Andy GreenRelated papers
Effect of information availability on assessment and designation of species at risk
Conservation Biology, 2010
Commentary: IUCN classifications under uncertainty
Environmental Modelling & Software, 2012
From Red Lists to Species of Conservation Concern
Conservation Biology, 2004
The treatment of uncertainty and the structure of the IUCN threatened species categories
1999
The classification of species with respect to their conservation status using the IUCN criteria is an important process in many countries, providing a guide for setting conservation priorities. Recent advances have resulted in several approaches to dealing with uncertainty in data used to classify species. These methods demand an unambiguous and transparent logical structure for the criteria. We suggest some
Making Consistent IUCN Classifications under Uncertainty
Conservation Biology, 2000
Quantification of Extinction Risk: IUCN's System for Classifying Threatened Species
Conservation Biology, 2008
Abstract: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species was increasingly used during the 1980s to assess the conservation status of species for policy and planning purposes. This use stimulated the development of a new set of quantitative criteria for listing species in the categories of threat: critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable. These criteria, which were intended to be applicable to all species except microorganisms, were part of a broader system for classifying threatened species and were fully implemented by IUCN in 2000. The system and the criteria have been widely used by conservation practitioners and scientists and now underpin one indicator being used to assess the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010 biodiversity target. We describe the process and the technical background to the IUCN Red List system. The criteria refer to fundamental biological processes underlying population decline and extinction. But given major differences between species, the threatening processes affecting them, and the paucity of knowledge relating to most species, the IUCN system had to be both broad and flexible to be applicable to the majority of described species. The system was designed to measure the symptoms of extinction risk, and uses 5 independent criteria relating to aspects of population loss and decline of range size. A species is assigned to a threat category if it meets the quantitative threshold for at least one criterion. The criteria and the accompanying rules and guidelines used by IUCN are intended to increase the consistency, transparency, and validity of its categorization system, but it necessitates some compromises that affect the applicability of the system and the species lists that result. In particular, choices were made over the assessment of uncertainty, poorly known species, depleted species, population decline, restricted ranges, and rarity; all of these affect the way red lists should be viewed and used. Processes related to priority setting and the development of national red lists need to take account of some assumptions in the formulation of the criteria.Resumen: La Lista Roja de Especies Amenazadas de la UICN (Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza) fue muy utilizada durante la década de l980 para evaluar el estatus de conservación de especies para fines políticos y de planificación. Este uso estimuló el desarrollo de un conjunto nuevo de criterios cuantitativos para enlistar especies en las categorías de amenaza: en peligro crítico, en peligro y vulnerable. Estos criterios, que se pretendía fueran aplicables a todas las especies excepto microorganismos, eran parte de un sistema general para clasificar especies amenazadas y fueron implementadas completamente por la UICN en 2000. El sistema y los criterios han sido ampliamente utilizados por practicantes y científicos de la conservación y actualmente apuntalan un indicador utilizado para evaluar el objetivo al 2010 de la Convención de Diversidad Biológica. Describimos el proceso y el respaldo técnico del sistema de la Lista Roja de la IUCN. Los criterios se refieren a los procesos biológicos fundamentales que subyacen en la declinación y extinción de una población. Pero, debido a diferencias mayores entre especies, los procesos de amenaza que los afectan y la escasez de conocimiento sobre la mayoría de las especies, el sistema de la UICN tenía que ser amplio y flexible para ser aplicable a la mayoría de las especies descritas. El sistema fue diseñado para medir los síntomas del riesgo de extinción, y utiliza cinco criterios independientes que relacionan aspectos de la pérdida poblacional y la declinación del rango de distribución. Una especie es asignada a una categoría de amenaza si cumple el umbral cuantitativo por lo menos para un criterio. Los criterios, las reglas acompañantes y las directrices utilizadas por la UICN tienen la intención de incrementar la consistencia, transparencia y validez de su sistema de clasificación, pero requiere algunos compromisos que afectan la aplicabilidad del sistema y las listas de especies que resultan. En particular, se hicieron selecciones por encima de la evaluación de incertidumbre, especies poco conocidas, especies disminuidas, declinación poblacional, rangos restringidos y rareza; todas estas afectan la forma en que las listas rojas deberían ser vistas y usadas. Los procesos relacionados con la definición de prioridades y el desarrollo de las listas rojas nacionales necesitan considerar algunos de los supuestos en la formulación de los criterios.Resumen: La Lista Roja de Especies Amenazadas de la UICN (Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza) fue muy utilizada durante la década de l980 para evaluar el estatus de conservación de especies para fines políticos y de planificación. Este uso estimuló el desarrollo de un conjunto nuevo de criterios cuantitativos para enlistar especies en las categorías de amenaza: en peligro crítico, en peligro y vulnerable. Estos criterios, que se pretendía fueran aplicables a todas las especies excepto microorganismos, eran parte de un sistema general para clasificar especies amenazadas y fueron implementadas completamente por la UICN en 2000. El sistema y los criterios han sido ampliamente utilizados por practicantes y científicos de la conservación y actualmente apuntalan un indicador utilizado para evaluar el objetivo al 2010 de la Convención de Diversidad Biológica. Describimos el proceso y el respaldo técnico del sistema de la Lista Roja de la IUCN. Los criterios se refieren a los procesos biológicos fundamentales que subyacen en la declinación y extinción de una población. Pero, debido a diferencias mayores entre especies, los procesos de amenaza que los afectan y la escasez de conocimiento sobre la mayoría de las especies, el sistema de la UICN tenía que ser amplio y flexible para ser aplicable a la mayoría de las especies descritas. El sistema fue diseñado para medir los síntomas del riesgo de extinción, y utiliza cinco criterios independientes que relacionan aspectos de la pérdida poblacional y la declinación del rango de distribución. Una especie es asignada a una categoría de amenaza si cumple el umbral cuantitativo por lo menos para un criterio. Los criterios, las reglas acompañantes y las directrices utilizadas por la UICN tienen la intención de incrementar la consistencia, transparencia y validez de su sistema de clasificación, pero requiere algunos compromisos que afectan la aplicabilidad del sistema y las listas de especies que resultan. En particular, se hicieron selecciones por encima de la evaluación de incertidumbre, especies poco conocidas, especies disminuidas, declinación poblacional, rangos restringidos y rareza; todas estas afectan la forma en que las listas rojas deberían ser vistas y usadas. Los procesos relacionados con la definición de prioridades y el desarrollo de las listas rojas nacionales necesitan considerar algunos de los supuestos en la formulación de los criterios.
D EREK A. CALLAGHAN a n d A N DY J. GREEN
C o m p l e t e r e v i e w s a r e g i v e n o f t h e s t a t u s o f 2 5 w i l d f o w l t a x a ( A n s e r i f o r m e s ) th o u g h t to b e
c a n d i d a t e s fo r g l o b a l l y t h r e a t e n e d s ta t u s , a l o n g w it h b r i e f u p d a t e s o n t h e s t a t u s o f 4 0 ta x a t h a t
w e r e r e v i e w e d in d e t a i l in t h e p r e v i o u s i s s u e o f W IL D F O W L . E a c h t a x o n is a s s i g n e d a p r o v i s i o n a l
c a t e g o r y o f t h r e a t in li n e w i th r e c e n t p r o p o s a l s f o r t h e r e - e v a lu a t io n o f IU C N c a t e g o r i e s m a d e b y
M a c e & L a n d e (1 9 9 1 ).
F o l lo w in g p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e c e n t r e v i e w
c h a n g e s a r e lik e l y t o b e m a d e w h e n t h e f in a l
( G r e e n 1 9 9 2 ) o f t h e s t a t u s o f t h e w o r l d ’s g lo
v e r s i o n o f r e v i s e d IU C N c a t e g o r i e s is a d o p t e d
b a lly t h r e a te n e d
A n s e rifo rm e s
( f a m il i e s
A n a tid a e a n d A n h im id a e ), th is p a p e r c o n
and
ta in s u p d a te d
d u c k s ( t r i b e A n a t i n i ) w h i c h f o ll o w s L iv e z e y
i n f o r m a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , r e
a p p lie d .
T axonom y
f o ll o w s
th a t
of
L iv e z e y ( 1 9 8 6 ) , o t h e r t h a n f o r t h e d a b b l i n g
v ie w s a r e in c lu d e d o f th e s ta tu s o f ta x a th a t
(1 9 9 1 ), a n d
w e r e id e n tifie d a s th r e a t e n e d o r p o te n tia lly
w a i g u e n s i s in a m o n o t y p i c g e n u s w h i c h f o l
th r e a te n e d d u rin g th e p r e p a ra tio n of a C o n
lo w s M a d g e & B u r n ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
th e
p la c e m e n t o f S a lv a d o r in a
s e r v a t i o n A s s e s s m e n t a n d M a n a g e m e n t P la n
(C A M P,
F oose
et
al.
1992)
fo r
th e
W e s t In d ia n W h is tlin g D u ck D e n d ro c y g n a
A n s e r i f o r m e s ( E l l i s - J o s e p h e t a l. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e
a rb orea
s t a t u s o f e a c h t a x o n is e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t c r i
te r i a p r o p o s e d b y M a c e & L a n d e (1 9 9 1 ).
