros as a Globetrotter Jeux d’esprit on a Sardonyx Gem in Xanten Résumés A sardonyx gem in Xanten (1st cent. BC) shows a young, winged Eros balancing on a globe, his hands tied behind his back, while an ageing man in the thinker pose is watching him. The piece combines various established motives and image types into a new and surprisingly innovative composition and thus presents a prime example for the iconographic and formal eclecticism of early Imperial imagery. This paper analyzes the single elements in their typological and iconographic tradition and interprets them against the background of contemporary discourses on love. The study is part of a larger book project, which investigates the motif of the Eros Bound as a multi-faceted allegory for erotic desire and its manifold ordeals. Key words: Eros, globe, chains, glyptic, allegory, visual metaphor Éros globe-trotter. Jeux d’esprit sur une intaille en sardonyx de Xanten Cet article analyse une gemme en sardonyx conservée à Xanten (ier siècle av. J.-C.) qui présente une iconographie exceptionnelle. L’intaille montre un jeune Éros, ailé et nu, qui se tient en équilibre sur un globe, les mains liées derrière le dos. En face de lui, un philosophe barbu et pensif, la main portée au menton, le contemple. En combinant des motifs bien établis, l’objet crée une nouvelle composition faisant preuve d’une innovation surprenante. Il constitue ainsi un parfait exemple de l’éclectisme iconographique et typologique de l’imagerie du Haut-Empire. Cet article analyse les différents éléments du point de vue de leurs traditions iconographiques et typologiques propres pour les interpréter ensuite dans le contexte d’un discours contemporain sur l’amour. L’enquête fait partie d’un projet de recherche plus large sur le motif d’Éros entravé en tant qu’allégorie complexe du désir érotique et de ses multiples tourments. Mots-clés : Éros, globe, chaînes, glyptique, allégorie, métaphore visuelle Mètis, N. S. 19, 2021, p. 101-121. V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 102 A p r i vat e c o l l e c t i o n i n Xanten houses a peculiar sardonyx gem which combines various established motives and image types into a new and surprisingly innovative composition. The highlypolished engraving on the circular, flat surface shows a young, winged Eros balancing on a globe, his hands tied behind his back, while an ageing man in the thinker pose is watching him from a chair (fig. 1). 1 The object thus confronts the beholder with a sophisticated play of opposites: young versus old, dynamic versus static, impairment versus mobility. The piece has been dated to the late 1st century BC on the basis of stylistic criteria, 2 and presents a prime example for the iconographic and formal eclecticism of the time. 3 This paper develops possible interpretations of the scene through a careful iconographic analysis of the single visual codes and their contextualization within contemporary discourses of love. Fig. 1: Sardonyx Xanten, private collection. After Platz-Horster 1994, pl. 53, no 275. 1. Sardonyx, second half of the 1st century BC, diam. 1,33 cm, allegedly found in Xanten in an ancient gold ring, Xanten, private collection; Platz-Horster 1994, p. 179-180, no 275, pl. 53; Lang 2012, p. 173, no G TypB17, pl. 23 fig. 184. The gem has a circular, flat surface with a slightly deeper rim; for a detailed typology of gems see Vitellozzi 2010, p. 30-33. 2. Platz-Horster 1994, p. 179-180: “klassizistischer Stil;” cf. Lang 2012, p. 173. The stylistic dating of gems is a notoriously thorny path and I do not find myself in a comfortable position to criticize the results of such distinguished specialists. However, the Classicistic style in combination with Archaistic elements and Hellenistic motives does indeed point to the creation of the piece during the early Augustan period. The Archaistic appearance primarily pertains to the figure of Eros with its stiff posture, rather awkward rotation of the torso and not least peculiar hairstyle (“Haarrollenfrisur”). 3. For a justified criticism against the term “eclecticism,” see Hölscher 1987, p. 49: “Der Begriff des Eklektizismus ist nicht abwegig, trifft aber den Tatbestand nur ungenau: Es herrscht nicht relativierende Willkür, auch nicht reine Vorliebe des Geschmacks, sondern eine Selektion, die sich an der Aussage orientiert.” The right side of the picture is occupied by a bald, bearded man sitting hunched over on a chair with a high backrest. He has his head propped up on his upright arm while he watches the ‘erotic spectacle’ taking place before him. His posture perfectly complies with the ‘pensive philosopher’, a popular early-Hellenistic statue type for intellectuals, 4 which soon found its way into the repertoire of the minor arts such as coroplastic, glyptic, and coins. 5 The slightly stooped or even slumped posture in combination with the peculiar gesture of resting one’s chin on one’s hand expresses the “rigors of thinking”, hence a particularly distinctive and desirable activity of philosophers. 6 His bald, protruding forehead and snub nose are slightly reminiscent of Socratic features and thus characterize the figure as a philosopher par excellence rather than an exponent of a certain philosophical school. 7 representations of philosophers are often enriched with further requisites to specify the content and/or context of their contemplation. A carnelian in Dresden presents a tête-à-tête between an intellectual and a muse, probably Thalia (fig. 2). 8 Seated on a chair, the bearded and bald-headed man brings his right hand towards his chin, just as the philosopher on the gem in Xanten. In addition, he holds a scroll in his hand and thus reveals himself as a ‘man of letters’. The muse is leaning on a small column or pillar and ‘mimics’ the thinker pose of her protégé. Situated in an idyllic landscape under a tree, the philosopher and his muse present an all-encompassing vision of creative inspiration. on a glass gem in Munich, the seated philosopher has abandoned his state of intense meditation and is now apparently delighting an imaginary audience with the fruits of his mental labors. 