Signature: ________________________ Date

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY ALTERNATIVE ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURE FOR UGANDA BY PAUL BYANGIRE RUSOKE 2012/HD/4579U A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTERS OF PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT OF MAKERERE UNIVERSITY June 2015 DECLARATION I, Paul Byangire declare that this research report is my own original work, and it has never been presented to any University or Institution for the award of any academic qualification. Signature: ________________________ Date: ________________________ Paul Byangire Rusoke 2012/HD/4579U i APPROVAL This is to certify that this research report has been submitted with my approval as a University Supervisor. Supervisor: ________________________ Dr. Charles Ssendyona Supervisor ii DEDICATION Commitment, effort and dedication were fundamental elements in the completion of this dissertation, but even more was the support of my family, to my parents, wife and children. Today I dedicate to them this achievement because without their presence and support I would not have achieved my goal. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am specifically delighted to mention the following; my supervisor Dr. Charles Ssendyona for his encouragement, patience, good will and professional guidance; my family who have been my rock through the times. My classmates who have patiently endured the challenging times we have gone through with a constant cheer. Also special thanks go to my lecturers at the University whose wealth of knowledge has shown that all is possible with determination. iv ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS AGR - Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor BWRs - Boiling Water Reactors CVI - Content Validity Index EAP&L - East African Power and Lighting Company ERA - Electricity Regulatory Authority ERT - Energy for Rural Transformation ESMAP - Energy Sector Management Assistance Program GWh - Giga Watts IPP - Independent Power Producer IPP - Independent Power Provider LWR - Light Water Reactor MEMD - Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development MW - Mega Watts O&M - Operations and Maintenance PPAs - Power Purchase Agreements PPP - Public Private Partnership SCWRs - Supercritical Water Reactors SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences UBOS - Uganda Bureau of Statistics UBOS - Uganda Bureau of Statistics UEB - Uganda Electricity Board UETCL - Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited US$ - United States Dollar v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................ i APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ iv ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................................x CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................1 1.0 Background of the study......................................................................................................................1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................................................6 1.2 Purpose of the study ............................................................................................................................7 1.3 Objectives of the study ........................................................................................................................7 1.4 Scope of the Study ...............................................................................................................................7 1.4.1 Geographical Scope .............................................................................................................................7 1.4.2 Content scope ......................................................................................................................................8 1.4.3 Time Scope ..........................................................................................................................................8 1.5 Research Questions .............................................................................................................................8 1.6 Significance of the study .....................................................................................................................8 1.7 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER TWO......................................................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 10 2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 History of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth ................................................ 10 2.1.1 Independent Power Provision in Uganda .......................................................................................... 17 2.2 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector ................................................................................................................................................. 18 2.2.1 Licensing of Electricity generation in Uganda .................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 Uganda’s Energy Policy .................................................................................................................... 22 2.2.3 Generation tariffs in Uganda ............................................................................................................. 23 2.2.4 Types of nuclear reactors .................................................................................................................. 25 vi 2.3 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source ..................................... 27 2.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 30 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 31 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................... 31 3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 31 3.1 Research Design ................................................................................................................................ 31 3.2 Study Population ............................................................................................................................... 32 3.3 Sampling Design and Sample size .................................................................................................... 32 3.4 Data Sources ...................................................................................................................................... 32 3.4 Data Collection Methods and Analysis Techniques ............................................................................. 33 3.6 Validity and Reliability Tests .............................................................................................................. 34 3.6.1 Validity Test ...................................................................................................................................... 34 3.6.2 Reliability Test .................................................................................................................................. 34 3.7 Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................................................... 35 3.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................................... 36 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 36 4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 36 4.1 Description of Tools of Analysis ......................................................................................................... 36 4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data ....................................................................................................... 37 4.2.1 Respondent Category by Gender ....................................................................................................... 37 4.2.2 Respondent Category by Age Group ................................................................................................ 38 4.2.3 Tenure of Employment ...................................................................................................................... 39 4.2.4 Respondent Category by Level of Education .................................................................................... 40 4.2.5 Distribution According to Position Held ........................................................................................... 41 4.3 Empirical Findings ............................................................................................................................ 41 4.3.1 Research Objective One: Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth ........................ 42 4.3.2 Research Objective Two: Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector ...................................................................................... 45 4.3.3 Research Objective Three: Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source................................................................................................................................................. 47 4.4 Interpretation of Results in the Context of the Research Problem ......................................................... 49 vii 4.4.1 Uganda’s power production; generation and demand growth .......................................................... 49 4.4.2 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector ................................................................................................................................................. 51 4.4.3 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source ..................................... 52 4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 55 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 55 5.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 55 5.1 Summary of the Research Findings .................................................................................................. 55 5.1.1 Summary of the Findings on Sample Characteristics ....................................................................... 55 5.1.2 History of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth ................................................ 56 5.1.3 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector ................................................................................................................................................. 56 5.1.4 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source ..................................... 56 5.2 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 56 5.3 Policy Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 57 5.4 Suggestions for further research ........................................................................................................ 59 APPENDIX I .................................................................................................................................................. 59 APPENDIX II ................................................................................................................................................ 61 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Gender Distribution ............................................................................................................... 37 Table 4.2: Age Distribution .................................................................................................................... 38 Table 4.3: Tenure of Employment Distribution ..................................................................................... 39 Table 4.4: Level of Education................................................................................................................. 40 Table 4.5: Position Held ......................................................................................................................... 41 Table 4.6: Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth ..................................................... 43 Table 4.7: Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector ................................................................................................................................................. 46 Table 4.8: Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source ......................... 