T h e s ta tu s o f th is s p e c ie s h a s b e e n re v ie w e d
M -L V
T h e s e c rite ria a re c u rre n tly u n d e r f u rth e r re
r e c e n t l y in d e t a i l b y C o l la r e t al. ( 1 9 9 2 ) . In
v i e w ( M a c e e t al. 1 9 9 3 ) p r i o r t o a d o p t i o n b y
a d d itio n to th is in fo rm a tio n , a b o u t 3 0 0 w e re
IU C N . T h e c r i t e r i a u s e d h e r e f o ll o w t h e m o d i
o b s e r v e d o n a s m a ll c a y ( e x a c t lo c a tio n u n
f ie d M a c e - L a n d e c r i t e r i a p r e s e n t e d b y G r e e n
k n o w n ) j u s t o ff L o n g I s l a n d in t h e B a h a m a s in
( 1 9 9 2 ):
s u m m e r 1 9 9 2 ( v a n L ie f d e in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e
C R IT IC A L ( C ) : P o p u l a t i o n o f f e w e r t h a n 2 5 0
p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n e s tim a te d r e c e n tly a t
m a tu r e in d iv id u a ls .
fe w e r t h a n 1000 p a i r s ( J o n e s 1 9 9 3), w ith t h e
EN D A N G ER ED (E ): P o p u la tio n o f 2 5 0 to 2 50 0
t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n lik e l y t o b e in t h e r a n g e o f
2 5 0 0 - 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s . It i s u n d e r g o i n g a
m a tu r e in d iv id u a ls .
V ULN ERABLE
(V ):
P o p u la tio n
1 0 .0 0 0 m a t u r e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h
of
2500
to
c u rre n t or
r a p i d a n d w i d e s p r e a d d e c l i n e ( d e l H o y o e t al.
1 9 9 2 ).
p r o je c te d c a u s e s of d e c lin e O R p o p u la tio n of
1 0 .0 0 0 t o 1 0 0 .0 0 0 in c u r r e n t o r p r o j e c t e d r a p
id a n d w i d e s p r e a d d e c l i n e .
A f r ic a n W 'h it e - b a c k e d D u c k T h a l a s s o m i s
le u c o n o t u s l e u c o n o t u s
M -L S
SAFE (S): w h e n a ta x o n h a s b e e n e v a lu a te d
a g a in s t th e a b o v e c rite ria , a n d fo u n d n o t to
T h e r e a r e t w o p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h i s w id e - r a n g
q u a lify f o r a n y o f t h e c a te g o r ie s .
in g d u c k in A f r ic a . T h e w e s t e r n p o p u l a t i o n
o c c u r s in S e n e g a l, N ig e r i a , C a m e r o o n , C h a d ,
T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e a s s i g n e d in a c o n s e r v
a tiv e w a y o n th e b a s is of th e m o s t p e s s im is tic
M a li a n d C o n g o ( G iu llo u 1 9 8 7 , M u f f e t 1 9 4 8 ,
v i e w w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s o f c u r r e n t k n o w l
R o u x 1 9 7 3 , P e r e n n o u 1 9 9 1 , S e r l e e t al. 1 9 7 7 ).
e d g e . F o r e x a m p l e , if a p o p u l a t i o n is e s t i m a t
T h e s o u t h e r n / e a s t e r n p o p u l a t i o n o c c u r s in
e d a t 2 0 0 -2 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , i t i s a s s u m e d t o b e
E th i o p i a , U g a n d a , K e n y a , T a n z a n i a , Z a m b ia ,
2 0 0 . If t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r t a x o n h a s
Z im b a b w e ,
b e e n s tr o n g ly lim ite d b y a v a ila b le in fo rm a
S o u th
M a la w i,
A fr ic a ,
N a m i b ia ,
L e s o th o ,
R e p u b lic
Sudan,
of
R w anda,
ti o n , a c a t e g o r y h a s b e e n a s s i g n e d b u t w i t h a
B u r u n d i , Z a i r e , A n g o la , M o z a m b i q u e , B o t
q u e s tio n m a rk to in d ic a te t h e w id e m a rg in o f
e r r o r . T h e lis t o f th r e a t e n e d ta x a p r e s e n te d
s w a n a , S w a z il a n d a n d S o m a l i a (A .J. T r e e in
litt. 1 9 8 9 , A s h & M is k e ll 1 9 8 3 , D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 9 ,
h e r e is u n d e r c o n s t a n t r e v i e w , a n d f u r t h e r
B r i t t o n 1 9 8 0 , D .A . T u r n e r in litt. 1 9 9 1 , H u g h e s
149
W ild f o w l 4 4 ( 1 9 9 3 ): 14 9 -1 6 9
150
W ild fo w l a t R is k
& H u g h e s 1992, D o u th w a ite 1977, S c h u lte n
1 9 7 4 , W i n t e r b o t t o m 1 9 6 8 , B r o w n e t a l. 1 9 8 2 ,
R e c h e r c h e C a p e B a r r e n G o o s e C e r e o p s is
n o v a e h o lla n d ia e g r is e u s
M -L E
M il s te i n 1 9 7 5 , C l a r k 1 9 7 9 , D . A lla n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ,
S ie g f r i e d 1 9 6 9 , M a c D o n a l d 1 9 8 6 , B e r r u t i 1 9 8 3 ,
T h i s l a r g e l y s e d e n t a r y g o o s e h a s in t h e p a s t
O s b o r n e & T i g a r 1 9 9 2 , V . P a r k e r in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
b e e n r e c o r d e d f r o m 4 4 i s l a n d s in t h e R e c h e r
It p r e f e r s t o i n h a b i t p e r m a n e n t f r e s h w a t e r
c h e A r c h i p e l a g o , a n d a s b r e e d i n g o n 11 o f
la k e s w ith s u r f a c e v e g e ta tio n , u p t o 3 0 0 0 m
( B r itto n 1980).
th e m ( S to r r 1 987), a s w e ll a s fro m s o m e m a in
T h e s o u th e rn /e a s te rn
la n d p r o m o n to r ie s n e a r E s p e r a n c e , s o u th
p o p u l a t i o n is s t i ll
w e s t e r n W e s te r n A u s tr a lia ( G a r n e tt 1 99 2a).
lo c a l l y c o m m o n , f o r e x a m p l e 5 5 0 i n d i v i d u a l s
P r e v i o u s l y i t o c c u r r e d in s m a l l n u m b e r s a s
w e r e r e c o r d e d o n K u ti P o n d s in M a la w i in
f a r w e s t a s B u s s e l t o n ( B l a k e r s e t a l. 1 9 8 4 ) a n d
1 9 9 2 (B . M e d l a n d in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d in Z a m b ia ,
e a s t t o t h e N u l l a r b o r P la in ( S t o r r 1 9 8 7 ), b u t
1 3 3 b i r d s w e r e c o u n t e d a t M ie n g w e in N o
th e r e h a v e b e e n n o r e c o rd s a w a y fro m th e
v e m b e r 1 9 9 2 a n d 1 7 4 a t L u a n s h y a in N o v e m
s o u th e rn
b e r 1 9 8 5 (D .R . A s p in w a l l in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e
( B l a k e r s e t a l. 1 9 8 4 ).
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l d a m s is t h o u g h t t o
h a v e r e s u l t e d in lo c a l i n c r e a s e s o f t h i s d u c k
s te a d ily s in c e a t le a s t th e 1 9 3 0 s w ith c u r r e n t
in s e v e r a l a r e a s , s u c h
coast
fo r
m o re
th a n
30
y ea rs
T h e p o p u la tio n a p p e a r s to h a v e d e c lin e d
a s in Z a m b i a (D .R .
f lo c k s i z e s c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e
A s p in w a l l in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) , t h e T r a n s v a a l r e g i o n
re c o rd e d la s t c e n tu ry a n d e a rlie r th is c e n tu
o f S o u t h A f r ic a (W . T a r b o t o n in litt. 1 9 9 3 ),
ry
Z i m b a b w e (A .J. T r e e in litt. 1 9 8 9 , D .A . E w b a n k
1 9 9 2 a , 1 9 9 2 b ) . T h e in it ia l d e c l i n e w a s u n
in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) a n d M a la w i (B . M e d l a n d in litt.
d o u b te d ly d u e to s h o o tin g , b u t th is w a s m a d e
(F lin d e rs
1814, S e rv e n ty
1952, G a r n e tt
1 993). T h e Z im b a b w e p o p u la tio n w a s e s ti
ill e g a l in
m a t e d t o b e in t h e t h o u s a n d s in t h e 1 9 7 0 s
N o n e th e le s s , th e p o p u la tio n h a s c o n tin u e d
1937 ( S e r v e n ty & W h itte ll 1976).
(D .A . E w b a n k in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d t h e S o u t h A fri
to
c a n p o p u l a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e in t h e t h o u
( G a r n e tt 1 9 9 2 a ). B y t h e 1 9 80 s, t h e t o t a l p o p u
s a n d s (W . T a r b o t o n in litt. 1 9 9 3 ). H o w e v e r , in
la tio n w a s th o u g h t to c o n s is t o f fe w e r th a n
d e c lin e
fo r
rea so n s
as
yet
unknow n
t h e s o u t h e r n R ift V a lle y , n u m b e r s h a v e d e
1 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h t h e l a r g e s t f lo c k s b e i n g
c l i n e d s h a r p l y d u e t o t h e w i d e s p r e a d , ill e g a l
u s e o f g ill n e t s (L . B e n n u n in lit t 1 9 9 2 , D .A .
a b o u t 4 0 b i r d s o n C u ll I s l a n d ( S t o r r 1 9 8 7 ) , 3 0
o n W i c k h a m I s l a n d ( J o h n s t o n e e t al. 1 9 9 0 )
T u r n e r in li t t 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e d u c k is g e n e r a l l y
a n d 13 o n B e ll i n g e r I s l a n d ( S m i th & J o h n s t o n e
u n c o m m o n o r r a r e in a n u m b e r o f r a n g e c o u n
1 9 8 7 ) . H o w e v e r , in 1 9 9 0 -9 1 a l o c a l d r o u g h t
t r i e s , s u c h a s t h e C a p e P r o v i n c e o f S o u t h A fri
a p p a re n tly c a u s e d a s h o r ta g e of fo o d re s u lt
(R .
in g in t h e d e a t h , a p p a r e n t l y t h r o u g h s t a r v a
S i m m o n s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) , S w a z il a n d (V . P a r k e r in
tio n , o f a t le a s t 40% o f t h e p o p u la tio n . A s u b
ca
(C .W .