9 He is equipped with a radius (stick), an instrument for teaching as well as scholarly demonstration, and 4. The type was particularly popular during the 3rd century BC. See e.g. statue of Epicurus, Athens, depot of the 3rd Ephorate, inv. n° M888; Hoff 1994, p. 70, n. 78, p. 72; n. 121, pl. 12, fig. 43-45. –Statue of Hermarchus, Florence, Museo Archeologico, inv. 70989; Hoff 1994, p. 75-78, pl. 15, fig. 55-56. –Statue of so-called Cleanthes, London, British Museum, inv. 848; Hoff 1994, p. 165-171, pl. 50-51, fig. 196-203. 5. Zanker 1995, p. 92; Lang 2012, p. 85-87, pl. 23 (gems). 6. For the translation of intellectual exertion into body language in Greek and Hellenistic art see Neumann 1965, p. 109-123; Hoff 1994, p. 169-171; Zanker 1995, p. 91-93; p. 102-107; Lang 2012, p. 86. 7. Mostly the little patch of hair on the top of his head deviates from the great prototype. For portraits of Socrates on gems: Lang 2012, p. 154-161, no G So1-G So130. 8. Carnelian, late 1st century BC, Dresden, Staatliche kunstsammlungen, Skulpturensammlung, inv. H2 180/182; Zwierlein-Diehl 1986, p. 180, no 444, pl. 79; Lang 2012, p. 173, no G TypB11, pl. 23 fig. 182. 9. Glass gem, Munich, Staatliche Münzsammlung, inv. n° A 209; Brandt, Schmidt 1970, p. 146, no 1497, pl. 145; Lang 2012, p. 175, no G TypD10, pl. 25, fig. 202. 103 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr The Polymath and the Globe V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 104 Fig. 2: Carnelian. Dresden, Staatliche kunstsammlungen, H2 180/182. Photo: J. Lang (Leipzig). pointing towards a sphere lying on the ground in front of him, which in this context clearly represents a model of the celestial globe, itself an important device in the study of the universe. 10 one of the most famous reflexes of these scientific models is the Farnese Atlas which captures the infinite struggle of the titan condemned to hold up the vault of heaven for eternity. 11 As an attribute placed next to a figure, the globe can serve to illustrate the mastership of the person in the field of astronomy, one of the most important areas of ancient science. This meaning is implied in representations of urania who is characterized as the muse of astronomy since the Hellenistic period through the addition of the globe. 12 The same is true for depictions of historical philosophers and astronomers who are thus commemorated for their achievements in the study of celestial phenomena. 13 The marvelous silver cup from the Berthouville treasure shows urania and an elderly man with a radius grouped around a globe (fig. 3). 14 The lyra on the wall next to the 10. Brendel, Vermaseren 1977, p. 11; Pendergraft 1991, p. 98; Evans 1999, p. 238-241; Evans 2016, p. 147. 11. Farnese Atlas, ca. 2nd century CE (probably after Hellenistic original from 1st century BC), Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. 6374; Gasparri 2009, p. 155-158 (with further bibliographical references); Evans 2016, p. 146, fig. VI-2A, B. The spectacular rendition of the globe’s surface with its detailed constellations and circles suggests an influence by contemporary astronomy, cf. Evans 2016, p. 147 (based on the Phenomena of Aratus); Schaefer 2005 (based on the now lost catalog of Hipparchus, contra Duke 2006). 12. urania and globe: Schlachter 1927, p. 62-64; Faedo 1994, p. 1008; Lancha, Faedo 1994, p. 1054-1055; Pinkwart 1965, p. 78-79; p. 178; p. 180. See e.g. the Archelaos relief, also known as the “Apotheosis of Homer”: Votive relief of the sculptor Archelaos of Priene, mid 2nd century BC, London, British Museum, inv. 2191; Pinkwart 1965, passim; Faedo 1994, p. 1004, no 266; Zanker 1995, p. 155, fig. 85a. on the interpretation of the Archelaos relief in general see also Newby 2007; Seaman 2020, p. 67-109. 13. Schlachter 1927, p. 58-61; Lang 2012, p. 88-89; Evans 2016, p. 148. See e.g. the astronomer Hipparchus in the thinker pose, contemplating a globe: Bronze coin, minted in Nicaea, 253260 AD, American Numismatic Society, inv. 1970.142.280; Evans 2016, p. 148-149, fig. VI-5. 14. Silver cup, 1st century AD, Paris, Cabinet des Médailles et Antiques, Bibliothèque nationale de France, inv. 56.13; Babelon 1916, p. 106-109 (interpreted as “la Pythie delphique et un Fig. 3: Silver cup. Paris, BnF, Département des monnaies, médailles et antiques, 56.13. © BnF. astrologue”, p. 109); Faedo 1994, p. 1005, no 273; Lancha, Faedo 1994, p. 1025, no 112a; Lapatin 2014, p. 142-145, fig. 88a (with further bibliographical references). 15. For the significance of Aratus for ancient astronomy see Evans 2016, p. 148-149. For the identification of the figure as Aratus see Lapatin 2014, p. 143: “Although little known today, except among specialists, Aratus was one of the most widely read authors of classical antiquity.” Further representations of Aratus with globe (and urania): e.g. Mosaic of Monnus (figures tagged as ΑrAToS and urANIA), late 3rd-early 4th century AD, Trier, rheinisches Landesmuseum, inv. 10703-10724; Hoffmann et al. 1999, p. 138-141, pl. 67 (with further bibliographical references). –Byzantine silver plate, ca. 6th century AD, uk, private collection; Evans 2016, p. 144-145, fig. VI-I (with further bibliographical references). 16. Mosaic from Pompeii, 1st century BC, Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. 124545; Brendel 1936, p. 1-22 (= Brendel, Vermaseren 1977, p. 1-18); Andreae 2005 (with further bibliographical references). A similar iconography of seven philosophers grouped around a sphere is preserved on a mosaic from Sarsina and a gem in Cambridge; it is therefore generally accepted that the mosaics and the gem reflect a Hellenistic painting: Mosaic, 1st century BC (Andreae 2005, p. 10), rome, Villa Albani, inv. 668; Gaiser 1980, p. 13-14; Andreae 2005 (with further bibliographical references). –Carnelian, Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum (permanent loan from Corpus Christi College, inv. B 75); Lang 2012, p. 177 (G TypG1). For the identification of the figures as the Seven Sages see Brendel 1936, p. 8; Andreae 2005, esp. p. 14; Evans 2016, p. 143; pace Gaiser 1980, esp. p. 60-67 (interpreted as Plato’s Academy). 