48 ix ABSTRACT The study sought to examine Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source. The study was guided by the following objectives; to examine the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth; to examine regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and to assess Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. Data was collected using self-administered questionnaires and it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (V18) which was used to generate tabulations of frequencies, item means and standard deviations. The findings validate that there was a growing power production in the country as a result of several dams being commissioned. This also contributed to the increased generation of power so as to meet the high demand for power in the country. This implied that emphasis on exploiting other types of energy such as nuclear energy was paramount in enhancing power production and generation in the country. According to the findings on the regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector, it was revealed that there were still gaps in the development of the required policies such as those for nuclear energy which undermined effective regulation of the sector and its consequent development. The findings established that Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source was still in its infancy stage and therefore countered several challenges in regard to training, costs and regulation. The recommends that measures should be put in place to conserve the current energy that is being produced and generated as away of promoting efficiency in the sector. Similarly, there should be formation Public Private Partnerships away of pooling resources to promote infrastructural development in the sector. x CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background of the study Uganda produced electricity for the first time in 1954 after commissioning of the Owen Falls hydro power dam at Jinja. At that time the country’s population was 6 million people (Uganda Bureau of Statistics Supplement, 2012). The number of households connected to the national grid then stood at 2%. Shortly before and after independence, the country underwent massive industrial development. There was therefore demand for power for industrial development and for domestic consumption. The only source of electricity was the Owen falls dam, producing 180MW. Much as the domestic demand was not fully met, the country exported electricity to Kenya 30MW. 1 Fig. 1.1: The Owen falls Dam Between the periods 1971 to 1986, the country suffered economic collapse and most factories closed and so was power infrastructure (Kapika and Eberhard 2013). There were no arrangements to build additional dams or other energy generation sources to cater for future demand. It is therefore not surprising that up to 1986, the country still had only one hydro power dam. After 1986, Uganda’s economy greatly recovered and so was industrial and plantation rehabilitation. Coupled with an increased population whose welfare was improving, Uganda’s demand for electricity increased. In 1994, government under took to build a second Hydro power dam at Bujagali falls along River Nile of 250MWcapacity. By that time, Uganda’s electricity demand by 1996 stood at 177MW (Uganda Bureau Of Statistics, UBOS Statistical Abstract of December 2001). However, the project did not receive funding. This greatly affected the energy infrastructure of the country as the project never took off at that time. Because of increased demand growth rate of 9% today Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development 2013 statistical abstract), the country started experiencing “load shedding”. It was clear that interventions had to be made immediately to stop the electricity shortage from deteriorating. Later in 2003, Kiira Hydro Power dam was commissioned, a parallel dam was built at Owen falls with an output capacity of 200MW.That is how the two dams at this point of the river came to be named as Nalubaale (the first dam) and Kiira (the second dam). However, the hydrology of River Nile was found to be insufficient to run both dams. At one time, the problem had been presented as a drought issue that had caused the reduced flow of River Nile, but even with floods being reported in the country, the problem of low 2 power production due to poor river flow has persisted. In 2004, Uganda’s total installed capacity was 303MW Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2006 Statistical Abstract), the government resumed the program for construction of Bujagali Hydro power dam. The Government took to the Public Private Partnership (PPP) with Bujagali Energy Ltd to fund the dam construction. The dam was finally commissioned in 2012 with a capacity of 250MW. However, the total demand in the country stood at 2451GWh (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development 2012 statistical abstract), Fig 1.2: Bujagali Falls before the construction of Bujagali Dam. 3 Fig. 1.3: 250 MWBujagali Dam upon completion in 2012 In order to address the acute power demand, in 2005, the government permitted thermal power generation from diesel generators and thermal plants were established at Tororo 22MW, Jinja 50MW, Namanve 50 MW and at Mutundwe 50MW. However, the costs of thermal power have been high, compared to hydro power. The arrangement had become too costly as the level of subsidy payment for thermal power had reached unsustainable levels and the cumulative amount of subsidy paid out in 2011 was Ush. 115 Billion (Umeme Annual Report 2012). Government was to later remove subsidy on the thermal generated power on January 15, 2012 (Umeme Annual Report 2012). By the year 2030, Uganda’s population is projected to be 80 million (National Planning Authority Report 2013) up from the current population of 33 million people given the population growth rate of 3.2%. Currently, 13% of the total population lives in urban areas. 4 To date, the country’s source of energy is biomass- 90% (Energy for Rural Transformation, ERT) and this transforms into a high stress on the forest cover. Uganda embarked on construction of the 600 MW Karuma dam in 1995. However, procurement delays saw the project launched in 2013. All these contradictions do not spell a bright future for Uganda’s electricity sector. Fig. 1.4 Karuma Falls to drive the 600MW dam. There has also been widespread publicity of construction of other hydro dams in the country like the 600 MW Ayago dam to be funded by the Turkish investors and the 140MW Isimba dam to be funded by the government of India. But it should be remembered, that even after commissioning the 250 MW Bujagali dam, the total power output on the national grid rose to 700MW, yet load shedding remains a problem to date (MEMD Annual Report 2012). 5 The problem is amplified in the West Nile region. Since 2003, the region has been relying on a private company WENRECO that was licenced by government to produce and sell power in the region. WENRECO has been operating a 8MW diesel generator in Arua town. Because of this low production, the West Nile region only enjoys power from 6:00 am to Mid-night. It had been hoped that with Nyagak Hydro dam getting commissioned and operated by WENRECO, the power situation in West Nile would improve and the cost of power would be less. However, as of April 2013, the locals were up in arms protesting the proposed tariff increments by the operator by 15%, (Wesonga, 2014). 1.1 Statement of the Problem Reliable and affordable electricity is key for industrial development. However, the main source of electricity in Uganda has been hydropower dams. Other sources that have been considered so far include Thermal energy and Biomass (bagasse from sugar cane husks). The alternative sources mentioned above have been found to be either more costly than Hydro dams or have low yield like the Biomass power plants. Despite of all alternatives of power generation tried, electricity in Uganda has remained in short supply and costly in comparison to developed countries. Built in 1954, the Owen falls dam was been Uganda’s first hydro power dam with a capacity of 180MW and from which the country could export power to Kenya and Rwanda. Power production at this dam and other combined sources that have been developed alongside totalling to 818.5MW as of March 2014 (MEMD Annual Report 2012) have not managed to fulfil Uganda’s electricity demand and its export potential. It is therefore due that a careful study is undertaken to establish the country’s power infrastructure needs and production potential with focus on the domestic and regional market. Furthermore, the capacity of a hydro power dam is a function of the flow 6 of the river and height of the falls. However, the water sharing agreement of River Nile restricts the flow of Uganda’s main source of hydro power downstream. Therefore, for a sustainable power sector development, it is necessary that alternative power sources are explored. 1.2 Purpose of the study To examine Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source 1.3 Objectives of the study i) To examine the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth. ii) To examine regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector. iii) 1.4 To assess Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. Scope of the Study Scope of the study was categorized as geographical, content, as well as time scopes. 1.4.1 Geographical Scope The study was conducted at Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development in Kampala district. This was because the headquarters of the ministry are located there and the district is composed of the highest number of other government agencies that are tasked to regulate, generate and distribute energy in the country. The study was restricted to the staff at the ministry of energy and mineral development, Electricity Regulatory Authority, Eskom (U), Bujagali Energy Ltd, National Planning Authority, Uganda Electricity 7 Generation Company Ltd, Uganda Chamber of Mines and Petroleum and Atomic Council of Uganda. 1.4.2 Content scope The study focused on examination Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source. The study was in particular centered on the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth; the regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. 1.4.3 Time Scope The study covered the period 2006 to 2013; this is a period during which the country has encountered high energy needs due to the ever increasing urbanization and foreign investment and opening up of the East African Community. 1.5 Research Questions i) What is the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth? ii) What is regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector? iii) 1.6 What is Uganda’s readiness for nuclear energy as an alternative power source? Significance of the study i) The findings of the study may provide a descriptive analysis on the relevance of nuclear power production as an alternative source in Uganda’s energy sector. 8 ii) The findings of the study may contribute and also add useful information to that which already exists in regard to determinants of nuclear power production as an alternative source. iii) It is hoped that the findings of the study may guide policy makers on the prominent issues required to improve the efficiency of nuclear power production as an alternative source in the energy sector where challenges of energy are still being faced. iv) It is hoped that the findings of the study might guide future research in the energy sector in nuclear power production as an alternative source. v) It is hoped that the findings of the study might also promote the existing knowledge in understanding nuclear power production as an alternative source in energy sector. 1.7 Limitations of the Study i) Unwillingness of respondents to fill questionnaires. The researcher ensured constant liaison with the respondents and made sure reminders were sent to them to fill the questionnaires. ii) Respondents withholding information due to fear of being victimized, the researcher convinced them that the information they provided would be kept confidential. iii) Respondents having a view of not obtaining any direct benefit from the research results. However the researcher tried to convince the respondents to spare time to answer the questions and assure them the result would in future benefit them through policy formulation. 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents the study literature related to the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth; the regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. The literature review highlights the key concepts that were used in the study to guide the researcher gain more insight in power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source. The review started with a survey of the available literature and what has been written about the subject. The topics were broken down according to the variables (objectives) and each variable was reviewed with a view of identifying the gaps left by such studies so that they may be filled by the current study. This chapter helped broaden the researcher’s understanding of the variables under study, as well as form the foundation for the methodology. It also assisted the researcher in designing the research tools to be used in the study. 