H eyl
in
litt.
1 993), N a m ib ia
& T ig a r
s e q u e n t s u r v e y in F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 2 r e c o r d e d
1 9 9 2 ) . T h e S w a z il a n d p o p u l a t i o n h a s b e e n
e s t i m a t e d a t t e n b r e e d i n g a d u l t s (V . P a r k e r in
2 3 2 liv e a n d 19 d e a d g e e s e f r o m 3 8 o u t o f 5 6
litt. 1 9 9 2 ) a n d t h e L e s o t h o p o p u l a t i o n a t u n
la n d ( G a r n e tt 1 9 9 2 b ). T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n
d e r 100 in d iv id u a ls ( O s b o r n e & T ig a r 199 2 ).
e s tim a te
O v e r a l l, t h e s o u t h e r n / e a s t e r n p o p u l a t i o n h a s
( G a r n e tt 1 9 9 2 a ).
litt.
1992) a n d
been
2 5 ,0 0 0
e s tim a te d
L e s o th o
to
(O sb o rn e
c o n s is t of fe w e r
th a n
i n d i v i d u a l s (IW R B in p r e p . ) , b u t s e e m s
c e r t a i n t o e x c e e d 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s . D e s p i t e
is la n d s s e a r c h e d a n d o n e s ite o n th e m a in
is
re v is e d
to
25 0 -50 0 in d iv id u a ls
A ll o f t h e i s l a n d s in t h e R e c h e r c h e A r c h i
p e la g o , w h e r e th e s p e c ie s p r e s e n tly o c c u rs ,
a r e c o n s e r v a ti o n r e s e r v e s ( G a r n e tt 1 9 9 2 b ).
lo c a l d e c r e a s e s , o v e r a l l n u m b e r s s e e m t o b e
s ta b le a n d m a y b e in c re a s in g . T h is p o p u la tio n
S w a n G o o s e A n s e r c y g n o id e s
M -L V
is k n o w n t o u n d e r g o l a r g e s e a s o n a l m o v e
m e n ts a n d n u m b e r s c a n v a r y g re a tly fro m
O n t h e b a s i s o f 1 9 9 0 -9 2 c e n s u s d a t a , t h e r e a r e
y e a r t o y e a r in c e r t a i n a r e a s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e
a n e s t i m a t e d 5 0 0 0 b r e e d i n g p a i r s in n o r t h
to ta l p o p u la tio n e s tim a te d fo r th e C a p e P ro v
e a s t C h in a a n d , o n th e b a s is o f c e n s u s d a ta
i n c e in 1 9 9 1 w a s 1 3 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , w h e r e a s in
fro m th e la te 1980s, a n e s tim a te d 1000 b r e e d
1 9 9 2 it w a s o n l y 6 0 (C .W . H a y l in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
in g p a i r s in M o n g o li a ( J. L u in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . In
T h e w e s te rn
p o p u la tio n
a p p e ars
to
be
R u s s ia , t h e r e a r e a n e s tim a te d 5 00 in d iv id u
l a r g e l y s e d e n t a r y ( T a r b o t o n e t a l. 1 9 8 7 , C .W .
a ls , in c lu d in g n o m o r e th a n
H e y l in litt. 1 9 9 3 , S e r le e t a l. 1 9 7 7 ) , a n d h a s
p a i r s ( P o y a r k o v 1 9 9 2 ). T h e s e f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e
b e e n e s tim a te d t o c o n s is t o f fe w e r t h a n 1000
a to ta l w o rld b re e d in g p o p u la tio n of a b o u t
i n d i v i d u a l s a n d d e c r e a s i n g (IW R B in p r e p . ) .
6 1 0 0 p a ir s . In J a n u a r y 1992, t h e m id -w in te r
100 b re e d in g
151
W ild fo w l a t R is k
A s ia n
W a te rfo w l
1 1 ,3 4 2 w i n t e r i n g
C ensus
(A W C ) r e c o r d e d
in d iv id u a ls
(P e re n n o u
&
s t i ll r e c o v e r i n g f r o m a m a j o r d e c l i n e , a n d s o
is t r e a t e d a s V u l n e r a b l e .
M u n d k u r 1 9 9 2), w ith t h e to ta l p o p u la tio n e s
t i m a t e d a t 5 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (IW R B in p r e p . ,
L e s s e r W h ite -fro n te d G o o s e A n s e r
J. L u in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s l a t t e r f i g u r e w o u l d s u g
e r y th r o p u s
M -L V
g e s t th a t b re e d in g p o p u la tio n n u m b e rs h a v e
b e e n u n d e re s tim a te d . In te n s e h u n tin g o n th e
A n i n t e r v i e w s u r v e y o f l o c a l p e o p l e in S w e d
w i n t e r i n g g r o u n d s is t h o u g h t t o b e c a u s i n g a
is h
v e r y r a p i d d e c l i n e in s o m e a r e a s ( J . L u p e r s ,
r e c o r d s o f t h i s g o o s e (L . v o n E s s e n in litt.
c o m m . 1 9 9 2 ).
L a p la n d
19 93 ).
in
a u tu m n
A ls o ,
no
S c a n d in a v ia n
1992 r e v e a le d
in d iv id u a ls
b re e d in g
no
of
th e
p o p u la tio n
w ere
M i d d e n d o r f s B e a n G o o s e A n s e r fa b a l i s
m id d e n d o r fi
M -L V
f o u n d o n t h e i r w i n t e r i n g g r o u n d s in R o m a n i a
T h ic k - b il le d B e a n G o o s e A n s e r fa b a t i s
seem s
M -L V
s e r r ir o s t r i s
a n d B u l g a r i a in 1 9 9 3 (IW R B in p r e p . ) . It n o w
li k e ly
S c a n d in a v ia n
th a t
th e
o rig in a l
w ild
b i r d s w ill b e c o m e e x t i n c t , if
A . f. m i d d e n d o r f i s e e m s t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
t h e y a r e n o t s o a l r e a d y (L . v o n E s s e n in litt.
19 93 ). H o w e v e r, t h e c o n t in u e d r é i n t r o d u c
m o r e t h r e a t e n e d t h a n A . f. s e r r i r o s tr is . F o llo w
t io n o f c a p tiv e - b r e d A n s e r e r y th r o p u s in to a
in g r e c e n t s u r v e y s , t h e t o t a l w i n t e r p o p u l a
f o r m e r b r e e d i n g a r e a in S w e d e n s e e m s t o
t i o n o f A . f. s e r r i r o s tr is in C h i n a i s t h o u g h t t o
h a v e e s ta b lis h e d a s m a ll b r e e d in g p o p u la tio n
e x c e e d 2 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h m a j o r c o n c e n
(20 -30 in d iv id u a ls ) o f th i s g o o s e , w ith a to ta l
t r a t i o n s o n t h e l o w e r c o u r s e o f t h e Y e ll o w
R iv e r , t h e Y a n c h e n g C o a s t , a n d D o n g ti n g
of n in e n e s tin g a tte m p ts o b s e rv e d b e tw e e n
L a k e ( J . L u in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . In S o u t h K o r e a , A . f.
b e e n s u c c e s s f u l. A n e w w in te r in g r a n g e fo r
m i d d e n d o r f i is n o w a n e x t r e m e l y r a r e w i n t e r
v i s i t o r . H o w e v e r , A . f. s e r r ir o s tr is d o e s n o t
s o m e o f t h e s e g e e s e h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in
th e s o u th e rn p a rt of T h e N e th e rla n d s n e a r
s e e m t o h a v e d e c l i n e d in t h i s c o u n t r y s i n c e
S tr i je n , a n d a s p r i n g a n d a u t u m n s t a g i n g a n d
th e 1 9 6 0s w ith w in te r p o p u la tio n s c u r r e n tly
m o u ltin g
r e a c h i n g s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s (C .M .
H u d ik s v a ll , a l o n g t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f m i d -
P o o l e in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . In J a n u a r y 1 9 9 2 , t h e A W C
S w e d e n (L . v o n E s s e n in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
re c o rd e d
1 6 ,8 6 9 w i n t e r i n g
B ean
G eese
of
1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 2 , o f w h i c h a t l e a s t f iv e h a v e
The
a re a
has
C a s p ia n
been
e s ta b lis h e d
w in te rin g
near
p o p u la tio n
has
t h e s e t w o r a c e s in E a s t A s ia ( P e r e n n o u &
b e e n e s t i m a t e d r e c e n t l y t o c o n s i s t o f 2 5 ,0 0 0 -
M u n d h u r 1992).
3 0 ,0 0 0
A n e s t i m a t e d 2 5 ,0 0 0 m o u l t i n g a n d b r e e d i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s , a l m o s t e n t i r e l y in t h e w e s t
C a s p ia n , a n d
d e c r e a s in g
(IW R B in p r e p . ) .