17. Brendel 1936, p. 42: “Es sind wirklich die Sieben Weisen gemeint, und das Gespräch περὶ σφαίρας, das sie führen, ist gefunden. Sie führen es nicht sehr als Astronomen wie als Philosophen, deren Aufgabe Welterkenntnis ist, eben als Weise”; cf. richter 1960, p. 673; Gaiser 1980, p. 37. 105 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr omphalos in the background marks him as a poet and thus suggests an identification as Aratus of Soloi, the early 3rd century BC author of a didactic poem called Phenomena, which significantly contributed to the dissemination of astronomical knowledge in antiquity. 15 A mosaic from Pompeii features the Seven Sages engaged in conversation and gathered around a sphere. 16 Here, the globe does not necessarily characterize them as astronomers but rather as interpreters of the universe, discussing the nature of the kosmos. 17 V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 106 Besides its significance as a ‘guild sign’ for philosophers and astronomers, the sphere can also serve as a generic “Bildungsrequisit”, which underlines the high educational background of the depicted figure(s) and helps to create an aura of erudition and philosophy. 18 The common denominator of these various connotations is the characterization of the figure with globe as a polymath with deep insights into the mysterious workings of the world. 19 The Globetrotter our universal scholar in Xanten is a special case as his globe is ‘occupied’ by a higher power: A naked, winged Eros, his hands in fetters, is balancing on it and thus opens a whole new field of interpretation. The motif of standing on a sphere is primarily a political symbol, an established code for “Weltherrschaft”, 20 most closely associated with Nike-Victoria, the personified goddess of victory. originating in Hellenistic imagery and programmatically incorporated in the visual program of Augustus after his victory in the sea-battle of Actium, the image of Victoria standing on a sphere became one of the most important visual codes for rome’s (claim to) global dominance. 21 The ‘globetrotter’ Eros–without the fetters–can be interpreted accordingly as a sign for the universal power of love. The motif occasionally appears in the visual sources but no distinct typology was ever established. 22 An exceptional testimony for the reconstruction of the meaning of Eros on the globe can be found on two amulets which can be linked to the “Sword of Dardanos,” a ritual described in the Great Magical Papyrus in Paris and belonging to the category of erotic binding spells which are often charac18. Lang 2012, p. 88-89; p. 92. For “Bildungsrequisiten” such as a globe and sundial on roman sarcophagi see Ewald 1999, p. 66-67. 19. Cf. Lang 2012, p. 89: “Auf eine Formel gebracht lassen diese Darstellungen den Bärtigen als eine Art universalen Erklärer des universums erscheinen.” 20. As a symbol of power, the sphere might represent the terrestrial globe, hence the inhabited world (Greek oikoumenē or Latin orbis), cf. Hölscher 1967, p. 41-47, here 46: “Die Bedeutung des Globus als Symbol des Erdkreises blieb in allen hier betrachteten Jahrhunderten lebendig”. Pace Arnaud 1984, p. 110: “Nous avons donc été contraint d’admettre que chacun des types que nous avons inventoriés, dès le 1er siècle avant notre ère, représentait la sphère céleste …” on the question whether and when the sphere represents the universe (globus caelestis) or the world (globus terrestris) see also Schlachter 1927, esp. p. 64-69; Lang 2012, p. 88, n. 870; p. 95. 21. For origin and development of Victoria on the globe, see Hölscher 1967, p. 6-47. 22. Cf. Schlachter 1927, p. 88-89. See e.g. Eros graciously standing with one foot on a globe while shooting his arrows: Carnelian, Imperial period, Berlin Antikensammlung (now lost?); Furtwängler 1896, p. 276, no 7440. –Bronze statuette of winged Cupid or Genius standing with one foot on a sphere, holding torch and palm branch, Schlossmuseum Petronell, without inv. n°; Fleischer 1967, p. 82, no 96. –Further images of Eros/Cupid and a globe: Hermary et al. 1986, p. 931, no 981; Blanc, Gury 1986, p. 990-991, no 294a; no 295. Fig. 4a-4b: Black magnetite. Formerly Beirut. After Mouterde 1930, pl. 1 terized by a high level of sexual aggression. 23 The amulets are covered with enigmatic images, formulas, and voces (fig. 4). 24 The obverse of the specimen formerly housed in Beirut shows a female figure with butterfly wings, obviously the personified human soul Psyche, in a quadrupedal posture, with Aphrodite riding on her back and a little winged Cupid standing on a sphere below her, scorching her with his torch. 25 on the reverse, we see Eros and Psyche in a tender embrace and thus presenting the positive aspects of their union. The object therefore quite literally articulates the ‘two sides of the coin’ called love. The corresponding text in the PGM provides a precise manual for the preparation and execution of the ritual. Firstly, it instructs the reader to create (or rather commission) 26 an amulet from a magnetic stone with Aphrodite sitting astride Psyche and below them “Eros standing on the vault of heaven, holding a blazing torch and burning Psyche”. 27 The performer must then put the gem under their tongue while reciting a prayer to Eros, “author of all creation, who spread your own wings over the whole world”, 28 “founder 23. PGM IV, 1716-1870, trans. Betz 1986, p. 69-71; cf. Vitellozzi 2019. The aim of these so-called philtrokatadesmoi is to “turn the victim’s soul towards the enchanter,” see Vitellozzi 2019, p. 285. 24. Black magnetite, late Imperial period, from Syria, location unknown (formerly Beirut); Mouterde 1930; Vitellozzi 2018, p. 186, fig. 4; Vitellozzi 2019, pl. 18, fig. 2a-b; CBd-1555. – The magnetite in Perugia accords more closely with the respective ritual but does not depict the globe as clearly as the Beirut specimen: Magnetite, 3rd century AD, Perugia, Museo Archeologico Nazionale dell’umbria, inv. 1526; Vitellozzi 2018, p. 185, fig. 3; Vitellozzi 2019, pl. 18, fig. 1a-b; CBd-4265. 25. on the example in Perugia, Psyche is flying horizontally to the right. 