2.1 History of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth For decades Uganda has suffered from inadequate power supply. A disruptive civil war (from 1971 to 1986) and decreasing water levels in Lake Victoria, the main reservoir for the country’s hydro dominated electric power system, exacerbated this problem and led to a 60 per cent decrease in the country’s available generating capacity. It is therefore not surprising that as at 2009, overall access to electricity in Uganda was a low 11 per cent 10 (41% urban, 4% rural), resulting in one of the lowest per capita electricity consumption rates in Africa according to http://www.eac.int/energy/index.php. Another feature of the supply crisis is the high level of distribution losses which were measured at 40 per cent in 1988, and has remained above 30 per cent (Umeme, personal communication, 2009) ever since. According to Gore (2009), Uganda first generated electricity in 1938 using 2 thermal generators installed in Kampala and Entebbe by a Kenyan – based East African Power and Lighting Company (EAP&L) firm. Later, a third thermal generating station was commissioned by EAP&L at Jinja east of Kampala. EAP&L’s presence in Uganda lasted only until 1948, when the state-owned Uganda Electricity Board (UEB) was formed, and took over its operations. With demand for electricity projected to rise, the government decided to build a large hydropower plant at Nalubaale (Jinja) on the White Nile. Construction commenced in 1950, and in 1954, the first two generators were commissioned, each with a capacity of 15MW (Engurait, 2005). Over time additional units of similar rating were added until the tenth and last one, installed in 1968, brought total capacity at the plant to 150MW (Engurait, 2005). At the time, this was sufficient to meet the country’s demand and to provide a surplus for export. The 1971 coup d’état, that saw the emergence of Idi Amin as leader and the start of civil war, marked the beginning of a period of decline for the power sector. By 1986, when political stability was restored (Khadiagala, 1993), the UEB was in serious operational and 11 financial difficulty, and available generation capacity at Nalubaale had fallen to a paltry 60MW (Engurait, 2005). As Uganda’s economy began to grow again in the late 1980s, demand for power quickly outstripped supply, and by 1988 load-shedding had to be introduced (Engurait,2005). Rehabilitation, upgrading and expansion of the power system were initiated, and when the first of several World Bank-funded projects was completed in 1996, the installed generating capacity of the Nalubaale plant was increased to 180MW. Realizing that this would still be insufficient to meet demand however (Engurait, 2005), another project partially funded by the World Bank, the 200MW Kiira (Owen Falls Extension) project, consisting of five 40MW units was embarked upon. The first two units were commissioned in 2001, the third in 2002 and the last two in 2007 (World Bank, 2009). These additions reduced the need for load shedding to a degree, but not entirely. By 1993, almost a decade after the end of civil war, UEB’s performance continued to be poor. Most of the issues that had been highlighted in the 1988 Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, ESMAP audit continued to plague the utility. System losses remained high at over 30 per cent, and from 1991 to 1993, the number of employees increased by over 50 per cent (World Bank, 2002). Electricity tariffs that had not been adjusted for many years were increased to an average of USh7.3/kWh in 1993. But, in what Gore (2009) describes as the ‘most glaring illustration’ of UEB’s poor financial performance, the collections rate was just 58 per cent in 1997, and dropped even further to 50 per cent in 12 1998, largely on account of non-payment of electricity bills by government (Government of Uganda 1999). Given the UEB’s financial and operational difficulties, it is not surprising that poor quality and inadequacy of supply were highlighted as the most binding constraints on privatesector investment Uganda’s economy (World Bank, 2000). It has been estimated that, as the economy began to pick up, firms lost an average of 90 operating days per annum due to power cuts – in fact, so many businesses installed standby power generators that their combined capacity at the time was approximately one third of that of the UEB (Engurait, 2005). In June 1999, the government released the Uganda Power Sector Restructuring and Privatisation: New Strategy Plan and Implementation Plan (Government of Uganda, 1999).The new strategic plan was developed to enable government to: make the power sector financially viable without subsidies; increase efficiency; improve commercial performance; meet the growing demand for electricity and increase the coverage area; improve the reliability and quality of supply; attract private capital; and take advantage of opportunities to export electricity (Government of Uganda 1999). According to ESAMP (1998), in order to turn to turn the fortunes of the sector around, the strategic plan outlined a series of proposals and in particular to generation, transmission, distribution, rural electrification and regulation such that 13 Generation: the development of new generation facilities would be facilitated through international competitive bidding by the private sector on an independent power provider (IPP) basis. The facilities at the Nalubaale and Kiira power stations would continue to be owned by the public sector, but they would be let out to the private sector through concession agreements. Co-generation would be encouraged. Transmission: a separate transmission company would be established, and be responsible for network maintenance, system operations and dispatch, planning and bulk purchase, and the supply of electricity. Bulk purchase and supply (the single-buyer function) would be undertaken by a ring fenced business unit operating within the transmission company that would purchase capacity from competing providers under long-term power purchase agreements (PPAs). It was envisaged that the transmission company would initially be state-owned and run, and that it would be let out to the private sector under a concession arrangement, in the medium term. Distribution: the restructuring of the distribution system to make it financially viable and to improve its commercial performance was seen as the key to the success of the reform programme. It was proposed that a number of financially viable distribution companies be created out of the UEB’s existing distribution structures. While it was recognised that this could result in some loss of economies of scale given the small size of the Ugandan market, the government was swayed by the view that any losses would be outweighed by the benefits of ‘benchmark competition’ that would arise. Rural Electrification: when the new strategy was published, only one per cent of the population in rural areas had access to electricity. The government intended to increase this level through a focus on private sector 14 participation with the aim that rural communities would have access to electricity either from the national grid or isolated power networks. Regulation: this was identified as a key component of the reform strategy in helping to rebuild confidence of the private sector and consumers in the electricity sector. It was proposed that an authority be established to carry out the regulatory function independent of political influence. The stated objectives of regulation were to protect consumers, ensure the financial viability of companies operating in the electricity sector, promote competition, and collect and disseminate information. According to Kapika & Eberhard (2013), In 2001, two years after the approval of the strategic plan, the US-based AES Corporation announced that the Ugandan government had granted final approval to its subsidiary, AES Nile Power (AESNP), and its local partner, Madhvani International, for the 200MW US$550 million Bujagali project on the White Nile, 10 kilometers north of Lake Victoria.20 The announcement, which coincided with the World Bank’s approval of a US$215 million funding package for the project (World Bank 2001), followed lengthy negotiations that had taken place following the 1994 signing of a memorandum of understanding between AESNP and the government (World Rain Forest Movement 2002). The Bujagali project faced significant resistance however from non-governmental organisations and environmentalists. These included the International Rivers Network, which launched a global campaign against the project, arguing that Bujagali was 15 environmentally and socially harmful, and would produce power that would be too expensive for most Ugandans. So intense was this opposition that a few months before AESNP and Madhvani’s December announcement, the National Association of Professional Environmentalists, the Save Bujagali Crusade and other organisations wrote to the World Bank’s Inspection Panel seeking a review of the project in order that funding could be withheld. While the review took place, funding was not withheld. Instead, in June 2002, the Executive Board of the World Bank approved measures proposed by its management in response to the Inspection Panel’s report (World Bank, 2002b). The government did not give up, however, with the energy minister stating the that the project would proceed, even in the absence of AES. Also significant was a statement by the World Bank, made soon after the AES pull out, indicating that it remained committed to Bujagali in view of its potential benefits for Uganda. In efforts to find a new developer, the government, departed from the single sourcing process used in the AES deal, and instead opted to follow a competitive-bidding process. Bids were invited in 2004 and, after prequalification, three bids were successfully submitted. The following year, a consortium, Bujagali Energy Ltd, led by Nairobi-based Industrial Promotion Services, was announced as the winning bidder. This was the second power development project in the country and it was finally commissioned in 2011. Therefore, even by this time, it was not in Government’s strategy to consider generation by nuclear power. The focus was still on Hydro power generation. 16 2.1.1 Independent Power Provision in Uganda As of 2010, the largest IPP in operation in Uganda was the 50MW heavy-fuel-oil fired Namanve Power Station that is situated on the outskirts of Kampala. There are six other IPPs in operation in Uganda all of which have arguably been less contentious. Two of these were set up by state-owned mining companies, Kasese Cobalt and Kilembe Mines, and have been generating electricity in Uganda’s Kasese District for their own use, and both feed surplus electricity into to the national grid. Kasese District is also home to the 13MW Bugoye Power Station owned by Tronder Power Ltd and commissioned in 2009 at a cost of US$55 million (NORAD, 2010). Also in 2009, Electro-Maxx built a 20MW heavy-fuel-oil-fired plant, Tororo Power Station, at a cost of over US$32 million. The other two IPPs are Kakira Sugar Works and Kinyara Sugar Ltd. Both are co-generation plants, fired by bagasse, the residue from sugarcane processing. The capacity of the Kakira plant is in excess of 20MW but only 12MW is sold on to the power grid with the remainder reserved for their its own use. Similarly, at state-owned Kinyara, installed capacity is 7.5MW of which 5MW is sold on to the grid (ERA, 2008). Kakira began supplying the grid in 2008 and Kinyara in 2009. Power sector reform in Uganda has therefore not only opened up the sector for standard IPPs, but also for co-generators that provide useful capacity additions for overcoming the power supply deficit. From the review of literature, the history on Uganda’s power production, generation and demand growth shows that the countries level of power production and generation has been growing for the last two decades due to energy sector economic reformation. 17 However, the available literature shows that much as there has been growing power production and generation, this has not been able to satisfy the increasing demand for power in the country. The growing demand for power resulting from growth in the manufacturing sector and domestic market supersedes the current supply of power which has constrained economic growth in the country. Therefore, the researcher will seek to examine Uganda’s power production, generation and demand growth. 2.2 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector There are two distinct types of regulation, namely, economic regulation and competition regulation. The first mode of regulation is now applied to the power sub-sector and the other applies to the petroleum supply sub-sector. The new regulatory system for the power Sub-sector is based on UEB unbundling, private concession for generation and distribution, and “single buyer” model. It is conceived to give confidence to both private sector participants and consumers that the new power system will function under an agreed and transparent set of rules and procedures. Regulation is through the new Electricity Regulatory Authority – an independent industry-specific regulatory body – whose powers are defined under the Electricity Act, 1999. Uganda has a clear legislative framework for electricity regulation that is anchored by the Electricity Act of 1999. The Act established the ERA, set out its functions and powers and provided for key elements of its administration. The Act also provided the legal basis for the liberalisation of the electricity sector and the unbundling of the vertically integrated and state-owned UEB. 18 The ERA became operational in 2000, and its functions as set out in Clause 11 of the Electricity Act are as follows: • To issue licences for the generation, transmission, distribution or sale of electricity, and for the ownership or operation of transmission systems; • To receive and process applications for licenses; • To prescribe conditions and terms of licences issued under the Act; • To modify licences issued under the Act; • To make and enforce directions to ensure compliance with licences issued under the Act; • To establish a tariff structure and to investigate tariff charges, whether or not a specific complaint has been made for a tariff adjustment; • To approve rates of charges, and terms and conditions, of electricity services provided by transmission and distribution companies; • To review the organisation of generation, transmission and distribution of electricity to the extent that the organisation affects or is likely to affect the operation of the electricity sector and the efficient supply of electricity; • To develop and enforce performance standards for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity; • To encourage the development of uniform electricity industry standards and codes of conduct; • To establish a uniform system of accounts for licensees; • To advise the minister regarding the need for electricity sector projects; • To prepare industry reports and to gather information from generation, transmission and distribution companies; 19 • To prescribe and collect licence fees; • To provide for the procedure for investment programmes by transmission and distribution companies; • To approve standards for the quality of electricity supply services provided; • To approve codes of conduct in respect of the operation of transmission and distribution systems; • To acquire information and carry out investigations relating to any of its functions; and • To perform any other function that is incidental or consequential to its functions. From this list, it is clear that Uganda’s regulatory authority, follows established best practice, and, with the exception of dispute resolution, which falls under the jurisdiction of the Electricity Disputes Tribunal, is empowered to facilitate market access through licensing, set tariffs at economically efficient levels, and to develop, promulgate and monitor technical standards. The issue of independence versus accountability is an issue for all regulatory organisations. As in other countries the legal, financial and administrative independence of the ERA has to be delicately balanced with issues of transparency, public accountability and the fact that ultimately it reports to the government. 