B e a n G e e s e o f t h e s e tw o r a c e s , w e r e p r e s e n t
T h i s is c o n s i d e r a b l y f e w e r t h a n a p r e v i o u s
in W e s t K a m c h a t k a , R u s s ia , in
G e e s e n u m b e rs o n th e K a m c h a tk a P e n in s u la
e s t i m a t e o f 1 1 0 ,0 0 0 f o r t h i s p o p u l a t i o n
( M a d s e n 1 9 9 1 ) . In J a n u a r y 1 9 9 2 , t h e A W C r e
1992. B e an
h a v e d e c l i n e d d r a m a t i c a l l y in t h e p a s t 3 0
c o r d e d 4 5 7 0 w i n t e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s in C h i n a
y e a r s . C o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n im
p l e m e n t e d in t h e P e n i n s u l a b u t t h e s e h a v e
( P e r e n n o u & M u n d k u r 1 9 92 ), a n d t h e E a st
A s ia n p o p u l a t i o n h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n e s t i m a t
r e s u l t e d in l i m i t e d s u c c e s s w i t h il l e g a l h u n t
e d a t 6 0 0 0 in d iv id u a ls a n d d e c lin in g ( R o s e &
in g a n d d i s t u r b a n c e w i t h i n p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s
S c o tt 1993).
th o u g h t to
b e c o n trib u tin g to t h e d e c lin e
( G e r a s im o v 1 992). T h e p o p u la tio n s o f t h e s e
B a r - h e a d e d G o o s e A n s e r in d i c u s
M -L S
tw o ta x a h a v e r e c e n tly b e e n e s tim a te d a t
1 0 ,0 0 0 -2 5 ,0 0 0
and
d e c lin in g
fo r
A.
f.
In J a n u a r y 1 9 9 2 , t h e A W C r e c o r d e d 2 3 ,1 1 3 in
m i d d e n d o r f i , a n d 2 5 ,0 0 0 -1 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n d d e c l i n
d iv id u a ls
in g f o r A . f. s e r r i r o s tr is ( R o s e & S c o t t 1 9 9 3 ).
M undkur
been
T u l e W h i t e - f r o n t e d G o o s e A n s e r a lb i f r o n s
M -L V
g a m b e tti
b ird s ,
of
th is
s p e c ie s
1 992). T h e
e s tim a te d
and
at
p o s s ib ly
(P e re n n o u
to ta l p o p u la tio n
a p p r o x im a te ly
in c re a s in g
&
has
5 0 ,0 0 0
(IW R B
in
p r e p ., R o s e & S c o tt 1993).
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s g o o s e c o n t i n u e s t o in
D u s k y C a n a d a G o o s e B r a n ta c a n a d e n s i s
c r e a s e f o ll o w in g s h o o t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t r o
o c c id e n ta lis
M -L V
d u c e d in 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 7 9 , w i t h t h e 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 2 w i n t e r
p o p u la tio n
in d iv id u a ls
F o llo w in g e x c e p t i o n a l l y p o o r r e p r o d u c t i v e
( O r t h m e y e r e t a l. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e p o p u l a t i o n is
e s tim a te d
at
8000
s u c c e s s b e tw e e n 1985 a n d 1989, th is ta x o n
152
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
h a s b r e d m o r e s u c c e s s f u l l y in 199Ü a n d 19 9 1 .
N e s t s u c c e s s a v e r a g e d 4 7 .8 % , a n d y o u n g p r o
IW R B e x p e d i t i o n in J a n u a r y 1 9 9 3 (IW R B in
d u c t i o n e x c e e d e d 2 0 % in b o t h y e a r s . T h e t o
tio n d e c lin e .
p r e p .) . T h e r e is n o w n o e v id e n c e o f a p o p u la
ta l p o p u la tio n o f th is g o o s e m a y h a v e e x c e e d
e d 1 7 .0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 2 w i n t e r ,
F re c k le d D u c k S tic to n e tta n a e v o s a
M -L V ?
f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e in a d e c a d e . T h i s i n c r e a s e in
r e p r o d u c t i v e s u c c e s s is t h o u g h t t o b e a r e
In 1991 t h e r e w a s a c o u n t o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
s u lt of h a b ita t c h a n g e s o n th e n e s tin g g ro u n d
1 2 .0 0 0 F r e c k l e d D u c k in a n a r e a o f Q u e e n s
in t h e C o p p e r R i v e r D e l ta , A la s k a . M u c h o f t h e
la n d w h i c h h a d n o t b e e n c e n s u s e d b e f o r e .
lo w ly i n g h a b i t a t t h a t w a s u s e d f o r n e s t i n g is
n o w in u n d a te d a n d m a n y A ln u s /S a lix th ic k
T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n m a y flu c tu a te n a tu ra lly
a n d p e r i o d i c a l l y b y a s m u c h a s 1 0 ,0 0 0 t o
e ts ( th e p r e f e r re d n e s tin g a r e a s ) h a v e b e e n
1 9 .0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (D . R o g e r s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ),
c u t o r f l o o d e d o u t . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d in t h e
p r o b a b l y d u e t o p e r i o d s o f m a j o r f l o o d i n g in
g e e s e n e s t i n g in m o r e o p e n , e l e v a t e d a r e a s
i n l a n d A u s t r a l i a ( F u ll a g a r 1 9 9 0 ). T h e d u c k ’s
w h e r e th e n e s ts a r e th o u g h t to b e le s s v u ln e r
p r e f e r r e d b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t ( L ig n u m s w a m p s )
a b l e t o p r e d a t i o n b y b r o w n b e a r U rsu s a c t o s
m a y b e u n d e r th r e a t of d e g ra d a tio n b y th e
a n d c o y o t e C a n i s la tr a n s ( C a m p b e l l 1 9 9 2 ) .
g r a z i n g o f c a t t i e in t h e d r y s e a s o n , a l t h o u g h
t h e e x t e n t o f t h i s d a m a g e a n d i ts e f f e c t o n t h e
A le u t ia n C a n a d a G o o s e B r a n t a c a n a d e n s i s
M -L V
le u c o p a r e ia
F r e c k l e d D u c k is n o t k n o w n . T h r e a t s t o t h i s
d u c k fro m o v e r-h u n tin g s e e m to h a v e b e e n
o v erc o m e
T h e r e c o v e r y p r o g r a m m e in itia te d fo r th is
cre ase d
th ro u g h
h u n tin g
c o n s e rv a tio n
bans
a w a re n e ss
and
in
am ongst
s p e c ie s c o n tin u e s to b e s u c c e s s fu l a n d th e
h u n t e r s (D . R o g e r s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . D u e t o t h e
t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n in t h e 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 2 w i n t e r p e r i
e x tre m e
o d w a s e s t i m a t e d a t 7 8 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d in
ta x o n , lo n g te r m
c r e a s i n g ( P . S p r i n g e r in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) .
c le a r.
The
re in tro d u c e d
p o p u la tio n
on
p o p u la tio n
flu c tu a tio n s
of
th is
p o p u la tio n tr e n d s a r e u n
th e
S e m id i I s l a n d s ( c u r r e n t l y 1 5 0 b i r d s ) h a s e s
S o u th A m e r ic a n C o m b D u c k S a r k id io r n is
ta b lis h e d its w in te r in g g r o u n d s o n t h e n o r th
m e la n o to s s y lv ic o la
M -L V ?
e r n O re g o n c o a s t, s e p a r a t e f ro m t h e m a in
w i n t e r i n g g r o u n d s in t h e S a c r a m e n t o a n d S a n
A t o t a l o f a t l e a s t 2 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h i s
J o a q u i n V a ll e y s o f C a li f o r n ia ( P . S p r i n g e r in
s p e c i e s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d f r o m B r a z il, w i t h
litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
5 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s s e e n o n o n e s i t e a l o n e in
A la rg e p o p u la tio n o f th is g o o s e b r e d fo r
1992 (J. N a s c im ie n to p e rs . c o m m . 1 992). T h e
m e r l y in t h e C o m m a n d e r a n d K u r i le I s l a n d s
p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n r e c e n tly e s tim a te d a t
a n d w i n t e r e d in J a p a n ( P . S p r i n g e r in litt.
1 0 0 .0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d d e c l i n i n g ( R o s e &
1 9 9 2 ) . V e r y s m a l l n u m b e r s s t i ll w i n t e r in J a
S c o t t 1 9 9 3 ) . R e c e n t l y , it h a s d e c l i n e d r a p i d l y
p a n , a n d a t t e m p t s ¿ire n o w b e i n g m a d e t o r e
in A r g e n t i n a (A . S e r r e t p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 2 ) , b u t
s to re
t h e e x t e n t a n d r a t e o f a n o v e r a l l d e c l i n e is
th is
p o p u la tio n
( M . K u r e c h i in
litt.
1992). T h e r e a r e p r o p o s a l s to u s e in d iv id u a ls
u n c le a r.
o f A n s e r fa b a l i s s e r r ir o s tr is ( a l s o a t h r e a t e n e d
t a x o n ) , n e s t i n g in s o u t h w e s t e r n K a m c h a t k a
a n d m i g r a t i n g a l o n g t h e K u r i le I s l a n d s t o J a
C r e s t e d S h e l d u c k T a d o r n a c r is ta ta
p a n , a s f o s t e r p a r e n t s f o r A le u t ia n C a n a d a
A r e c e n t s u r v e y o r g a n is e d b y t h e W a te rb ird
G eese
in
a
ré in tro d u c tio n
( G e r a s im o v 1992).
A s s o c i a t i o n ( W S G /C O A ) w a s c a r r i e d o u t in
p ro g ra m m e
M -L C
S p e c ia lis t G ro u p o f t h e C h in a O rn ith o lo g ic a l
t h e Z h a o to n g a r e a , b u t n o c o n firm a tio n o f th e
R e d - B r e a s t e d G o o s e B r a n t a r u fi c o ll is
M -L S
s p e c i e s ’s p r e s e n c e w a s f o u n d ( J. L u in litt.