26. Cf. Vitellozzi 2019, p. 286-287. 27. PGM IV, 1729-1733: ὑποκάτω δὲ τῆς Ἀφροδίτης καὶ τῆς Ψυχῆς Ἔρωτα ἐπὶ πόλου ἑστῶτα, λαμπάδα κρατοῦντα καομένην φλέγοντα τὴν Ψυχήν. 28. Ibid., 1748-1751: τὸν ἀρχηγέτην πάσης γενέσεως, τὸν διατείναντα τὰς ἑαυτοῦ πτέρυγας εἰς τὸν σύμπαντα κόσμον. EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr 107 108 of the universe” 29 and “master of all living sensation and of everything clandestine”: 30 V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE You engender an unseen fire, as you carry off every living thing without growing weary of torturing it, rather having with pleasure delighted in pain from the time when the world came into being. 31 The visual codes of Eros standing on a globe and holding a torch are hence complemented with a spell that envisions him as an elemental force, who takes infinite delight in tormenting all living things with ever burning passion. Images and text are inextricably intertwined to create a dense network of metaphorical implications and thus “work their magic”. 32 A similar conception of Eros as pantokratōr can be found in the Orphic Hymn to Eros which invokes him as “keeper of the keys to heavenly air, sea, and earth” 33 and the one who “governs the whole universe”. 34 The notion of love as a primordial force has a long history. 35 In Hesiodus’ Theogony, Eros is among the first powers to be born from chaos and thus assumes a “quasi-demiurgic function”; 36 Parmenides calls him the “first of all the gods”. 37 In his Metaphysics, Aristotle discusses these and other philosophical views according to which Eros is conceptualized as “a first principle 29. Ibid., 1757-1758: παντὸς κτίστα. 30. Ibid., 1779-1781: πάσης πνευματικῆς αἰσθήσεως, κρυφίων πάντων ἄναξ. 31. Ibid., 1764-1769: πῦρ ἀθεώρητον γεννᾷς βαστάζων τὰ πάντα ἔμψυχα οὐ κοπιῶν <αὐ>τὰ βασανίζων, ἀλλὰ μεθ’ ἡδονῆς ὀδυνηρᾷ τέψαι, ἐξ οὗ τὰ πάντα συνέστηκεν. 32. The metaphorical meaning of both text and iconography is echoed by the material qualities of the magnet, which was “admired for its attractive force, likened to that of love,” Vitellozzi 2019, p. 286. 33. Orphic Hymn 58, 4-5: πάντων κληῖδας ἔχοντα, / αἰθέρος οὐρανίου, πόντου, χθονός (ed. W. Quandt, 1955, own translation). 34. Ibid. 58, 8: τούτων πάντων … κρατύνεις. 35. Cf. Engel 1841, p. 393-395; Schmidt 2016, p. 167-171; p. 209-230. 36. According to Martin West 1966, p. 195: “the position of Eros here in the very first generation of created powers strongly suggests a quasi-demiurgic function.” See Hesiod, Theogony 116-122: ἦ τοι μὲν πρώτιστα Χάος γένετ᾽, αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα / Γαῖ᾽ εὐρύστερνος, πάντων ἕδος ἀσφαλὲς αἰεὶ / ἀθανάτων, οἳ ἔχουσι κάρη νιφόεντος Ὀλύμπου, / Τάρταρά τ᾽ ἠερόεντα μυχῷ χθονὸς εὐρυοδείης, / ἠδ᾽ Ἔρος, ὃς κάλλιστος ἐν ἀθανάτοισι θεοῖσι, / λυσιμελής, πάντων δὲ θεῶν πάντων τ᾽ ἀνθρώπων / δάμναται ἐν στήθεσσι νόον καὶ ἐπίφρονα βουλήν. –“In truth, first of all Chasm came to be, and then broadbreasted Earth, the ever immovable seat of all the immortals who possess snowy olympus’ peak and murky Tartarus in the depths of the broad-pathed earth, and Eros, who is the most beautiful among the immortal gods, the limb-melter–he overpowers the mind and the thoughtful counsel of all the gods and of all human beings in their breasts” (trans. G.W. Most, Loeb, 2006). 37. Diels-kranz 28 B 13 (= Plato, Symposium 178b, trans. W. r. M. Lamb, Loeb, 1925): πρώτιστον μὲν Ἔρωτα θεῶν μητίσατο πάντων. –“she invented Love before all other gods.” Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics 984b, 24-25. Plutarch (erroneously) identifies the cosmogonic goddess of Parmenides with Aphrodite, see Plutarch, Amatorius 13, 756F (trans. E. L. Minar et al., Loeb, 1961). Cf. Empedocles’ conceptualization of love (φιλότης) as the elemental unifying principle in the world. 38. Aristotle, Metaphysics 984b, 23-925a, 11, here 984b, 25-26: … ἔρωτα ἢ ἐπιθυμίαν ἐν τοῖς οὖσιν ἔθηκεν ὡς ἀρχήν… (trans. H. Tredennick, Loeb, 1989). 39. Cornutus, Epidrome 25, 5: Ἔνιοι δὲ καὶ τὸν ὅλον κόσμον νομίζουσιν Ἔρωτα εἶναι …; cf. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride 57, 374C-E; Plotinus, Enead III, 5, 5. 40. See e.g. Euripides, fr. 269: Ἔρωτα δ᾿ ὅστις μὴ θεὸν κρίνει μέγαν (καὶ τῶν ἁπάντων δαιμόνων ὑπέρτατον)… –“… Love a great god and the highest of all the divine powers …” (trans. Ch. Collard and M. Cropp, Loeb 2008); Euripides, fr. 136,1: σὺ δ’ ὦ θεῶν τύραννε κάνθρώπων Ἔρος … –“… tyrant of gods and men…” (trans. Ch. Collard and M. Cropp, Loeb, 2008); Sophocles, fr. 684: Ἔρως γὰρ ἄνδρας οὐ μόνους ἐπέρχεται / οὐδ᾿ αὖ γυναῖκας, ἀλλὰ καὶ θεῶν ἄνω / ψυχὰς ταράσσει κἀπὶ πόντον ἔρχεται· / καὶ τόνδ᾿ ἀπείργειν οὐδ᾿ ὁ παγκρατὴς σθένει / Ζεύς, ἀλλ᾿ ὑπείκει καὶ θέλων ἐλκλίνεται. –“For Love comes not only upon men and women, but troubles the minds even of the gods in the sky, and moves over the sea. And not even the all-powerful Zeus can keep him off, but he too yields and willingly gives way” (trans. H. Lloyd-Jones, Loeb, 1996). 41. Virgil, Eclogues 10, 69: Omnia vincit Amor; et nos cedamus Amori (trans. H. r. Fairclough and G. P Goold, Loeb, 1999). 42. In images of the Archaic period, Eros is frequently depicted as erômenos, the younger part in homoerotic relationships, and thus equated with the object of his power. Around 450 BC, the appearance of Eros becomes more and more childlike, until he finally takes on the shape of a little infant in Hellenistic and roman imagery. For the iconographic development in Greek art see Stafford 2013, esp. p. 182-189. For his characterization in literary discourses from “vom urgott zum Flügelputto,” see Schmidt 2016, p. 167-185. 43. See e.g. Moschus, I (Runaway Eros); Pseudo-Theocritus, Idyll 19; Bion, fr. 14; Anthologia Graeca 5, 176-179; cf. Pendergraft 1991, p. 101; Fantuzzi, Hunter 2004, p. 173-174. 44. Cf. Schmidt 2016, p. 181-182. 109 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr in hings”, 38 and the 1st century AD Stoic Cornutus reports in his Epidromē that “some take the whole kosmos to be Eros”. 39 The status of Eros as a cosmic (or even cosmogonic) force also resonates in various poetic descriptions, 40 culminating in Vergil’s famous dictum: “Love conquers all; let us, too, yield to Love!”