2.2.1 Licensing of Electricity generation in Uganda When electricity generation and distribution were privatised, the government negotiated concession and other agreements with Eskom Uganda and Umeme, the concessionaires. These agreements were concluded prior to the issuance of licences by the ERA. The license conditions have therefore generally been made consistent with the provisions of the concession agreements. As a result, the ERA’s regulatory discretion has been curtailed, and 20 a significant degree of regulation in Uganda occurs by contract. The concessionaires in the draft model agreement need to be examined to find out whether there was consideration for nuclear power generation. The prospective licensee (applicant) submits a project brief to the ERA that contains: • the financial and legal status of the applicant, their experience and their technical and industrial competence; • a description of the project and the time-line for its implementation; • a review of the land use involved in the project and its relation to local authorities; • a review of public and private measures necessary to carry out the project; • Information relating to permissions required from public authorities; • a description of the impact of the project on electricity supply, socio-economics, cultural heritage, the environment, natural resources and wildlife; and • any other relevant information that the ERA may request. Upon receipt of the project brief, the ERA is required to publish it in the national press and solicit comments from the public and all directly affected parties. After the project brief has been published and comment solicited, the ERA issues a permit to the prospective licensee. The permit enables relevant studies and other activities necessary for the preparation of a licence application to be conducted. These are required to contain: • the legal and financial status of the applicant; • a technical and economic description of the project; 21 • a description of how the projects fit in with the existing and planned power-supply system; • the planned time of commencement and completion of the construction of the project; • a view of the project’s adaptation to the landscape, including necessary maps and drawings; • the impact of the project on public interest and possible mitigation; • the results and reports of assessments, including environmental impact assessments, and any other studies carried out; • the potential impacts of the project on private interests, including the interests of affected landowners and other rights holders; and • all relevant consents and permits required under any other law. The licence application should also include an evaluation of all the comments received at the permit stage. If the licence application is deemed complete by the ERA, the applicant may be required to execute some form of security for the performance and observance of the conditions to which the licence may be subject, or take out insurance cover against liabilities that may occur. Thereafter the ERA publishes a notice of the licence application in the government gazette. The application can then be objected to by affected parties and the public. 2.2.2 Uganda’s Energy Policy Uganda’s energy policy was passed in 2002 with a goal of meeting the energy needs of Uganda’s population for social and economic development in an environmentally sustainable manner. Generation and distribution businesses were leased out to private 22 operators on long-term concession while transmission will remain a public function in the medium term. Under a concession arrangement the existing assets will remain in public ownership, whilst the right to operate the assets and invest in their expansion will be let to an experienced private sector power company. New generation capacities will be developed as Independent Power Producer (IPP) projects. It is further seen that licensing in Uganda’s power sector focuses on only Hydropower plants. Because nuclear power plants produce beyond 10MW, the current licensing regime may discourage investment in the area. 2.2.3 Generation tariffs in Uganda A significant portion of regulation in Uganda occurs as a result of existing concession agreements, and methods for the determination of tariffs are set out in those contracts. The power purchase agreement between Eskom Uganda and UETCL for example provides for a capacity-only, take-or-pay tariff, the capacity price. The core components of this are: an allowance for a return on capital investment that Eskom Uganda puts into the plant, which is allowed to earn a return of 12 per cent; operations and maintenance (O&M) costs as originally bid for; and the concession fee. The O&M component is adjusted quarterly for the US Dollar/Uganda Shilling exchange rate and inflation. The effective capacity payment is inversely proportional to the target availability for the plant, which is set by the ERA, and was at 96.5 per cent in 2009. A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical in all conventional thermal power stations the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity. 23 Nuclear power plants are usually considered to be base load stations, since fuel is a small part of the cost of production. When four hydrogen atoms join to form helium in the atmosphere, a large quantity of heat is released in a thermal nuclear fusion reaction. Similarly, when Uranium explodes, nuclear fission occurs dissipating large quantity of heat. The heat is used to produce steam that drives steam turbines that generate electricity. The isotopes of Uranium U235 and Plutonium P 239 are nuclear fuels in a nuclear plant generating heat in chain reactions. The kind of energy from Uranium is just like the energy obtained from coal or oil. The end result is electricity which can be sent through the same transmission network as the electricity obtained from any power plant. However, nuclear plants have some special problems that make them different from fossilfuel plants. This is because of the way a uranium reactor works. According to Milton A. Rothman, Where there is a mass of U235, consisting of millions and millions of atoms close together, along comes a neutron created by a cosmic ray from outer space. It penetrates one of the U235 nuclei, causing it to break up into two parts. While doing so, it gives off two or three neutrons. These neutrons are free to bounce around among the uranium atoms. They may simply escape without doing anything. There is a good chance though, that one of them will be captured by another U235 nucleus, causing it to fission also and two or three more neutrons are born. If the volume of Uranium is too small, most of the neutrons will simply bounce harmlessly out of the uranium. However, if the mass of Uranium is great enough (greater than the critical mass), at least one neutron from each fission will remain inside and cause another fission to take place. Thus we have what is called a “chain reaction” and the number of 24 fissions will grow rapidly in an explosive burst of energy. A few pounds of Uranium can release an amount of energy equal to that produced by thousands of tons of dynamite, an ordinary chemical explosive. According to John Blunden et al, estimates of total available energy from Uranium are even more commercially and politically sensitive. The fission of U235 3.2 x 10 -11 J per nucleus, translates into 8 x 1010J per gram. This is 2 x104 times greater than that from combustion of the same mass of coal. 2.2.4 Types of nuclear reactors Advanced Gas - Cooled reactor (AGR) An advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR) is a type of nuclear reactor. These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite as the neutron moderator and carbon dioxide as coolant. The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, operating at a higher gas temperature for improved thermal efficiency, requiring stainless steel fuel cladding to withstand the higher temperature. Because the stainless steel fuel cladding has a higher neutron capture cross section than Magnox fuel cans, enriched uranium fuel is needed. All AGR power stations are configured with two reactors in a single building. Pressurized Water reactor (PWR) These constitute the large majority of all nuclear power plants and are one of three types of light water reactor (LWR), the other types being boiling water reactors (BWRs) and supercritical water reactors (SCWRs). In a PWR, the primary coolant (water) is pumped under high pressure to the reactor core where it is heated by the energy generated by the fission of atoms. The heated water then flows to a steam generator where it transfers its thermal energy to a secondary system where steam is generated and flows to turbines 25 which, in turn, spin an electric generator. In contrast to a boiling water reactor, pressure in the primary coolant loop prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All LWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and neutron moderator. Burner reactors Most conventional nuclear reactors use U235 for fuel, and are what we would call “burners” – they use the fuel until it can no longer keep the reactor critical. Breeder reactors A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating more fissile material than it consumes. These devices are able to achieve this feat because their neutron economy is high enough to breed more fissile fuel than they use from fertile material like uranium-238 or thorium-232. However, breeder reactors have not yet been developed to the point where they are used commercially much as they are able to use all the uranium fuel instead of only the U235 part of it. From the reviewed literature on regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness to the investment sector, the literature showed that Uganda had made efforts to develop the required regulatory framework of the power sector in regard to licensing of power generation, energy policy, generation tariffs among others. However much of the regulatory framework is benchmarked on developed countries due to the fact that there are very few countries that are currently generating nuclear power making it almost impossible to come up with effective policies that can suit the developing countries scenario. This has 26 made the regulatory framework less applicable in Uganda’s case and therefore less conducive to the investment sector. 2.3 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source According to Dr. El-Gazzar, Mohamed et al the question is to what extent should Africa rely on hydropower development in the face of a changing climate? Already droughts regularly disrupt electricity supplies. For example, in February 2006 a drought had reduced Uganda’s hydropower capacity by one third, causing a severe electricity shortage. Climate models suggest that in parts of Africa, river flows will see significant reductions through climate change. Reduced flows, as well as increased competition for water resources (especially from irrigation) are likely to affect the viability of hydropower plants. Clearly, an over reliance on hydropower, as is the case in a number of African countries, carries considerable risk and a more balanced energy portfolio is desirable in those countries, as elsewhere. Worse still, construction of hydro dams leads to disappearance of falls along the river, greatly affecting the tourism industry. The effect of revenue lost from tourism continues to hurt the national economy. But also, hydro dams require wide areas and this leads to massive displacement of the population. A full menu of options should be considered for providing energy services: renewable energy sources, nuclear power sources, traditional biomass and fossil fuels, combined with cleaner, more efficient energy as “one solution does not fit all”. Through better management and regulation of the energy sector in Africa there should be improved access to an increased choice of appropriate, affordable energy services and increased efficiency of energy provision and use. 27 Among all options, nuclear power emerges as one of the most appropriate solutions for adequate energy supply in Africa while improving environmental conditions and contributing significantly to combating climate change. According to MacKenzie et al, the nuclear power debate is about the controversy which has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes. The debate about nuclear power peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies", in some countries. Proponents argue that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source which reduces carbon emissions and can increase energy security if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels. According to Benard Cohen, proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. Opponents say that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment. These threats include health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining, processing and transport, the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation or sabotage, and the unsolved problem of radioactive nuclear waste. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious nuclear accidents (Giugni, Marco 2004).Critics do not believe that these 28 risks can be reduced through new technology. They argue that when all the energyintensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning, nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source (Jim Green, Kleiner, Kurt, Mark Diesendorf). Therefore, all energy sources bring their own problems. The challenge is thus to find appropriate and reliable solutions for providing energy sources for social and economic development and meeting the needs of the majority of poor Africans who live in rural areas. The fuel required per unit of electricity produced by nuclear energy is tiny in mass and easy transport, so this allows nuclear stations to be sited wherever required and helps to overcome the problem of the inadequate transmission grid. Extant literature that was reviewed by the researcher revealed that Uganda had already ventured into the possibility of using nuclear energy as an alternative power source and was in the process of making arrangements to develop the necessary infrastructure. Much as Uganda had made some strides towards the use of nuclear energy as an alternative power source, the country was not making the much needed progress as expected. Some of the reasons deterring this progress include the capital intensive nature of the projects, unavailability of the required human resources, environmental effects, and international regulation among others. This has left the country still suffering from inadequate power causing slow economic development and lack of employment to the available skilled and semi-skilled labour force. 29 2.4 Conclusion Under this chapter, a review of existing literature on power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source were done. Identifying the gaps in the existing literature made it possible to clearly understudy the contribution of power infrastructure on the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source of power. An analysis of the existing literature on the history of Uganda’s power production, generation and demand growth; regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and assess Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. Literature on the history of Uganda’s power production, generation and demand growth was reviewed and established that Uganda’s power production and generation had tremendously increased in regard to the available demand resulting from the manufacturing sector and domestic use. However, there was a mismatch between power production and generation compared to the existing demand for power. In regard to the regulatory framework of the power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector, the literature revealed that the regulatory framework governing the power sector was well streamlined although there were still emerging challenges in regard to its conduciveness in the investment sector. An assessment of Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source revealed that although efforts had been made to realise this, the entire process was still in its infancy stage. 30 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter focused on the techniques that were used to obtain the required data on the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth; regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and Uganda’s readiness for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. The chapter comprised of the research design, population of the study, sampling procedure, sample size and selection, sample techniques, data sources, data collection methods, instruments for data collection, data collection procedure, validity and reliability of the instruments, data processing and analysis, ethical consideration and limitations to the study. 3.1 Research Design The study adopted a cross-sectional case study approach to help explain the current situation on nuclear energy production and analyze the inherent problem when dealing with quantitative data. Cross sectional case study is a research design in which one or more samples of the population is selected and information is collected from the samples at one time. It makes a detailed examination of a single subject, group or phenomenon and enables collection of sufficient data regarding effects of nuclear energy production (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999). A cross-sectional case study design was adopted because the study was only carried at Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development and other agencies since it is Uganda’s regulator of the energy sector. The design was descriptive and analytical in nature. For qualitative data, the study adopted the field research method where 31 the researcher went to the field took extensive field notes which were subsequently coded and analyzed in a variety of ways (Sekeran, 2003). 3.2 Study Population The population of the study was 177 consisting of the different categories of staff at MEMD headquarters and selected agencies in the energy sector. The researcher believed that this category of people was knowledgeable enough about her area of study and was able to avail him with the necessary data about the study. 3.3 Sampling Design and Sample size Given that the study population was large, a sample size was selected from the population and used to represent the views of the entire population. A total sample size of 125 was selected from the population size of 177. The sample size was obtained by using the Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table of population sampling. The sample size was determined basing on the table for determining sample size because for every population, it provided a corresponding sample size. The respondents were selected using purposive sampling given that the data needed is technical in a way. Individuals regarded to be concerned with the study were the ones to be interviewed. The sample size was limited to specific persons regarded to provide key information to the study like the Technical directors/managers, Chief Executive Officers and Focal point managers in the institutions. 3.4 Data Sources Primary data was obtained through the use of a self-administered questionnaire and an interview guide while collecting data from the respondents following systematic and established academic procedures. Secondary data was used to enhance the investigation 32 and it was obtained from existing literature by use of a documentary checklist. The reviews, according to Amin (2005), was a viable tool of investigation because they provided and reliable information. 3.4 Data Collection Methods and Analysis Techniques The data collection methods are techniques of collecting data and since in this research both quantitative and qualitative methods were used. Quantitative data were collected through a survey using a questionnaire. The researcher developed a questionnaire that answered specific objectives of the study for respondents to complete in writing. The questionnaire was structured (close ended). The researcher adopted a closed ended questionnaire because it elicits specific responses, which are easy to analyze, compare among different groups and are economical in terms of time and energy. The structured questionnaires elicited specific response, which is easy to analyze as per Amin (2005). It gave an accurate profile of the situation and the data provided described who, what, how, when and where of the variables in the study. The questionnaire survey was used to select data from technical directors/managers and focal point managers. To collect qualitative data, Face-to-Face interviews were conducted. Interviews are a good tool as they enable the researcher gather in-depth information around the topic to meet specific needs. The researcher was also able to clarify unclear issues in the questionnaire to the respondent (Amin 2005). This method was used to collect data from key informants in this case the executive officers. 33 3.6 Validity and Reliability Tests 3.6.1 Validity Test To establish validity qualitatively , the instruments were given to two experts (supervisors) to evaluate the relevance of each item in the instrument to the objectives and rate each item on the scale of very relevant (4), quite relevant (3), somewhat relevant (2), and not relevant (1). The purpose of qualitative research was to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, therefore the researcher allowed the participants to legitimately judge the credibility of the results. Validity was determined by using Content Validity Index (C.V.I).C.V.I = Total items rated correct divided by the total number of items in the questionnaire. Kathuri & Pal (1993) argues that items with validity coefficients of at least 0.70 are accepted as valid and reliable in research. From the results all the content validity indices ranged from .707 to .859, therefore meeting the acceptable standards. 3.6.2 Reliability Test For quantitative data, the researcher during data collection exercise ensured that the data recorded from interviews reflect the actual facts, responses, observations and events. The researcher also took multiple measurements, observations or samples and also checked the truth of the record with an expert/ lecturer to verify response consistency and customize questions so that only appropriate questions are asked. The experts also helped to confirm responses against previous answers where appropriate and detect questions likely to elicit inadmissible responses. A pretest of the instrument in a time lapse of 2 weeks was carried out to establish consistence in responses. According to Amin (2005), test-retest reliability 34 can be used to measure the extent to which the instrument can produce consistent scores when the same group of individuals is repeatedly measured under same conditions. The results from the pretest were used to modify the items in the instruments. 3.7 Ethical Considerations When carrying out research the following ethical considerations were observed. Permission of the people who were to be studied was sought to conduct research involving them. This was done by attaining an introductory letter from the University introducing the researcher to the management of the bank. Written or verbal informed consent from all respondents was sought before interviews were conducted and the purpose and objectives of the study were carefully explained to the respondents. The researcher was careful not to cause physical or emotional harm to respondents and ensure objectivity during the research so as to eliminate personal biases and opinions. Likewise to ensure confidentiality of the respondents, the researcher designed the tools in such a manner where the respondent was not required to provide personal details such as names. 3.8 Conclusion The chapter introduced and explained the methodological aspects that were followed when constituting the population, selecting the sample the sampling methods to be used, the data collection methods and instruments to be employed during the study, quality control of the instruments, data management and processing and ethical. This set ground for chapter four which dealt with presentation and analysis of the results of the study. 35 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction The chapter comprised of the description of tools of analysis, presentation of data, analysis of data and interpretation of results in the context of the research problem. The chapter is comprised of four sections. Section one presents the introduction, section two represents the response rate, section three dealt with the demographic characteristics which include gender, age group, tenure of employment, level of education, nature of employment and position held using frequency tabulations. Section four, dealt with empirical findings on the study objectives using percentages and item mean analysis. The study targeted 125 respondents to provide the information of the study and 125 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents who composed the sample size of the study. Out of the 125 distributed questionnaires, 97 usable questionnaires were returned giving a response rate of 77% which was acceptable for the study according to Sekaran (2003). 4.1 Description of Tools of Analysis To present the results on the demographic characteristics which include gender, age group, tenure of employment, level of education, nature of employment and position held using frequency tabulations. In statistics, a frequency distribution is a table that displays the frequency of various outcomes in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the occurrences of values within a particular group or interval, and in this way, the table summarizes the distribution of values in the sample. The frequency tabulation is a very popular method for summarizing data because even very large data sets can be 36 condensed to a manageable form without substantial loss of information. Item mean analysis was used to assess the level of agreement or disagreement on the different items by the respondents. Here an average response rate for each item used to measure the different study objectives was computed to assess the respondent level of agreement or disagreement. 