1 9 9 2 ).
W i n t e r c o u n t s o f t h i s g o o s e in B u l g a r i a a n d
R o m a n i a d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 1 -9 2 w i n t e r s u g g e s t e d
B la c k -b a c k e d R a d ja h S h e ld u c k T a d o rn a
a m i n i m u m e s t i m a t e o f 6 8 ,0 0 0 g e e s e f o r t h e s e
r a d ja h r a d j a h
tw o
R e d -b a c k e d R a d ja h S h e ld u c k T a d o rn a
c o u n trie s
(O w e n
1 9 92), c o n s id e r a b l y
h i g h e r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s e s t i m a t e o f 3 5 ,0 0 0
r a d ja h r u fi te r g u m
M -L S
M -L S
g e e s e (V in o k u ro v 19 90 ). T h is w a s c o n f ir m e d
w h e n 7 5 ,0 0 0 b i r d s w e r e c o u n t e d in B u l g a r ia
( 5 9 ,0 0 0 a t S h a p l a - D u r a n k u l a l a k e s ) d u r i n g a n
B o t h r a c e s o f t h e R a d j a h S h e l d u c k T. r a d ja h
r e m a i n f a ir ly a b u n d a n t . T h e r e is r e p o r t e d t o
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
153
b e a v e r y l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f T. r a d ja h r a d ja h
b i r d o n t h e s o u t h a n d e a s t c o a s t s , w h e r e it
in P a p u a N e w G u i n e a a n d i r i a n J a v a w e ll in
o c c u r s in t h e T i e r r a d e l F u e g o N a t i o n a l P a r k
e x c e s s o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (D .A . S c o t t p e r s ,
com m .
1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s r a c e a l s o o c c u r s in t h e
(E . R a m il o in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . O n t h e C h i le a n c o a s t ,
th e g o o se h a s b e e n d e s c rib e d a s a b u n d a n t
M o l u c c a s , t h e A r u I s l a n d s a n d F e r g u s s o n Is
b u t o n t h e A r g e n t i n e c o a s t it is m u c h l e s s
la n d ( M a d g e & B u r n 1 9 8 8 ) . In A u s t r a l i a , t h e r e
c o m m o n ( W o o d s 1 975). T h e t o t a l p o p u la tio n
is a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 T. r a d ja h r u fi te r g u m
o f th is ta x o n h a s r e c e n tly b e e n e s tim a te d a t
in t h e A ll ig a to r R i v e r s R e g io n o f t h e N o r t h e r n
b e t w e e n 2 5 ,0 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d
T e r r i t o r y a l o n e ( M o r t o n e t al. 1 9 9 0 ) , w i t h a
s t a b l e ( R o s e & S c o t t 1 9 9 3 ).
to ta l p o p u la tio n p o s s ib ly s e v e r a l tim e s h ig h
e r (H . P h i l l i p s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
O il s p i l l s a r e p r e s u m a b l y t h e p r i n c i p a l
th r e a t t o b o th o f th e s e la rg e ly m a r in e ta x a .
O rin o c o G o o s e N e o c h e n ju b a tu s
R u d d v - h e a d e d G o o s e C h l o ë p h a g a r u b id i c e p s
M -L V ?
M -L S
T h i s a b e r r a n t g o o s e is t h o u g h t t o b e in d a n
g e r o f e x t i n c t i o n in P e r u w h e r e it i s p r o t e c t e d
T h e m a i n l a n d p o p u l a t i o n n o w s e e m s c l o s e to
le g a ll y a n d o c c u r s o n l y in o n e p r o t e c t e d a r e a ,
e x t i n c t i o n ( C o n a f 1 9 8 8 , A r a v a & M illie 1 9 8 8 ,
M a n u N a tio n a l P a r k ( P u lid o 19 91 ). T h e to ta l
R o ttm a n & L o p e z -C a lle ja 1 9 92), w ith a n e s ti
p o p u la tio n h a s r e c e n tly b e e n e s tim a te d a t
1 0 0 .0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ( R o s e & S c o t t 1 9 9 3 ) , b u t
m a te d 3 00 in d iv id u a ls a n d d e c lin in g (R o s e &
S c o tt 1 9 93). H o w e v e r, t h e F a lk la n d Is la n d s
t h e r e is l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n o v e r a l l p o p u l a
p o p u l a t i o n h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 in d i
tio n tre n d s .
v id u a ls a n d s t a b l e ( R o s e & S c o tt 1993), a n d s o
t h e t a x o n is r e g a r d e d a s S a fe .
F a lk la n d K e lp G o o s e C h l o ë p h a g a h y b r i d a
M -L S
m a lv in a r u m
P a t a g o n i a n K e lp G o o s e C h l o ë p h a g a h y b r id a
A b y s s i n i a n B l u e - w in g e d G o o s e C y a n o c h e n
M -L S
c y a n o p te r u s
M -L S
h y b r id a
T h e ta x o n o m ic s e p a r a tio n of th e s e ra c e s d e
T h i s g o o s e is e n d e m i c t o t h e h i g h l a n d s o f
E t h i o p i a a b o v e c .1 8 0 0 m ( B r o w n e t a l. 1 9 8 2 )
s c r i b e d b y P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 1 6 ) is v e r y t e n u o u s a n d
a n d r e m a i n s c o m m o n a n d w i d e s p r e a d . A g ri
d e s e r v e s u r g e n t r e - e v a l u a t i o n . T h e F a lk la n d
c u ltu r a l in te n s if ic a tio n , d r o u g h ts a n d h u m a n
K e lp G o o s e is a r e s i d e n t o f t h e F a lk la n d Is
e x p a n s io n
la n d s ( to U K ) w h e r e it is la rg e ly r e s t r i c t e d to
h a v e b e e n n o o b v i o u s c h a n g e s in d i s t r i b u t i o n
t h e r o c k y s h o r e s a n d s h i n g l e b e a c h e s a n d is
a n d s t a t u s (J . A s h in litt. 1 9 8 9 , B r o w n e t al.
le s s
com m on
in
in le ts
(Jo h n sg ard
19 7 8 ,
W o o d s 1 9 7 5 , R. S u m m e r s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e
are
p o s s ib le th r e a ts , b u t th e re
1 9 8 2 ) . T h e s p e c i e s is n o t t h r e a t e n e d b y h u n t
in g a s , f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , i t is n o t e a t e n
g o o s e d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e u n d e rg o n e a n y
( B r o w 'n e t al.
m a jo r
tio n s o c c u r o n th e S u lu lta p la in a r e a d u r in g
d e c lin e
in
n u m b e rs
W o o d s 1975, G la d s to n e
( W e ll e r
19 6 7 ,
M a rte ll 1968, M a r
tin s & T o m lin s o n 1990), a n d t h e t o t a l p o p u la
th e ra in s
and
1982). I m p o r t a n t c o n c e n t r a
p o s t- r a in s p e r io d , w ith 2 40
b i r d s r e c o r d e d o n t h e 10 J u l y 1 9 9 2 a n d 3 5 0 +
t i o n h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t o b e in t h e o r d e r o f
o n t h e 5 O c t o b e r 1 9 9 2 ( J. A t k i n s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
1 0 0 .0 0 0
1 9 82). T h e
T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n s e e m s c e r ta in to e x c e e d
g o o s e is n o t p e r s e c u t e d b y m a n ( R . S u m m e r s
5 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h n o e v i d e n t d e c l i n e in
in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
n u m b e r s ( J. A tk in s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
in d iv id u a ls
(S ta n d rin g
T h e P a t a g o n i a n K e lp G o o s e i n h a b i t s t h e
c o a s t s o f C h ile , A r g e n t i n a , T i e r r a d e l F u e g o
a n d a d j a c e n t a r c h i p e l a g o s . In C h il e , it b r e e d s
B lu e D u c k H y m e n o la im u s m a la c o r h y n c h o s
M -L E
o n t h e c o a s t s a n d is la n d s f ro m 4 2 °S s o u t h
w a rd s , o c c a s io n a lly w a n d e rin g a s fa r n o rth
A s a r e s u lt o f th e r e c o v e r y p la n p r e p a r e d fo r
a s 3 3 ° S ( W o o d s 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e C h i le a n F j o r d l a n d
are a
th is d u c k b y th e N ew Z e a la n d D e p a rtm e n t of
C o n s e rv a tio n , fo u r k e y a r e a s fo r th e s p e c ie s
( S c o t t & C a r b o n e l l 1 9 8 6 ) . In A r g e n t i n a , it o c
h a v e n o w b e e n p r o te c te d b y c o n s e r v a tio n
c u r s m a in ly fro m
o r d e r s (M . W il lia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
is a
p a rtic u la rly
im p o rta n t b re e d in g
S a n ta C ru z a n d
C hubut
s o u th w a rd s , b u t o c c a s io n a lly w a n d e r s a s far
n o r t h a s 3 9 ° S ( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 , W o o d s 1 9 7 5 ).
In T i e r r a d e l F u e g o , H u m p h r e y e t a l. ( 1 9 7 0 )
d e s c r ib e d th e g o o s e a s a c o m m o n b re e d in g
154
W ild fo w l a t R is k
C h i le a n T o r r e n t D u c k M e r g a n e tt a a r m a t a
H u a p i,
M -L V?
a r m a ta
P e r u v i a n T o r r e n t D u c k M e r g a n e tt a a r m a t a
M -L V
le u c o g e n is
C o l o m b i a n T o r r e n t D u c k M e r g a n e tt a a r m a t a
L ag o
P u e lo ,
L os
A le rc e s ,
P e rito
M o r e n o , a n d L o s G l a c i a r e s (E . R a m il o in litt.