. 41 At first sight, this notion of Eros as an almighty, universal power stands in stark contrast to visual and poetic representations, such as our gem, which describe him as a small boy with bow and arrows in his hands and playful whim in his head. The idea of an eternally young and beautiful Eros is just as old as his characterization as “first of all the gods”. 42 But only in the Hellenistic period, his youthful or even childlike appearance is programmatically linked with character traits typically attributed to the early stages of life: Eros becomes a naughty child who recklessly plays with the souls of unhappy lovers. 43 Needless to say, the contradictions unfolding in the figure of Eros–between invincibility and innocuousness, between primordiality and immaturity–are a fruitful subject for poets and philosophers of the Hellenistic and Imperial periods. 44 In Lucian’s Dialogues of the Gods, for instance, Eros tries to vindicate potential indiscretions towards Zeus with the assertion that he was “just a child, and still without sense,” to which the father of the gods scornfully responds that he was in fact “far older than Iapetus” (a Titan, son V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 110 of Gaia and uranos). 45 The Pseudo-Lucianian text Amores confronts these seemingly opposing conceptions of Eros in a prayer reminiscent of earlier orphic traditions: […] Eros, who are no mischievous infant as painters light-heartedly portray you, but were already full-grown at your birth, when brought forth by the earliest source of all life. For you gave shape to everything out of dark confused shapelessness. 46 The early 3rd century BC poet Apollonius rhodius elaborates on this peculiar paradox in book III of the Argonautica, when Aphrodite persuades her son to make Medea fall in love with Jason and bribes him with a new ball: Come, be kind to me and do the task I tell you and I will give you Zeus’ gorgeous plaything, that one his dear nurse Adresteia made him when he was still a babbling infant in the Idaean cave–a perfectly round ball; no better toy will you get from the hands of Hephaestus. Its segments are made of gold and around each of them wind two circular bands; the seams are hidden, for a dark-blue spiral runs over them all. And if you toss it in your hands, it throws off a flaming trail through the air like a star. 47 The ball described in this passage certainly has astronomical significance, although its exact nature has been subject of scholarly debate. 48 Mary Louise Pendergraft convincingly argues that Apollonius refers to the didactic poem Phaenomena by Aratus, whom we already encountered on the silver cup from Berthouville. 49 By introducing the symbol of the kosmos as a toy to be tossed around by a notoriously naughty child, Apollonius not only alludes to the well-established concept of love as a universal force but also to the idea 45. Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 6, 2, 1: ΕΡΩΣ: Ἀλλ᾿ εἰ καί τι ἥμαρτον, ὦ Ζεῦ, σύγγνωθί μοι παιδίον γάρ εἰμι καὶ ἔτι ἄφρων. / ΖΕΥΣ: Σὺ παιδίον ὁ Ἔρως, ὃς ἀρχαιότερος εἶ πολὺ Ἰαπετοῦ; ἢ διότι μὴ πώγωνα μηδὲ πολιὰς ἔφυσας, διὰ ταῦτα καὶ βρέφος ἀξιοῖς νομίζεσθαι γέρων καὶ πανοῦργος ὤν; –“Eros: Even if I have done something wrong, Zeus, please forgive me, for I’m only a child, and still without sense. / Zeus: You a child, you Eros, who are far older than Iapetus! Just because you have no heard or grey hairs, do you really think you should be considered a babe in arms, you old villain?” (trans. k. kilburn, Loeb, 1959). 46. Pseudo-Lucian, Amores 32: … Ἔρως, οὐ κακὸν νήπιον ὁποῖον ζωγράφων παίζουσι χεῖρες, ἀλλ᾽ ὃν ἡ πρωτοσπόρος ἐγέννησεν ἀρχὴ τέλειον εὐθὺ τεχθέντα· σὺ γὰρ ἐξ ἀφανοῦς καὶ κεχυμένης ἀμορφίας τὸ πᾶν ἐμόρφωσας (trans. M. D. Macleod, Loeb, 1967). 47. Apollonius of rhodes, Argonautica 3, 131-141: εἰ δ᾿ ἄγε μοι πρόφρων τέλεσον χρέος, ὅττι κεν εἴπω, καί κέν τοι ὀπάσαιμι Διὸς περικαλλὲς ἄθυρμα κεῖνο, τό οἱ ποίησε φίλη τροφὸς Ἀδρήστεια ἄντρῳ ἐν Ἰδαίῳ ἔτι νήπια κουρίζοντι, σφαῖραν ἐυτρόχαλον, τῆς οὐ σύ γε μείλιον ἄλλο χειρῶν Ἡφαίστοιο κατακτεατίσσῃ ἄρειον. χρύσεα μέν οἱ κύκλα τετεύχαται, ἀμφὶ δ᾿ ἑκάστῳ διπλόαι ἁψῖδες περιηγέες εἱλίσσονται· κρυπταὶ δὲ ῥαφαί εἰσιν, ἕλιξ δ᾿ ἐπιδέδρομε πάσαις κυανέη· ἀτὰρ εἴ μιν ἑαῖς ἐνὶ χερσὶ βάλοιο, ἀστὴρ ὣς φλεγέθοντα δι᾿ ἠέρος ὁλκὸν ἵησιν (trans. W. H. race, Loeb, 2008). 48. See Pendergraft 1991, p. 96, n. 3; Campbell 1994, p. 123-124 for discussion and bibliographical references. 49. Pendergraft 1991, here p. 96: “Apollonius is alluding to a contemporary didactic poem, Aratus’ Phaenomena, in a fashion that makes it certain that the ball represents the spherical cosmos.” 50. Cf. Pendergraft 1991, p. 101-102. 51. Nonnus, Dionysiaka 33, 65-104, here 70 (trans. W. H. D. rouse et al., Loeb, 1940). Cf. the late antique fresco in Trier with two chubby Cupids ‘playing’ with a celestial globe: Wall painting, Trier, Bischöfliches Museum, without inv. n°; Blanc, Gury 1986, p 991, no 294a; Simon 2007, pl. 8. 52. For the erotic undertones of ball games in Greek imagery (and literature) see kossatzDeissmann 2000, p. 265-271; Dasen 2016, p. 75-81; Dasen 2019, p. 58-59. 53. Anacreon, fr. 358: σφαίρῃ δηὖτέ με πορφυρῇ / βάλλων χρυσοκόμης Ἔρως / νήνι ποικιλοσαμβάλῳ / συμπαίζειν προκαλεῖται / ἡ δ᾿, ἐστὶν γὰρ ἀπ᾿ εὐκτίτου / Λέσβου, τὴν μὲν ἐμὴν κόμην, / λευκὴ γάρ, καταμέμφεται, / πρὸς δ᾿ ἄλλην τινὰ χάσκει. – “once again golden-haired Love strikes me with his purple ball and summons me to play with the girl in the fancy sandals; but she–she comes from Lesbos with its fine cities–finds fault with my hair because it is white, and gapes after another–girl” (trans. D. A. Campbell, Loeb, 1988). 54. Anthologia Graeca 5, 214: Σφαιριστὰν τὸν Ἔρωτα τρέφω· σοὶ δ᾿, Ἡλιοδώρα βάλλει τὰν ἐν ἐμοὶ παλλομέναν κραδίαν. ἀλλ᾿ ἄγε συμπαίκταν δέξαι Πόθον· εἰ δ᾿ ἀπὸ σεῦ με ῥίψαις, οὐκ οἴσει τὰν ἀπάλαιστρον ὕβριν. – “I am training Love to play ball: he throws to you, Heliodora, the heart that bounces within me. Come now, take Desire as your playmate; if you cast me from you, I will not bear this unsportsmanlike offense” (trans. W. r. Paton, Loeb, 1916). 