4.2 Presentation and Analysis of Data This section of the study discusses the characteristics of the respondents at the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development such as gender, age group, tenure of employment, level of education, nature of employment and position held. The researcher adopted frequency tabulations to present and discuss the results of the sample characteristics below. The rationale of using frequency tabulation was to ascertain the categories of the different characteristics in relation to the responses of the respondents. 4.2.1 Respondent Category by Gender In order to present the respondent category and gender distribution categories of the respondents, frequency tabulation was used by the researcher. Table 4.1 below presents the results: Table 4.1: Gender Distribution Gender Male Female Total Frequency Percentage 61 62.9 36 97 37.1 100.0 Source: Primary data (2014) 37 The results from Table 4.1 above show that 62.9% of the respondents were male whereas 37.1% were female. From the findings, it is apparent that the males were more responsive compared to their female counterparts implying that, there were more male staff at the ministry and other agencies involved in energy production and regulation compared to the female staff. The high composition of male respondents is a justification that the organisations recruited more male employee compared to the female. The reason for this is that the roles that are performed at the organisations require a lot of flexibility where by staff can be transferred from one department or branch or region to another at any given time which might be difficult for female staff who also have the responsibility of taking care of their families. Likewise, since also bank roles demand that staff work for long hours, this is unfavourable for the married female staff who have to also take care of the children and the family at large. 4.2.2 Respondent Category by Age Group Frequency tabulation was used by the researcher to present the age distribution of the respondents. Table 4.2 below presents the results: Table 4.2: Age Distribution Age Frequency Percent (%) 23-25 yrs 8 10 26-30 yrs 27 27.8 31-35 yrs 35 36.1 36-40 yrs 19 19.6 40 yrs and above 8 8.2 Total 97 100.0 Source: Primary data (2014) 38 The results in the table 4.2 revealed that the majority of the respondents fell in the age brackets of 31-35 years and 26-30 years with percentages of 36.1% and 27.8% respectively whereas, 8.2% accounted for those respondents in the 40 years and above age group. The results implied that the composition of the respondents was made up of staff who were mature enough to understand the importance of nuclear energy production as an alternative energy source. 4.2.3 Tenure of Employment Frequency tabulation was used by the researcher to present the tenure of employment distribution of the respondents. Table 4.3 below presents the results: Table 4.3: Tenure of Employment Distribution Tenure Frequency Percent (%) Less than 1 year 11 11.3 2 – 3 yrs 22 22.7 4 – 5 yrs 10 10.3 6 – 10 yrs 35 36.1 Above 10 yrs 19 19.6 Total 97 100.0 Source: Primary data (2014) From the results in table 4.3 above, it was observed that 36.1% of the respondents had worked with the bank for some 6-10 years, 22.7% had been employed for 2-3 years, 19.6% had worked for the organisations for over 10 years, 11.3% had worked for less than 1 year whereas, 10.3% had worked with the organisations for 4-5 years. This could imply that the majority of the staff had served the different organisations for at least more than 6 years 39 which was confirmation that they possessed the required experience to provide information for the study. 4.2.4 Respondent Category by Level of Education Frequency tabulation was used to present the level of education distribution of the respondents. Table 4.4 below presented the results: Table 4.4: Level of Education Frequency Percentage Diploma 9 9.3 Postgraduate diploma 22 22.7 Degree 39 40.2 Masters 19 19.6 Others 8 8.2 Total 97 100.0 Source: Primary data According to the results in Table 4.4, the majority of the respondents (40.2%) possessed degree level of education, 22.7% were postgraduate diploma holders, those who had attained masters level of education accounted for 19.6%, the diploma holder accounted for 9.3% and 8.2% held other qualifications. From the findings, the majority of the responses were acquired from degree holders and postgraduate holders which was justification that the respondents possessed the required qualifications to perform their duties in an effective and efficient manner. 40 4.2.5 Distribution According to Position Held Frequency tabulation was used by the researcher to present the distribution according to position held of the respondents. Table 4.5 below presents the results: Table 4.5: Position Held Designation Frequency Percent (%) Top manager 5 5.2 Middle manager 15 15.5 Supervisor 42 43.3 Officer 35 36.1 Total 97 100.0 Source: Primary data (2014) From the results in the table 4.5, the majority of the responses were acquired from supervisors (43.3%) and top leaders were the least in providing responses (5.2%). The fact that information was acquired from top managers to officers, this justifies that the staff holding different positions were able to provide their views regarding the study. 4.3 Empirical Findings The findings in this study are based on the study objectives. The variables are measured using a five point Likert scale and the results are presented in descriptive tables, showing percentages and item means of responses under each variable. The results from the quantitative source are compared with qualitative ones. Statistical tables were used for easier understanding and interpretations. 41 4.3.1 Research Objective One: Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth The item means on Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth were generated to assess the level of agreement and disagreement among the respondents. Responses were based on Likert scale ranging from one which represented strongly disagree to five which reflected strongly agree, although these were thereafter categorized into agree and disagree sections. The resulting summary statistics are in Table 4.6; 42 Table 4.6: Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth Items Min Max Mean Std. Dev Through goal setting, the responsible organs have been able to meet market demand There has been a continuous growth in the amount of power that is generated over the years There is monitoring of the amount of electricity that is generated 1 5 2.20 .677 1 5 3.77 .736 1 5 4.29 .652 The public is made aware about power production 1 5 3.11 .62 There is involvement of all stakeholders during decision making 1 5 3.22 .72 The interests of the public come first when carrying out power production and generation Incase of any shortcomings in power transmission, the public is informed During power production emphasis is put on goal achievement 1 5 3.02 .680 1 5 3.83 .615 1 5 3.89 .790 The companies contracted to generated and produce power can be relied on by the public for effective power production There has been growing infrastructural development that supports power production. The reforms in the energy sector have enhanced power production in the country. Privatization of the energy sector has helped to increase power generation in the country. As a result of reforms in the sector resulted into public -private partnerships The energy sector provides a major contributor to the treasury. 1 5 3.48 1.08 1 5 3.98 .720 1 5 4.05 .548 1 5 3.62 .671 1 5 3.06 .681 1 5 3.98 1.01 Liberalisation of the power sub-sector has attracted private sector investments in the country Electricity demand has grown over the years in the country 1 5 3.65 .687 1 5 3.89 .785 The increase in demand for electricity is attributed to heavy load shedding The reform programme aimed at providing adequate, reliable and leastcost power supply to meet demand. There is public awareness about the usefulness of nuclear power. 1 5 3.22 .802 1 5 3.95 .684 1 5 3.43 1.15 There is a nuclear power roadmap development strategy 1 5 3.69 .679 A prefeasibility study on nuclear power plant was done 1 5 3.48 1.08 Source: Primary data (2014) 43 The majority of respondents agreed that there has been a continuous growth in the amount of power that is generated over the years (mean=3.77). In relation to whether there is monitoring of the amount of electricity that is generated (mean=4.29), most respondents agreed and also consented that incase of any shortcomings in power transmission, the public is informed (mean=3.83). From the results, the respondents agreed that during power production emphasis was put on goal achievement (mean=3.89), there has been growing infrastructural development that supports power production (mean=3.98), reforms in the energy sector had enhanced power production in the country (mean=4.05) and privatization of the energy sector has helped to increase power generation in the country (mean=3.62). Much as there was disagreement that through goal setting, the responsible organs had not been able to meet market demand (mean=2.20). The respondents agreed that the energy sector was a major contributor to the treasury (mean=3.98), liberalisation of the power sub-sector had attracted private sector investments in the country (mean=3.65), electricity demand had grown over the years in the country (mean=3.89), the reform programme aimed at providing adequate, reliable and least-cost power supply to meet demand (mean=3.95) and there was a nuclear power roadmap development strategy (mean=3.69). 44 4.3.2 Research Objective Two: Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector The item means on regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector were generated to assess the level of agreement and disagreement among the respondents. Responses were based on Likert scale ranging from one which represented strongly disagree to five which reflected strongly agree, although these were thereafter categorized into agree and disagree sections. The resulting summary statistics are in Table 4.7; 45 Table 4.7: Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector Min Max Mean Std. Dev There is a procedure that is followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants in Uganda. There is a Nuclear Energy Policy for Uganda. The regulatory framework of the power sector is widely understood by staff The nuclear power generation and operation policies are widely understood by all stakeholders The nuclear power generation and operation policies are accessible to the public Opinions, views and data relating to current policies and processes are accessible to the public. Stakeholders know the procedures followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power Assistance/guidance is available to stakeholders seeking information on nuclear power generation and operation. The processes followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants in Uganda are clear. The nuclear power generation and operation structures are clearly defined by government. Current structural arrangement in the power sector promotes a conducive investment climate in nuclear power generation. License requirements for nuclear power generation are well defined according to policy. Standards are set by government for nuclear power plants generation. The generation tariffs for nuclear power are clearly stipulated by the energy sector governing laws. There is an enabling environment for private sector investments in generation and distribution of power There is absence of a formal institutional and legislative framework for regulating atomic energy activities. 1 5 3.66 .776 1 1 1 5 5 5 3.85 2.89 2.25 .780 1.05 1.00 1 1 5 5 3.58 2.02 .897 .798 1 5 3.65 1.04 1 5 3.54 1.20 1 5 3.68 .693 1 5 3.75 .677 1 5 3.20 .685 1 5 3.66 .795 1 1 5 5 3.52 3.60 1.10 .686 1 5 3.11 1.32 1 5 3.77 0.632 Source: Primary data (2014) Basing on the study results in table 4.7, There was agreement from the respondents that there was a procedure that was followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants (mean=3.66), Nuclear Energy Policy was in existence in Uganda (mean=3.85) 46 and stakeholders knew the procedures followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power (mean=3.65). Likewise, the processes followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants were clear (mean=3.68), the nuclear power generation and operation structures were clearly defined by government (mean=3.75) and license requirements for nuclear power generation were well defined according to policy (mean=3.66). On the other hand, the respondents disagreed that the regulatory framework of the power sector was widely understood by staff (mean=2.89), the nuclear power generation and operation policies were widely understood by all stakeholders (mean=2.25) and opinions, views and data relating to current policies and processes were accessible to the public (mean=2.02). Much as there was agreement that the generation tariffs for nuclear power were clearly stipulated by the energy sector governing laws (mean=3.60) and there was absence of a formal institutional and legislative framework for regulating atomic energy activities (mean=3.77). 