1 9 9 2 ) . T h e d e n s i t y o f b i r d s f o u n d in r e c e n t
s u r v e y s in L a n i n a n d N a h u e l H u a p i N a t i o n a l
P a r k s s u g g e s t s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 in
M -L V
A rg e n tin e P a ta g o n ia a n d o v e r 20 00 fo r th e
T h e s u b s p e c ific d is tin c tio n of th is g ro u p of
T h i s s u p p o r t s a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e in
c o lo m b ia n a
w h o l e o f A r g e n t i n a ( C h r i s t i e e t al. in p r e p . ) .
d u c k s is v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c , m a i n l y d u e t o t h e
th e r e g io n o f 5 0 00 in d iv id u a ls (E liis -J o s e p h e t
c e n tr a l A n d e a n p o ly m o r p h ic p o p u la tio n n o w
al. 1 9 9 2 , M .L C h r i s t i e in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , w i t h o v e r a l l
r e c o g n is e d a s le u c o g e n is ( j o h n s g a r d
tr e n d s u n c le a r.
1 9 6 6 ),
b u t p r e v io u s ly s p lit in to t h r e e o th e r r a c e s
( tu r n e r i, g a r l e p p i , a n d
b e r l e p s c h i ). T h e
p r e s e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is s ti l l t e n t a t i v e a n d
d e se rv e s rese arch .
T h e P e r u v i a n T o r r e n t D u c k is k n o w n f r o m
E c u a d o r , P e r u , B o l iv ia , A r g e n t i n a a n d C h ile ,
in E c u a d o r , i t r a n g e s f r o m t h e c e n t r a l E c u a d o
r i a n A n d e s s o u t h ( M a d g e & B u r n 1 9 8 8 ) . In
T h e to r r e n t d u c k s in h a b it c a s c a d in g m o u n
P e r u , i t is r e s i d e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o u t h ,
t a i n s t r e a m s w i t h c o l d , c l e a r a n d w e ll - o x y g e n a t e d w a t e r ( H i lt y & B r o w n 1 9 8 6 , J o h n s g a r d
( D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 6 ) . In C h i le , i t o c c u p i e s t h e e x
n o rth
to
th e
A m azonas
P ro v in c e
(3 °S)
1978). S u b m e r g e d a n d e m e r g e n t r o c k s , p r o
tr e m e n o r th , b e in g r e s tr ic te d to A ric a P ro v
d u c i n g f a ll s , r a p i d s a n d p o o l s , s e e m t o b e o f
in c e ( 1 8 ° 3 0 ’S ) ( G o o d a l l e t a l. 1 9 5 1 ) . T h i s c o n
c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e ( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 6 6 ) . D e n s i
s t i t u t e s a b r e a k in r a n g e o f a b o u t 9 0 0 k m in
t y is lo w , a s i n g l e p a i r o c c u p y i n g a s e c t i o n o f
C h il e
s t r e a m a t l e a s t 1-3 k m in l e n g t h ( B o r r e r o 1 9 5 2 ,
a r m a ta .
M o f f e tt 1 9 7 0 , J o h n s g a r d 1 9 6 6 ) .
“...th e e x t r e m e a r id i ty o f t h e c l im a te a n d c o n
T h ro u g h o u t th e ir ra n g e th e s e d u c k s a re
th r e a te n e d b y r iv e r p o llu tio n a n d d e g r a d a
tio n th r o u g h c o n ta m in a tio n w ith h e a v y m e t
b e tw e e n
th e
Johnson
ra c e s
(19 63 )
le u c o g e n i s
e x p la in s
th is
and
by
s e q u e n t a b s e n c e o f a n y s u ita b le h a b ita t...”.
H o w e v e r, s u c h a la titu d in a l g a p d o e s n o t
seem
to
o c c u r in A r g e n t i n a , w h e r e M .
a.
a ls a n d a c id s f ro m th e m in in g in d u s tr y , d o
le u c o s t i g m a
m e s tic s e w a g e in p u t, in c r e a s in g tu r b id ity o f
T u c u m a n a r e a ( 2 6 ° S - 2 8 ° S ) , w h i c h is t h e s a m e
th e
riv e rs
(th ro u g h
been
re c o rd e d
fro m
th e
and
l a t i t u d e a s t h e s u p p o s e d n o r t h e r n lim it o f
o v e r g r a z i n g r e s u l t i n g in s o i l e r o s i o n ) , a n d
M . a. a r m a t a in C h i le ( J o h n s o n 1 9 6 3 ) . T h e r a c
e s s e e m to in h a b it o p p o s ite s id e s of th e A n
h y d ro e le c tric d a m
V a ld iv ie s o
d e fo re s ta tio n
has
c o n s tru c tio n
(E . T a b i l o
1992, S c o tt & C a rb o n e ll
d e s w h e r e t h e y s h a r e t h e s a m e l a t i t u d e , M . a.
1 9 8 6 ). T h e y a r e h u n t e d l o c a l l y a n d p o t e n t i a l
a r m a t a o n t h e w e s t a n d M . a. le u c o g e n i s o n
th e e a s t s lo p e s .
in
litt.
ly t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t r o u t t o
m a n y riv e rs (M a d g e & B u rn 1988, H u m p h re y
T h e P e r u v i a n T o r r e n t D u c k is l i s t e d in t h e
P e r u v i a n R e d D a t a B o o k a s “v u l n e r a b l e ”
e t a l. 1 9 7 0 , J . F j e l d s a in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
T h e C h i le a n T o r r e n t D u c k is a r e s i d e n t o f
a n d o c c u r s in t h e P e r u v i a n N a t i o n a l P a r k s o f
T i e r r a d e i F u e g o . In C h i le , t h e d u c k is a r e s i
R io A b is e o , H u a s c a r a n , S a li n a s , a n d A g u a d a
B l a n c a ( P u l i d o 1 9 9 1 ) . In B o liv ia , t h e d u c k h a s
th e
C h i le a n
and
A rg e n tin ia n
A n d es,
and
d e n t f r o m A t a c a m a ( 2 7 ° 2 0 ’S ), s o u t h w a r d s ,
d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m m a n y r i v e r s in t h e L a P a z
a n d is a l s o f o u n d o n t h e i s o l a t e d c o a s t a l m a s
D e p a r tm e n t d u e to in c re a s in g tu r b id ity a n d
s if o f N a h u e l b u t a ( J o h n s o n 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 7 2 , A r a y a
p o llu tio n
& M illie 1 9 8 8 , G o o d a l l e t al. 1 9 5 1 ) . In A r g e n t i
1 9 8 6 ) , a n d i s k n o w n t o b e h u n t e d in a r e a s o f
of th e
riv e r s (S c o tt & C a rb o n e ll
n a , t h e d u c k is k n o w n f r o m M e n d o z a ( 3 3 °S ) ,
c e n t r a l C h u q u i s a c a ( J . F j e l d s a in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . It
s o u th w a r d s to T ie r r a d e l F u e g o (D e la c o u r
o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e U ila -U lla N a t i o n a l R e s e r v e
1 9 5 6 ) . S m a ll n u m b e r s s ti l l o c c u r in T i e r r a d e l
a n d B i o lo g ic a l R e s e r v e ( S c o t t & C a r b o n e l l
F u e g o , a n d t h e t a x o n is p r e s e n t in T i e r r a d e l
1 9 8 6 ) . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n is li k e ly t o b e in
F u e g o N a t i o n a l P a r k (E . R a m il o in litt. 1 9 9 2 ),
w h e r e i t is p r o b a b l y a s u m m e r v i s i t o r . A n e t
t h e r a n g e o f 2 5 0 0 a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d
d e c li n i n g .
w o r k o f F o r e s t R e s e r v e s a n d N a tio n a l P a r k s
T h e C o l o m b i a n T o r r e n t D u c k is r e s t r i c t e d
in C h il e is a n i m p o r t a n t b r e e d i n g a r e a ( S c o t t
to t h e A n d e s o f V e n e z u e la , C o lo m b ia a n d E c
& C a r b o n e l l 1 9 8 6 ) . It is i n c l u d e d in t h e C h il e
u a d o r , a n d is p r o b a b ly t h e m o s t th r e a te n e d
a n R e d D a t a B o o k a s “v u l n e r a b l e ” ( C o n a f
o f t h e t o r r e n t d u c k s o w in g t o g r e a t e r h u m a n
1 9 8 8 , R o t t m a n n & L o p e z - C a l l e j a 1 9 9 2 ) . In A r
d e v e lo p m e n t
g e n t i n a , t h e r e h a v e b e e n o b s e r v a t i o n s in s ix
C a n e v a ri p ers. c o m m . 1 992) a n d its m o r e r e
N a tio n a l
s t r i c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n . In V e n e z u e l a , t h e d u c k
P ark s
s in c e
1 9 8 6 : L a n in , N a h u e l
p ressu re
in
its
ran g e
(P .