55. Ball games: Fittà, Homann 1998, p. 98-105; Hasselin rous 2019. Balancing games: Dasen 2019, p. 60-61, who discusses the rare depiction of two cupids standing on a seesaw: Apulian bell krater, early 4th century BC, Metapont, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. 324335; another balancing game is the Greek askoliasmos, a drinking game where the (usually intoxicated) players tried to keep their balance on an inflated, oiled wineskin (askos). For visual and literary sources see reisch 1896; Lissarrague 1990, p. 68-72; Fittà, Homann 1998, p. 97. For the etymology of the term askoliasmos see Latte 1957. 111 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr that the world may be nothing more than a playball in the sport of divine powers, with Eros being the strongest player. 50 Centuries later, the Byzantine author Nonnus will resume the theme in his Dionysiaka, where Eros plays the game of kottabos against Hymenaios and wins a “revolving globe like the speckled form of Argos” (i.e. covered with stars) made by none other than Hymenaios’ mother urania. 51 The image of one or more Cupids playing with a ball occurs in various media and time periods, from early lyric poetry to late antique mosaics and has strong erotic connotations. 52 The Archaic poet Anacreon uses the ball game as a metaphor for the pleasures of amorous rallies (or rather the lack thereof). 53 These erotically charged playing balls found in love poetry and imagery do not automatically allude to the celestial globe but can acquire various associations depending on the context. In an amatory epigram by the Hellenistic poet Meleager, for instance, his beloved girl Heliodora and Eros play the lover’s heart like a cue ball. 54 To come back to the globetrotter in Xanten, we cannot say for certain, if and to what extent the motif of standing on (instead of playing with) a sphere could have evoked similar associations of amorous diversion: For while ancient sources, both literary and visual, provide plenty of evidence for all kinds of ball games as well as balancing games, we have no proof for a game that would actually involve standing on a sphere or ball. 55 However, it seems safe to say that the globe as a symbol for the universe could be V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 112 imagined as a play ball in the semantic field of love relations and thus refer to the “love-god’s self-gratifying whims”. 56 The motif of standing on a round object also occurs in connection with Tyche or Fortuna, the personified goddess of luck. In the visual arts of the Imperial period, Fortuna on the globe can be interpreted analogous to representations of Victoria and therefore as a symbol for the all-encompassing power of good fortune (as secured by the Imperial house). 57 In the written sources of the Hellenistic and Imperial periods, however, the motif conveys a completely different meaning and is used as a metaphor for Fortuna’s muchscolded inconstancy. 58 A fragment by Pacuvius, a Latin poet active in the 2nd century BC, conveys this idea of Fortuna standing on a rolling stone: Dame Fortune, some philosophers maintain, Is witless, sightless, brutish; they declare That on a rolling ball of stone she stands; For whither that same stone a hazard tilts, Thither, they say, falls Fortune… 59 In the so-called Tablet of Cebes, a Greek ekphrasis written by an unknown author in the 1st or 2nd century AD about a fictive picture symbolically representing the ‘journey of life’, Tyche is described as a blind, mad, and deaf female figure standing on a spherical stone, because “what she is giving is neither stable nor steady”. 60 ovid exchanges Fortuna’s round stone for a “swaying wheel” whereby she admits “her own fickleness”. 61 So, besides symbolizing global or even universal power, the motif of standing on a round object can also signify volatility and uncertainty. Applied to the gem in Xanten, the balance-game may be understood as a visual metaphor for the uncertainty of love relations, and the inconstancy of erotic attraction–and the required skill to master them. 62 This association 56. Pendergraft 1991, p. 102. 57. Cf. Schlachter 1927, p. 91-93. See e.g. Gem, oxford, private collection, without inv. no; rausa 1997, p. 135, no 149. –oil lamp, 1st century BC, London, British Museum, inv. 1756.-1.612; rausa 1997, p. 135, no 158. 58. Cf. Schlachter 1927, p. 90-91. 59. Pacuvius, fr. 37-39: Fortunam insanam esse et caecam et brutam perhibent philosophi, / saxoque instare in globoso praedicant volubilei / quia quo id saxum inpulerit fors, eo cadere Fortunam autumant (trans. E. H. Warmington, Loeb, 1961). 60. Pseudo-Cebes, Pinax 7, 1-3, here 7, 3: Οὐκ ἀσφαλὴς οὐδὲ βεβαία ἐστὶν ἡ παρ᾽αὐτῆς δόσις (ed. r. Hirsch-Luipold et al., 2005, own translation). 61. ovid, Ex ponto 4, 3, 31: haec dea non stabili, quam sit levis, orbe fatetur, quae summum dubio sub pede semper habet (trans. A. L. Wheeler and G. P. Goold, Loeb, 1924). Cf. ovid, Tristia 5, 8, 7.15. 62. This association might also come into play in a roman relief in Budapest, which shows the winged Eros poised with the tip of his toe on a wheel, his billowing mantle floating around his otherwise naked body, see Hekler 1929, p. 92, no 82. I am very grateful to Árpád M. Nagy for introducing me to this compelling iconographic parallel and look forward to his in-depth analysis of the relief. Bondage Games The gem in Xanten combines the globetrotter with a visual code, which is at first sight diametrically opposed to the notion of love as a universal power: Eros’ hands are tied behind his back with a ribbon, the ends of which are fluttering in the wind. He does not appear as a fleet-footed and confident ruler of the world but has somehow lost control. From the Hellenistic period onwards, the motif of Eros Bound forms a small but popular subject in literature and art. 63 The Greek Anthology contains a number of epigrams on a statue of Eros who was put in chains for having caused emotional turmoil in unhappy lovers. 