4.3.3 Research Objective Three: Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source The item means on Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source were generated to assess the level of agreement and disagreement among the respondents. Responses were based on Likert scale ranging from one which represented strongly disagree to five which reflected strongly agree, although these were thereafter categorized into agree and disagree sections. The resulting summary statistics are in Table 4.8; 47 Table 4.8: Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source Min Max Mean Std. Dev Privatization of the energy sector has promoted infrastructural development in the 1 5 3.05 .766 sector. The lack of investment and finance accounts for the slow nuclear energy 1 5 3.98 .793 infrastructural development There is limited private-sector participation in nuclear energy infrastructural 1 5 4.02 .684 development There are limitations in regulatory and institutional capacity to promote nuclear 1 5 4.31 .771 energy infrastructural development There are shortcomings in technical capacity and local resources to support nuclear 1 5 4.58 .656 energy infrastructural development Nuclear energy infrastructural development is costly 1 5 4.58 .650 Nuclear energy infrastructural development requires high credit capitalization 1 5 4.66 .759 Inadequate physical infrastructure is a major constraint in the growth of power 1 5 4.54 .650 infrastructure development There is inadequate skilled human resource to support nuclear infrastructural 1 5 4.48 .750 development Lack of commitment by top management has undermined nuclear infrastructural 1 5 4.51 .764 development There is reluctant by management to meet the cost sharing by government on 1 5 4.46 .653 procurements of equipments and trainings. Source: Primary data (2014) The results in Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source showed that there was agreement that the lack of investment and finance accounts for the slow nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=3.98), there was limited privatesector participation in nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.02), there were limitations in regulatory and institutional capacity to promote nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.31) and there were shortcomings in technical capacity and local resources to support nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.58). 48 On the other hand, the respondents revealed that nuclear energy infrastructural development was costly (mean=4.58), nuclear energy infrastructural development required high credit capitalization (mean=4.66), inadequate physical infrastructure was a major constraint in the growth of power infrastructure development (mean=4.54) and there was inadequate skilled human resource to support nuclear infrastructural development (mean=4.48). Likewise, the respondents revealed that lack of commitment by top management had undermined nuclear infrastructural development (mean=4.51) and there was reluctant by management to meet the cost sharing by government on procurements of equipments and trainings (mean=4.46). 4.4 Interpretation of Results in the Context of the Research Problem Under this section the interpretation of results in the context of the research problem was carried out so as to assess what is explained by the results of the study. 4.4.1 Uganda’s power production; generation and demand growth From the findings, it was evident that there was continuous growth in the amount of power that was being generated (mean=3.77) which was justification that government understood the importance of having adequate power supply as this had a positive impact on the economy. There was also agreement to the fact that there was monitoring of the amount of electricity that was generated (mean=4.29) and where any shortcomings a rose during transmission, the public was informed (mean=3.83). This is justification government kept close watch of power generation and ensured that all the power that was generated was transmitted to consumers much as there were shortcomings during in these processes. 49 The findings revealed that during power production emphasis was put on goal achievement (mean=3.89) and there has been growing infrastructural development that supports power production (mean=3.98). This is revelation that government focused to achieving set targets for power production and to realize this it continued to develop power production infrastructure which even supported transmission of power. This explains why the findings revealed that reforms in the energy sector had enhanced power production (mean=4.05) and privatization of the energy sector has helped to increase power generation (mean=3.62). This is confirmation that outsourced some of the power production activities from the private sector through its programmes so as ensure a steady growth in power generation. Although this was the case, the responsible organs had not been able to meet market demand (mean=2.20). The findings showed that the energy sector was a major contributor to the treasury (mean=3.98) and liberalization of the power sub-sector had attracted private sector investments in the country (mean=3.65). This is justification that as a result of involvement of other external stakeholders in the energy sector, this had benefited government financially as well as effectiveness in the production of power. This explains why government carried of the reformation of the power sector so as to provide adequate, reliable and least-cost power supply to meet demand (mean=3.95), much as the demand for power was rising day by day (mean=3.89). To ensure that this demand is met by power needs, the government had embarked on a nuclear power roadmap development strategy (mean=3.69). 50 4.4.2 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector The findings revealed that there were procedures that were followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants (mean=3.66), a policy on nuclear energy had been formulated (mean=3.85) and stakeholders knew the procedures followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power (mean=3.65). The findings justify that to venture into other energy sources such as nuclear energy, government had taken the liberty to put in place the proper procedures and policies that should be adhered to by those interested in the generation and operation of nuclear plants in the country. This was common information that could be accessed by those seeking information on nuclear energy generation and operation of nuclear plants. According to the findings, the processes followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power plants were clear (mean=3.68), there were clear nuclear power generation and operation structures (mean=3.75) and license requirements for nuclear power generation were well defined according to policy (mean=3.66). This is confirmation that all the legalities required by investors in the nuclear energy sector were clearly streamlined out in regard to policy, structures and licensing. Therefore, the nuclear energy sector was open to those who were able to comply and adhere to the set framework. Much as there were still challenges faced by the staff working in the sector in understanding the regulatory framework (mean=2.89). This explains why the nuclear power generation and operation policies were not widely understood by all stakeholders (mean=2.25) and opinions, views and data relating to current policies and processes were not accessible to the public (mean=2.02). Given the sensitive nature of the information on 51 nuclear energy and the likelihood that it can be used for wrong purposes, this may explain why government secures this information from easy accessibility. In spite of that, the findings showed that generation tariffs for nuclear power were clearly stipulated by the energy sector governing laws (mean=3.60) and there was absence of a formal institutional and legislative framework for regulating atomic energy activities (mean=3.77). This is justification that despite government’s capability in developing the legal framework governing nuclear energy, the structures to support nuclear production were not yet in place. This clearly shows that Uganda’s nuclear sector was still in its infancy stage. 4.4.3 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source The findings on Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source showed that there was lack of investment and finance accounted for the slow nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=3.98). This is due to the fact that nuclear energy ventures were capital intensive in nature. This explains why there was limited privatesector participation in nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.02). On the other hand, the findings revealed that there were limitations in regulatory and institutional capacity to promote nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.31) and there were shortcomings in technical capacity and local resources to support nuclear energy infrastructural development (mean=4.58). It is practical that nuclear energy needs a lot of investment in regard to financial and HR resources to set up a nuclear power station. It is 52 not always possible by the developing countries to afford such a costly source of alternative energy. On the other hand, the respondents revealed that nuclear energy infrastructural development was costly (mean=4.58), nuclear energy infrastructural development required high credit capitalization (mean=4.66), inadequate physical infrastructure was a major constraint in the growth of power infrastructure development (mean=4.54) and there was inadequate skilled human resource to support nuclear infrastructural development (mean = 4.48). This is justified by the high construction costs due to complex radiation containment systems and procedures, high subsidies needed for construction and operation, as well as loan guarantees and long construction time. The findings showed that lack of commitment by top management had undermined nuclear infrastructural development (mean=4.51) and there was reluctant by management to meet the cost sharing by government on procurements of equipments and trainings (mean=4.46). The fact that nuclear is a centralized power source requiring large infrastructure, investment, and coordination where decentralized sources can be more efficient, less costly, and more resilient, this calls for government support in the provision of resources that are required. 4.5 Conclusion This chapter analyzed Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source. The findings indicated that power production; generation/demand growth, regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector and infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source were paramount in enhancing the country’s preparedness for 53 nuclear power production as an alternative source. This provided a basis for chapter five which considered the summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. 54 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This chapter presents the discussion of results presented in chapters four and conclusions drawn from the presentation. The chapter presents a short summary of the purpose of the study and the research findings, followed by the set of recommendations, limitations of the study and areas of further research. 5.1 Summary of the Research Findings The study sought to examine Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source. The study was guided by the following objectives; to examine the history of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth; to examine regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector; and to assess Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source. Data was collected using selfadministered questionnaires and it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (V18) which was used to generate tabulations of frequencies, item means and standard deviations. 5.1.1 Summary of the Findings on Sample Characteristics The findings on the sample characteristics revealed that most of the respondents were male, the majority belonged to 26-30 years and 31-35 years age groups, most of them had tenure 55 of 6-10 years. The majority of the respondents possessed first degrees and in regard to positions held by the staff the majority of the respondents were officers. 5.1.2 History of Uganda’s power production; generation/demand growth The findings validate that there was a growing power production in the country as a result of several dams being commissioned. This also contributed to the increased generation of power so as to meet the high demand for power in the country. This implied that emphasis on exploiting other types of energy such as nuclear energy was paramount in enhancing power production and generation in the country 5.1.3 Regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector According to the findings on the regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector, it was revealed that there were still gaps in the development of the required policies such as those for nuclear energy which undermined effective regulation of the sector and its consequent development. 5.1.4 Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source The findings established that Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source was still in its infancy stage and therefore encountered several challenges in regard to training, costs and regulation. 