W ild fo w l a t R is k
155
r a n g e s f r o m n o r t h e r n M e r id a , s o u t h t h r o u g h
la te d o b s e r v a tio n s o f n o n - b re e d in g o r m o u lt
N e v a d o s a n d T a c h ir a P ro v in c e s , th r o u g h o u t
in g f lo c k s . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n is e s t i m a t e d
t h e C o l o m b i a n A n d e s ( G o m e z - D a l lm e ie r &
a t 1 0 0 0 t o 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d s t a b l e ( R o s e
C r in g a n 1 9 8 9 , P h e l p s & P h e l p s 1 9 5 8 ) , a n d i n t o
& S c o t t 1 9 9 3 , W . C o n w a y in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
n o r t h e r n E c u a d o r , t o C h i m b o r a z o ( 1 “5 5 ’S )
B o t h t h e F a lk la n d I s l a n d s a n d W h i t e - h e a d
a n d R io P a s t a z a ( G o m e z - D a l lm e ie r & C r in g a n
e d S te a m e r D u c k s h a v e v e r y s m a ll ra n g e s a n d
19 8 9 , D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 6 ) . In V e n e z u e l a , G o m e z -
it s e e m s t h a t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f n e s t i n g s i t e s
D a ll m e i e r & C r in g a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t
w i t h i n t h e s e a r e a s is a l s o v e r y l i m it e d . O il-
1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s o c c u r , a n e s t i m a t e d 10-
ta n k e r s f re q u e n tly p a s s a lo n g th e c o a s ts , a n d
20% o f t h e p o p u la tio n , in d ic a tin g a m in im u m
s o o il s p i l l s a r e a m a j o r p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t to
to ta l p o p u la tio n o f 5 0 00 in d iv id u a ls . H o w ev
b o t h s p e c i e s ( P . H u m p h r e y in litt. 1 9 9 3 )
e r, n o d a ta a r e p r e s e n te d to ju s tify th e s e e s ti
m a t e s . T h e r e is a d e c l i n e in n u m b e r s in V e n e
It is n o w a p p a r e n t t h a t s e v e r a l p o p u l a t i o n s
o f F ly in g S t e a m e r D u c k ( T. p a t a c h o n i c u s ) m a y
z u e la , t h o u g h t t o b e c a u s e d b y p o l l u t i o n a n d
rep rese n t
c o m p e titio n fo r fo o d w ith in tr o d u c e d in s e c
a l l o s p e c i e s . b u t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d
as
m any
as
th re e
or
fo u r
( G o m e z - D a l lm e ie r & C r in g a n
( P . H u m p h r e y in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . If t h i s is s o , s o m e
1 9 8 9 ). In C o l o m b ia , m a n y p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e
of th e s e m a y p ro v e w o rth y o f th re a te n e d s ta
d u c k h a v e b e e n e lim in a te d th r o u g h d e f o r e s t
tu s .
tiv o ro u s
f is h
a t i o n a n d r e s u l t i n g s i l t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h it s t i ll
o c c u r s w i t h i n P u r a c e N a t i o n a l P a r k ( H il ty &
S a l v a d o r i ’s D u c k S a l v a d o r i n a w a i g u e n s i s
B r o w n 1 9 8 6 ).
M -L V ?
F a lk la n d I s l a n d s S t e a m e r D u c k T a c h y e r e s
M -L S
b r a c h y p te r u s
W h ite -h e a d e d S te a m e r D u ck T a c h y e re s
are a s
M -L E?
le u c o c e p h a la
T h i s d u c k is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e m o u n t a i n
of n o rth e a s te rn , c e n tra l a n d
s o u th
e a s t e r n N e w G u in e a , u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 5 0 0 4 0 00 m , a n d c o m m o n ly a r o u n d 3 70 0 m (K e ar
T h e F a lk la n d I s l a n d s S t e a m e r D u c k is e n d e m
1975, R a n d 1942). T h e s p e c ie s m a y a ls o o c c u r
ic t o t h e F a lk la n d I s l a n d s . T h e d u c k is p r i m a r i
o n W a ig e o I s l a n d w h e r e t h e t y p e s p e c i m e n
ly
w a s s a id to h a v e b e e n c o lle c te d , a lth o u g h th e
a
m a rin e
s p e c ie s
( W e ll e r
1 9 6 7 ),
and
P e ttin g ill (1 9 6 5 ) fo u n d t h a t e a c h p a ir o c c u
m o u n t a i n s o f V o g e lk o p a r e m o r e li k e ly t o b e
p i e d a b o u t 3 0 0 m o f s h o r e a r o u n d K i d n e y Is
t h e l o c a l i t y o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n ( M a y r 1 9 4 1 ) . It
la n d . T h e s p e c i e s s t i l l s e e m s t o b e v e r y w i d e
h a s b e e n b e e n r e c o r d e d o n r u s h in g m o u n ta in
s p r e a d a n d c o m m o n a r o u n d th e is la n d s
( J o h n s g a r d 1978, W o o d s 1975, P e ttin g ill 1965,
s tr e a m s , s lu g g is h m u d d y s tr e a m s a n d a lp in e
W e ll e r
1967,
W o lse y
1990,
L iv e z e y
&
la k e s . H o w e v e r , b r e e d i n g h a s o n l y e v e r b e e n
re c o rd e d
on
ru s h in g
m o u n ta in
s tre a m s ,
H u m p h r e y 1992). L a rg e n u m b e r s o f e g g s a r e
w h e r e te r r ito r y le n g th s e e m s to v a r y fro m
c o l l e c t e d f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n b u t t h i s is
1 6 0 - 1 5 0 0 m ( B e ll 1 9 6 9 , K e a r 1 9 7 5 ) .
n o t th o u g h t to h a v e a s ig n ific a n t e ffe c t o n th e
T r o u t a n d o t h e r i n s e c t i v o r o u s f is h h a v e
s p e c i e s ’s n u m b e r s ( W o l s e y 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e t o t a l
b e e n in tr o d u c e d to v a r io u s r iv e r s y s te m s
p o p u l a t i o n h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t o b e in t h e
w h ic h
o r d e r o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ( S t a n d r i n g 1 9 8 2 ) ,
H u n tin g w ith g u n s m a y in c re a s in g ly p o s e a
a n d is a p p a r e n t l y s t a b l e .
th r e a t, a n d
The
W h ite -h e a d e d
S te a m e r D u ck
is r e
s tr ic te d t o t h e C h u b u t c o a s t o f A rg e n tin a ,
fro m
th e
n o rth
end
o f V a ld e z
m ay
affec t
th e
s p e c ie s
a d v e rs e ly .
lo c a l e x t i n c t i o n s h a v e a l r e a d y
b e e n c a u s e d . A ls o , h u m a n a c t i v i t y in t h e w a
te r s h e d s m a y in c re a s in g ly p o s e a th r e a t
P e n in s u la
(K e a r 1 975), p a r ti c u la r l y t h r o u g h t h e c u r r e n t
( 4 2 ° 1 0 ’S ) s o u t h t o t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t r e g i o n s
r a p i d d e f o r e s t a t i o n in I r i a n J a y a . H o w e v e r ,
o f t h e G o lf o S a n J o r g e ( 4 5 ° 1 5 ’S ) ( L i v e z e y &
H u m p h r e y 1 992). T h e s p e c ie s in h a b its t h e
and
ro c k y s h o r e s o f th e m a in la n d a n d o ff-s h o re
O w e n pers.
i s l a n d s b u t is t h o u g h t t o n e s t m a i n l y o n s u i t a
c o m m . 1 9 9 3 ) . T h i s s p e c i e s h a s b e e n f u lly p r o
b l e o f f - s h o r e i s l a n d s ( P . H u m p h r e y in
t e c te d t h r o u g h o u t P a p u a N ew G u in e a s in c e
litt.
19 92). N o c e n s u s d a t a a r e a v a ila b le , b u t w ith
la rg e a r e a s o f s u ita b le h a b i ta t r e m a in r e m o te
u n d is tu rb e d
by
com m .
hum an
1992, P .
a c tiv itie s
(A .
H u rre ll p ers,
N o v e m b e r 1968 (S h a w 1969).
in i t s l i m i t e d r a n g e it is s a i d t o b e v e r y a b u n
B e e h l e r e t a l. ( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i b e t h e s p e c i e s
d a n t , s o m e t i m e s o c c u r r i n g in “ . . h u g e f l o c k s . . ”
a s “..w id e s p r e a d b u t u n c o m m o n , e s p e c ia ll y
(P .
&
a t lo w e r a ltitu d e s ..” b u t a ls o “..u n o b tr u s iv e ..”.
H u m p h r e y 1 992). H o w e v e r, t h e s e m a y b e is o
C o a t e s ( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i b e s it a s “ . . o f t e n s c a r c e
H u m p h rey
in
litt.
1992,
L iv e z e y
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
156
b u t l o c a l l y f a i r l y c o m m o n . . . " a n d s u g g e s t s it
is “ .. . la r g e ly n o c t u r n a l . . . ” . T h e s e c r e t i v e n a
W h i te - w in g e d W o o d D u c k C a ir in a s c u tu la ta
M -L E
tu r e o f th is d u c k a n d t h e s p a r s e in f o rm a tio n
a v a i l a b l e m a k e it d if f i c u lt t o e s t i m a t e t h e p o p
L o c a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d b y a j o i n t W ild
u l a t i o n s iz e . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s e e m s lik e
fo w l & W e tla n d s T r u s t/R o y a l F o r e s t D e p a r t
ly t o b e in t h e r a n g e o f 2 5 0 0 -1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u
m e n t s u r v e y t e a m in T h a i l a n d f r o m A u g u s t
a l s , a n d s t a b l e o r s lo w ly d e c li n i n g .
1 9 9 2 t o M a r c h 1 9 9 3 h a s i n c r e a s e d t h e m in i
m u m e s tim a te fo r t h e T h a i p o p u la tio n fro m
H a r t l a u b ’s D u c k P te r o n e tt o h a r t l a u b i
M -L V?
2 7 t o 112 b i r d s , i n c l u d i n g a t l e a s t 6 6 b i r d s in
fo u r
L it t le i n f o r m a t i o n
duck.