64 The poems leave no doubt that the punishment is well deserved: Crinagoras, for example, deems Cupid’s weeping and groaning an appropriate retaliation for the tears he squeezed from others’ eyes and the bitter arrows he fixed in their hearts–“justice (dikē) did an excellent thing”. 65 In another epigram on the same statue, Satyrus even draws a direct analogy between the specific nature of Eros’ penalty and his typical mode of action. Who fettered you, the winged boy, who bound swift fire with chains? Who laid his hand on Love’s burning quiver and made fast behind his back those hands swift to shoot, tying them to a sturdy pillar? Such things are but chill consolation for men. Did not, per chance, this prisoner himself enchain once the mind of the artist? 66 63. on the motif of Eros Bound in the visual arts: Curtius 1930; Schönenberger 1994; Simon 2000; Zervoudaki 2003; George 2003 (with further bibliographical references). As a literary topos: Fauth 1974; Schmitzer 2006. on the motif in post-ancient times: Panofsky 1962, p. 95-128; Panofsky 1988. 64. Anthologie Palatine 16, 195-199. The earliest poem of this group (Anthologie Palatine 16, 196) is attributed to Alcaeus of Messene and thus dates to the late 3rd or early 2nd century BC, see Schönenberger 1994, p. 53; Fantuzzi, Hunter 2004, p. 174; pace Cameron 1993, p. 42, n. 37 who argues that Alcaeus was confused with Alphaeus of Mytilene, a poet active in the 1st c. BC. 65. See e.g. the epigram by Crinagoras, Anthologia Graeca 16, 199: καὶ κλαῖε καὶ στέναζε, συσφιγχθεὶς χεροῖν / τένοντας, ὦ ᾿πίβουλε· τοῖά τοι πρέπει. / οὐκ ἔσθ’ ὁ λύσων· μὴ ᾽λεείν᾽ ὑπόβλεπε. / αὐτὸς γὰρ ἄλλων ἐκ μὲν ὀμμάτων δάκρυ / ἔθλιψας, ἐν δὲ πικρὰ καρδίᾳ βέλη / πήξας ἀφύκτων ἰòv ἔσταξας πόθων, / Ἔρως· τὰ θνητῶν δ’ ἐστί σοι γέλως ἄχη. / πέπονθας, οἷ’ ἔρεξας. ἐσθλὸν ἡ δίκη. –“Weep and groan, schemer, the sinews of your arms bound fast; such are your deserts. There is no one to untie you. Let us have no more piteous glances up. You, Eros, were the one to squeeze tears from others’ eyes; you fixed your bitter arrows in the heart, and instilled the poison of passion incapable. The agonies of mortals are your mirth. What is done to you is what you did; justice did an excellent thing” (trans. W. r. Paton, Loeb, 1918). 66. Anthologia Graeca 16, 195: Τὸν πτερόεντα τίς ὧδε, τίς ἐν δεσμοῖσι θοὸν πῦρ / ὤχμασεν; αἰθομένης ἥψατο τίς φαρέτρης,/ καὶ τὰς ὠκυβόλους περιηγέας ἐσφήκωσε / χεῖρας, ὑπὸ στιβαρῷ κίονι δησάμενος; 113 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr gains in significance when considering Eros’ physical impairment by the fetters and the visual impression of instability resulting from it. V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 114 Satyrus uses the image of being enchained as a metaphor for being in the hands of love or ‘captivated by desire’ and thus refers to another well-known topos in Graeco-roman culture, which we already encountered in the binding love spells. Therefore, the winged boy with shackles not only represents the god of Love who has finally been put to justice but also the very embodiment of the internal struggles of the lover. Eros is the victim of his own power as he functions as a metaphor for the pains of love. While the statue extolled by the poets is lost, there are several sculpture types that draw on the same idea. They can be divided into two subtypes: one shows Cupid with a foot shackle, leaning on a pillar and wiping his bitter tears. 67 The other type, which was also the model for the gem in Xanten, depicts him with his hands fettered behind the back, sometimes attached to a tree, column or pillar (fig. 5). 68 Fig. 5a-5b: Statue of Eros Bound. Göttingen, collection Wallmoden. Archäologisches Institut der universität, mit freundlicher Genehmigung S.k.H. des Prinzen von Hannover, Herzogs zu Braunschweig und Lüneburg. Photo: Stephan Eckardt. / ψυχρὰ τάδ᾿ ἀνθρώποις παραμύθια. μή ποτ᾿ ἐκείνου / οὗτος ὁ δεσμώτης αὐτὸς ἔδησε φρένα; (trans. W. r. Paton, Loeb, 1918). 67. This type of ‘Crying Eros’ is preserved in at least seven copies, two of which are complete: Eros Bound, 150-200 AD, rome, Galleria Borghese, inv. 689; Moreno, Viacava 2003, p. 228229, cat. no 215. –Eros Bound, mid 2nd century AD, Florence, Palazzo Pitti, inv. 1914, n. 1059; Curtius 1930, p. 57, pl. 3. While most copies were created in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the dating of the original is debated, with suggestions ranging from the 4th century BC to the early Imperial period. For the painting of Eros with foot shackles in the House of Punished Love in Pompeii see Simon 2000 (with further bibliographical references). 68. Statue of Eros Bound, early Imperial copy (of late Classical or Hellenistic original), Göttingen, collection Wallmoden, without inv. no; Schönenberger 1994, p. 63, no 1.A 49; Fittschen et al. 2015 (with further bibliographical references). The type is preserved in at least eight statuettes, three statue groups, and numerous other media. Collection in Schönenberger 69. 70. 71. 72. 1994, p. 60-68, no 1.A 1-63 (Eros standing); no 1. B1-183 (Eros seated); 1. C1-190 (Eros seated on altar or rock). ring stone of light-yellow glass paste, Munich, Staatliche Münzsammlung, inv. A 714; Brandt, Schmidt 1968, no 1139, pl. 124. Cf. ring stone no 1138. In comparison to this and other renditions of the subject, the figure of Eros in Xanten is characterized by a slightly more muscular body and an elaborate drapery reminiscent of adolescent figures of the late Archaic Style. He thereby not only appears a little bit older, but first and foremost more ‘Greek’–an ideal counterpart for the philosopher who watches him. Cf. Dionysos with leopard, carnelian, 1st century BC, Hannover, Museum August kestner, inv. k 216; Schlüter et al. 1975, p. 74-75, no 279, pl. 44. A representative collection of well over 300 variations of this subject is preserved in clay sealings from the House of Seals at Delos (2nd-1st century BC): Stampolidis 1992; Stampolidis, Tassoulas 2009, p. 135-139. Cameo (onyx), mid 1st century BC, Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, inv. 14445; Stampolidis, Tassoulas 2009, p. 137, no 95; pace Tondo 1990, p. 38, no 53, who argues for a creation in the 16th century. The ‘flames of passion:’ see e.g. AP 5, 57; AP 5, 179; AP 12, 132. 