5.2 Conclusions In conclusion, the findings validate that although there was increasing power production and generation, this did not correspond with the growth in demand for power. This implied that emphasis needed to be put on other forms of energy such as nuclear which is important 56 in stirring investment in the manufacturing sector as a away of meeting the energy needs in the country. The findings on regulatory framework of Uganda’s power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector revealed that there were still inadequacies in the current policies that are used in the energy sector. From the findings it was established that Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source was still in its infancy stage and a lot had to be done by the different stakeholders such as government, nationals, development partners and international community to develop the required infrastructure. 5.3 Policy Recommendations In light of the research findings, the following main recommendations were made: i) The findings on power production, generation and demand growth revealed that much as there was growth in power production and generation, this was still below the current demand for power in the country. This calls on government to carryout research and development in other forms of energy such as solar, nuclear, biomas among others so as to harvest enough energy that can meet the current demand for power. ii) Likewise, in order to promote infrastructural development, government together with development partners can form Public Private Partnerships so as to put in place the necessary infrastructure that is required during power production, generation and distribution. iii) From the findings there were several factors affecting the regulatory framework for the energy sector proposed by the respondents. Therefore government should benchmark from other countries that have been able to develop effective and 57 efficient policies to govern their energy sectors so as to improve the current policies used in Uganda’s energy sector. iv) The management of the organisations that are involved in the production, generation and distribution of energy in the country should put emphasis on ensuring that monitoring and evaluation systems are in place so as to mitigate energy wastage and theft in the country so as to put to effective used of the energy that is produced, generated and distributed in the country. Early detection of illegal connections normally mitigates wastage of power. v) There should be continuous reviews of the operations of energy production, generation and distribution processes through monitoring and evaluation at all stages as this will ensure checks and balances and also help identify the gaps that are still eminent in the processes. vi) Having in place effective governance structures will greatly contribute to the closure of the existing gaps in the regulatory framework. Thus, government should ensure that the current structures provide for backward and forward linkages. vii) Likewise, the internal causes of losses can be further classified into those that can be resolved or addressed through the use or deployment of new technology and those that can be resolved through addressing of the human resource issues. viii) On the other hand, there should be strengthening of the law and imposing tighter and heavier legal sanctions to make it painful if one is caught stealing power, or vandalizing electrical installations. This must however be accompanied by strengthening the enforcement institutional mechanism so that the tougher laws are not only in the books but are enforced as well. 58 ix) However deterrence alone through enforcement of the law is inadequate to solve all the power problems the country is facing. There would still be need to undertake consumer education and sensitization and mobilization of communities and civic leaders about the need to preserve electricity installations and compliance with the terms of electricity supply. There is a need to create a sense of ownership or understanding of their role as stakeholders by understanding how stolen electricity or vandalizing of electricity installations eventually impacts on them. 5.4 Suggestions for further research i) The researcher only focused on Uganda’s power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source not considering other factors affecting nuclear energy generation. Each of these factors that were not dealt with has broad areas which can be researched on. ii) The study took a form of cross sectional study but to study the true nature of the relationship between power infrastructure and the country’s preparedness for nuclear power production as an alternative source, a longitudinal study is more appropriate, given the complex nature of the field of nuclear energy production. iii) A similar study may be carried out on the energy sectors of other developing countries in the region to assess how they have been able to exploit nuclear energy as an alternative power source. APPENDIX I Nuclear Energy is not a New Clear Resource. Theworldreporter.com. 2010-09-02. Bernard Cohen. "The Nuclear Energy Option". Retrieved 2009-12-09. 59 Chairman, NPPA(2)/Egypt, Eng. Bedrous, Maher Aziz Counsellor for Environmental Studies, EHC(3)/Egypt Energy And The Future – Milton A. Rothman 1975 Energy, Resources and Environment – John Blunden And Alan Reddish 1991. Giugni, Marco (2004). Social protest and policy change: ecology, antinuclear, and peace movements in comparative perspective. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 44–. Greenpeace International and European Renewable Energy Council (January 2007). Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook, p. 7. Hydro And Nuclear Power For African Less-Carbon Development- Dr. El-Gazzar, Mohamed Executive Chairman, HPPEA(1)/Egypt, Dr. IBRAHIM, Yassin Mohamed Executive Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press. Jim Green . Nuclear Weapons and 'Fourth Generation' Reactors Chain Reaction, August 2009, pp. 18-21. Kitschelt, Herbert P. (1986). "Political Opportunity and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies" (PDF). British Journal of Political Science 16 (1): 57. Kleiner, Kurt (October 2008). "Nuclear energy: assessing the emissions" (PDF). Nature Reports 2: 130–1. MacKenzie, James J. (December 1977). "Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy] by Arthur W. Murphy". The Quarterly Review of Biology 52 (4): 467–8. doi:10.1086/410301. Mark Diesendorf (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, University of New South Wales Press, p. 252. Power sector reform and regulation in Africa - Joseph Kapika, Anton Eberhard, Graduate school of business. University of Capetown Sovacool, Benjamin K. (2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007". Energy Policy 36 (5): 1802–20. Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc., p. 280. U.S. Energy Legislation May Be `Renaissance' for Nuclear Power. Walker, J. Samuel (10 January 2006). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective. University of California Press. pp. 10–11. Wesonga, N. (2014, May 22). Power supplier increases tariffs. The Daily Monitor WWF, Oxfam, WaterAid.org: Meeting Africa’s Energy Needs, the Cost and Benefits of Hydropower; March 2006. Yoichi Funabashi (March 11, 2012). "The End of Japanese Illusions". New York Times. Retrieved 201204-13. 60 APPENDIX II QUESTIONNAIRE Dear respondent, I am Paul Byagire, a student at Makerere University i. I am carrying out a research study on “Alternative Energy Infrastructure for Uganda”. The study is being conducted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a degree of Master of Public Infrastructure Management. This questionnaire is seeking information on the study. Therefore the information provided in this questionnaire will be used for academic purposes only and shall be accorded utmost confidentiality. Therefore, your contribution towards filling in this questionnaire will be a great contribution to my academic endeavor. Thank you. Section I: Demographic Data 1. Gender Male Female 2. Age of the Respondent 25 yrs & below 26-30 yrs 31-35 yrs 36-40 yrs 41 yrs & above 3. Tenure of employment Less than 1 year 2 – 3 yrs 4 – 5 yrs 6 – 10 yrs Above 10 yrs 4. Highest level of education attained Diploma Degree Masters postgraduate diploma 5. Position held in the Organization 61 professional qualification PhD Management Middle Manager Supervisory Section I: Power production, generation and demand growth: Please indicate the extent to which you agree with the statements below (SD-strongly disagree, D-disagree, NS- not sure, Aagree and SA-strongly agree) SD D NS A Through goals setting, the responsible organs have been able to meet 1 2 3 4 market demand There has a continuous growth in the amount of power that is generated 1 2 3 4 over the years There is monitoring of the amount of electricity that is generated 1 2 3 4 The public is made aware about power production 1 2 3 4 There is involvement of all stakeholders during decision making 1 2 3 4 The interests of the public come first when carrying out power production 1 2 3 4 and generation Incase of any shortcomings in power transmission, the public is informed 1 2 3 4 During power production emphasis is put on goal achievement 1 2 3 4 The companies contracted to generated and produce power can be relied on 1 2 3 4 by the public for effective power production There has been growing infrastructural development that supports power 1 2 3 4 production. The reforms in the energy sector have enhanced power production in the 1 2 3 4 country. Privatization of the energy sector has helped to increase power generation 1 2 3 4 in the country. the electrification rate in the country is low 1 2 3 4 As a result of reforms in the sector resulted into public -private partnerships 1 2 3 4 The energy sector provides a major contributor to the treasury. 1 2 3 4 Liberalisation of the power sub-sector has attracted private sector 1 2 3 4 investments in the country Electricity demand has grown over the years in the country 1 2 3 4 The increase in demand for electricity is attributed to heavy load shedding 1 2 3 4 The reform programme aimed at providing adequate, reliable and least-cost 1 2 3 4 power supply to meet demand. There is public awareness about the usefulness of nuclear power. 1 2 3 4 There is a nuclear power roadmap development strategy 1 2 3 4 A prefeasibility study on nuclear power plant was done 1 2 3 4 62 SA 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Section II: Regulatory framework of the power sector and its conduciveness on investments in the sector: Please indicate the extent to which you agree with the statements below (SDstrongly disagree, D-disagree, NS- not sure, A-agree and SA-strongly agree) Item SD D NS A There is a procedure that is followed when applying to generate and operate 1 2 3 4 nuclear power plants in Uganda. There is a Nuclear Energy Policy for Uganda. 1 2 3 4 The regulatory framework of the power sector is widely understood by staff 1 2 3 4 The nuclear power generation and operation policies are widely understood by 1 2 3 4 all stakeholders The nuclear power generation and operation policies are accessible to the 1 2 3 4 public Opinions, views and data relating to current policies and processes are 1 2 3 4 accessible to the public. Stakeholders know the procedures followed when applying to generate and 1 2 3 4 operate nuclear power Assistance/guidance is available to stakeholders seeking information on 1 2 3 4 nuclear power generation and operation. The processes followed when applying to generate and operate nuclear power 1 2 3 4 plants in Uganda are clear. The nuclear power generation and operation structures are clearly defined by 1 2 3 4 government. Current structural arrangement in the power sector promotes a conducive 1 2 3 4 investment climate in nuclear power generation. License requirements for nuclear power generation are well defined according 1 2 3 4 to policy. Standards are set by government for nuclear power plants generation. 1 2 3 4 The generation tariffs for nuclear power are clearly stipulated by the energy 1 2 3 4 sector governing laws. There is an enabling environment for private sector investments in generation 1 2 3 4 and distribution of power There is absence of a formal institutional and legislative framework for 1 2 3 4 regulating atomic energy activities. SA 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Section III: Explore Uganda’s infrastructure for nuclear energy as an alternative power source: Please indicate the extent to which you agree with the statements below (SD-strongly disagree, D-disagree, NS- not sure, A-agree and SA-strongly agree) Item SD D NS A SA Privatization of the energy sector has promoted infrastructural development in 1 2 3 4 5 the sector. 63 The lack of investment and finance accounts for the slow nuclear energy infrastructural development There limited private-sector participation in nuclear energy infrastructural development There are limitations in regulatory and institutional capacity to promote nuclear energy infrastructural development There are shortcomings in technical capacity and local resources to support nuclear energy infrastructural development Nuclear energy infrastructural development is costly Nuclear energy infrastructural development requires high credit capitalization Inadequate physical infrastructure is a major constraint in the growth of power infrastructure development There is inadequate skilled human resource to support nuclear infrastructural development Lack of commitment by top management has undermined nuclear infrastructural development There is reluctant by management to meet the cost sharing by government on procurements of equipments and trainings. 64 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5