115 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr Most of the extant sources for the motif of punished Love, however, are found in the minor arts, such as bronze statuettes, coroplastic, silverware, and, most importantly, gems. A ring stone in Munich shows Cupid in a position similar to the one in Xanten but without any surrounding figures or further attributes that would help to contextualize the scene: His hands tied behind his back and his little Fig. 6: ring stone. mantle wrapped around the arms, the winged Munich, Staatliche boy is standing to the right and lowering his Münzsammlung, A 714. Photo: Sergio Castelli. head in a manner of childish regret (fig. 6). 69 The basic theme of Cupid Punished can be enriched ad libitum with various additional figures and elements, which provide information as to why Eros receives his comeuppance. He can be castigated by his mother Aphrodite, by Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, and finally by Psyche, the principal sufferer of the childish yet cruel games of Eros. Needless to say, the preceding ‘sorrows of young Psyche’ being shackled, burned, and tortured by love provide an equally rich source for the visual arts to express the painful aspects of romantic love. 70 A beautifully carved cameo in Florence presents Eros as the relentless master of his lover Psyche (fig. 7). 71 Ignoring her desperate gestures, he tramples her down with his left foot and violently pulls her hair while burning her with a torch in his hand. Analogous to the magical gems connected to the ‘Sword of Dardanos’, the torch of Eros can be understood as a visual metaphor for the burning sensation of desire. 72 While these amorous battles present the cruel yet inevitable downside of desire, the image of Eros and Psyche intimately embracing each V Ik Tor I A r äuCHLE 116 other can express the joys of a fulfilled love life (fig. 4). 73 We must bear in mind that the love affair between Eros and Psyche lack a specific mythological narrative and have to be understood as purely allegorical statements on the torments of love and the misery of unrequited desire. 74 Apparently, the basic idea underlying these metaphorical operations was intelligible enough to be productive in various media and different contexts of reception: From the 3rd century BC through the late ImpeFig. 7: Cameo. rial period, the motif was extremely popular Florence, Museo Archeologico and widespread, with find spots ranging from Nazionale 14445. Su concessione del Museo Archeologico Egypt to russia. 75 Apparently, it struck a nerve Nazionale di Firenze. in the general cultural climate of the time. At the same time, however, it is sufficiently open to encourage a never-ending stream of creative reinterpretations, narrative extensions, and new combination. The Education of Love The synopsis of our results affords several readings of varying complexity. A primarily visual perspective considers the peculiar juxtaposition of opposites and the iconographic tradition of the single motives. on this level, the paradigmatic polymath may contemplate the nature of Love in all its dazzling inconsistency: As ruler of the universe and as a castigated sinner, as a live-giving principle and as the source of all suffering. For a person familiar with contemporary discourses on love, the image may also convey the essential task of philosophy to control the unpredictable and fickle nature of Eros. 76 The ‘education of love’ was a much-discussed issue in Hellenistic and Imperial literature and philosophy. Inter alia, it features 73. See e.g. the roman copy of the famous Hellenistic statue group, rome, Capitoline Museums, inv. 408. This extremely popular type is used for countless works of art. on Eros and Psyche in visual art, see Jahn 1851; Pagenstecher, Duhn 1911; Schlam 1976; Aspris 1996; Cueva 1999. 74. The only extensive story for the love affair between Amor and Psyche is told in the Metamorphoses by the 2nd century AD author Apuleius who transformed a common folk tale into a highly allegorical story about the wanderings of the human soul, see e.g. Schlam 1976, esp. p. 2-3. 75. Cf. Schönenberger 1994, p. 53-54. 76. Cf. Platz-Horster 1994, p. 180: “Die singuläre Szene ist vielleicht so zu deuten, dass der Philosoph darüber sinnt, ob die Macht des die Welt beherrschenden Amor durch seine Bändigung tatsachlich zu zügeln sei;” Lang 2012, p. 86. Bibliography Andreae 2005: Bernard Andreae, “Das Mosaik der Sieben Weisen aus Sarsina in der Villa Albani in rom und sein Verhältnis zum Philosophenmosaik aus Pompeji im Nationalmuseum von Neapel”, in Thomas Ganshow (ed.), Otium: Festschrift für Volker Michael Strocka, remshalden, p. 9-14. Arnaud 1984: Pascal Arnaud, “L’image du globe dans le monde romain. Science, iconographie, symbolique”, MEFRA 96-1, p. 53-116. Aspris 1996: Michalis Yiangou Aspris, Statuarische Gruppen von Eros und Psyche, Bonn. Babelon 1916: Ernest Babelon, Le trésor d’argenterie de Berthouville, près Bernay (Eure), conservé au Département des médailles et antiques de la Bibliothèque nationale, Paris. Betz 1986: Hans Dieter Betz (ed.), The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells, Chicago. 77. ovid, Ars amatoria 1-14; here line 17: … ego sum praeceptor Amoris; line 7: Me Venus artificem tenero praefecit Amori (trans. J. H. Mozley, G. P. Goold, Loeb, 1979). 78. Cf. Plutarch, On Moral Virtue 12 (Moralia 451-452), who compares the affects (pathē) with animals that have to be tamed by reason in order to be useful. 79. Suggested by Lang 2012, p. 86. For the Platonic conception of Eros cf. renaut 2013 (with further bibliographical references). 117 EroS AS A GLoBETroTTEr as the leitmotif in ovid’s Ars Amatoria, where the author introduces himself as a praeceptor Amoris, assigned by no less than Venus herself. 77 By witfully playing with the double entendre of the praeceptor Amoris as a teacher of “Love” and of “love”, ovid expresses the idea that the art of erotic pleasure first and foremost requires the ability to master one’s passions. 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