It
is
e x is ts o n th is s e c r e tiv e
w id e s p re a d ,
o c c u rrin g
a d ja c e n t
re se rv e s
in
th e
e x te n siv e
P h a n o m D o n g r a k h il l s o n t h e C a m b o d i a n b o r
in
d e r . T h i s h il l r a n g e s u p p o r t s t h e l a r g e s t p o p
C a m e ro o n , Z a ire , U g a n d a , S u d a n , S ie r ra L e o
u l a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d a n y w h e r e in t h e w o r l d , a l
n e , G u i n e a , L ib e r i a , I v o r y C o a s t , G h a n a , T o g o .
t h o u g h i n t e n s e p o a c h i n g s e e m s t o b e lim it in g
B e n in , G a b o n , N ig e r ia , A f r i c a n C e n t r a l R e p u b
t h e p o p u la tio n d e n s ity h e r e . F ro m S e p te m b e r
lic , A n g o la , E q u a t o r i a l G u i n e a a n d C o n g o (D .
to N o v e m b e r 1992 a jo in t B ris to l U n iv e rs ity /
T u r n e r in
1988,
W il d f o w l & W e t l a n d s T r u s t / A s i a n W e t l a n d
B r o w n e t al. 1 9 8 2 , S e r le e t a l. 1 9 7 7 , P e r e n n o u
B u r e a u s u r v e y in S u m a t r a m a d e 100 s i g h t i n g s
1 9 9 2 , S c h e p e r s & M a r t e i j n in p r e p ) .
T h i s t a x o n h a s , in t h e p a s t , b e e n s p l i t i n t o
o f a t l e a s t 2 0 d i f f e r e n t b i r d s in f i v e s i t e s ( f o u r
n e w 7) in R i a u a n d J a m b i P r o v i n c e s . A n o t h e r
tw o s u b s p e c ie s . N e u m a n n (1 9 0 8 ) re c o g n is e d
p o p u l a t i o n w a s d i s c o v e r e d in A c e h p r o v i n c e
P. h. a l b i f r o n s , f r o m s p e c i m e n s o b t a i n e d in
in S u m a t r a i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 2 , a n d t h e c o a s t a l
litt.
1991, M a d g e & B u rn
t h e v i c i n i t y o f i r u m u o r K ilo in Z a i r e , b y t h e
p la in s o f A c e h a n d N o rth S u m a tr a o n th e
m o r e e x te n s iv e w h ite fro n ta l p a tc h e s o n th e
h e a d . T h e r a c e w a s s a i d t o b e r e s t r i c t e d to
S u m a tr a n w e s t c o a s t m a y b e o f g r e a t im p o r
t a n c e (D .A H o l m e s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
t h e I tu r i a n d A r u w im i V a ll e y s , a n d t h e C o n g o
R i v e r n e a r C o q u i l h e t v i l l e in Z a i r e ( C h a p i n
1 9 32). H o w e v e r, t h e v a lid ity o f th i s r a c e h a s
b e e n l a r g e l y d i s c r e d i t e d ( C h a p i n 1 9 3 2 ) a n d it
is n o w b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e is m e r e l y a t e n d e n
cy
to w a rd s
p a rtia l
a lb in is m
in
c e rta in
p o p u la tio n s (M a d g e & B u rn 1988). T h is n e e d s
v e rific a tio n .
T h e d u c k is t h o u g h t t o b e l a r g e l y s e d e n
ta ry ,
b e in g
re c o rd e d
in
p a irs
and
s m a ll
g r o u p s , a n d i n h a b i t s s t r e a m s , p o n d s a n d r iv
e r s in r a i n - a n d g a l l e r y f o r e s t s a n d w e ll - w o o d
e d s a v a n n a s ( S e r l e e t a l. 1 9 7 7 , M a d g e & B u r n
1 9 8 8 , B r o w n e t a l. 1 9 8 2 ) . It s e e m s t o b e m o s t
n u m e r o u s in C a m e r o o n , G a b o n , C o n g o a n d
Z a i r e (D . T u r n e r in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , a l t h o u g h S e r le
e t al. ( 1 9 7 7 ) d e s c r i b e i t a s “. . q u i t e c o m m o n . . ”
w h e r e s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t e x i s t s . It is a n u n c o m
M a n d a r i n D u c k A i x g a le r ic u la ta
M -L S
T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n of th is d u c k h a s b e e n
e s t i m a t e d r e c e n t l y a t 7 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s , o f
w h i c h 1 5 ,0 0 0 o c c u r in C h in a , 5 0 0 0 in R u s s i a
a n d K o r e a a n d 5 0 ,0 0 0 in J a p a n (J . L u in litt.
1 9 9 2 ) . In J a p a n , t h e s p e c i e s s e e m s t o h a v e
r e c o v e r e d fro m a d e c lin e e a r lie r th is c e n tu r y
( B r a z il 1 9 9 0 ) a n d a n a l y s i s o f r e c e n t m id w i n
t e r c o u n t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s p o p u l a t i o n is
n o w s ta b le . A lth o u g h th e p e a k w in te r c o u n t
in J a p a n is 1 6 ,1 6 3 , m a n y b i r d s o c c u r o n s m a ll
fo r e s t w e tla n d s a n d a r e o v e r lo o k e d d u rin g
c e n s u s e s . H e n c e th e to ta l J a p a n e s e p o p u la
t i o n is m o r e l ik e ly t o b e in t h e r e g i o n o f 5 0 ,0 0 0
(C .D . S a v a g e p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 3 ).
m o n b r e e d i n g r e s i d e n t in L i b e r i a a n d S u d a n ,
a n d a w i d e s p r e a d b u t s c a r c e r e s i d e n t in S ie r
A u s t r a l i a n C o t t o n P y g m y G o o s e N e tt a p u s
r a L e o n e ( d e l H o y o e t a l.
c o r o m a n d e lia n u s a lb ip e n n is
1992). N u m b e r s
M -L E ?
s e e m c e r ta in to b e d e c lin in g b e c a u s e o f d e fo r
e s t a t i o n in p a r t s o f i t s r a n g e , b u t t h e e x t e n t
T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n e s tim a te o f 1500 in d iv id
a n d r a te of a n y d e c lin e a r e u n c le a r. T h e to ta l
u a l s in t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s ( G r e e n 1 9 9 2 ) s e e m s
p o p u l a t i o n s e e m s lik e l y t o b e in t h e r a n g e o f
c e rta in to h a v e b e e n e x c e e d e d , a s r e c e n t c o n
1 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s .
c e n tr a tio n s h a v e b e e n s e e n of a t le a s t 300
b ir d s a t R o s s R iv e r D am n e a r T o w n s v ille a n d
350 a t L ak e P o w la th a n g a n e a r C h a rte rs T ow
e r s . I t is a l s o
R o c k h a m p to n
c o n s id e re d
and
“c o m m o n ” n e a r
B u n d a b e rg
(G a rn e tt
1 9 9 2 a ) . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n m a y s ti l l b e f e w
e r t h a n 2 5 0 0 in d iv id u a ls .
W ild fo w l a t R is k
157
L. B e n n u n in litt. 1 9 9 2 , B r i t t o n 1 9 8 0 , M a d g e &
B ro n z e -w in g e d D u ck S p e c u la n a s ( A n a s )
M -L S
B u r n 1 9 8 8 , V i n c e n t 1 9 8 4 , D .A . A lla n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ,
T h i s d u c k is a p a r t i a l m i g r a n t , o c c u r r i n g in
A . s. l e u c o s t ig m a is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s o c
C h ile , A r g e n t i n a , T i e r r a d e l F u e g o a n d a d j a
c u r r i n g in t h o s e c o u n t r i e s t o t h e n o r t h o f
c e n t a r c h i p e l a g o s . I n T i e r r a d e l F u e g o , it h a s
M o z a m b i q u e a n d Z a m b i a ( i n c l u d i n g A n g o la ) ,
n e v e r b e e n re c o rd e d s o u th w a rd s of th e B ea
b u t th e g e o g r a p h ic a l is o la tio n o f th e tw o r a c e s
g le C h a n n e l ( H u m p h r e y e t a l. 1 9 7 0 ) . In C h ile ,
is u n s u r e a n d t h e y p r o b a b l y i n t e r g r a d e in t h e
s p e c u la r is
B e e s le y 1976, M c L a c h la n & L iv e r s id g e 1965).
35°S s o u t h
c e n t r e o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n ( j o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ).
w a r d s ( J o h n s g a r d 1978), a n d h a s b e e n k n o w n
t o m o v e a s f a r n o r t h a s V a l p a r a i s o ( 3 3 ° 1 0 ’S)
A n i s o l a t e d p o p u l a t i o n o f A . s. le u c o s t ig m a ,
w h i c h w a s r e c o g n i s e d f o r m e r l y a s A . s.
in w i n t e r ( D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 6 ) . In A r g e n t i n a , it o c
m a c l a t c h y i ( s e e L o u e t t e 1 9 8 1 a n d L iv e z e y 1991
cu rs
f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t a x o n o m i c s t a t u s ) , o c c u r s in
it b r e e d s
fro m
fro m
a p p ro x im a te ly
N euquen
(3 9 °S )
s o u th w a rd s
( S c h a u e n s e e 1 971), b u t h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d a s
C a m e r o o n a n d G a b o n ( L o u e tte 1981).
f a r n o r t h a s M e n d o z a ( 3 3 ° S ) a n d B u e n o s A ir e s
B o t h r a c e s i n h a b i t s t r e a m s a n d r i v e r s in
( 3 5 ° S ) in t h e w i n t e r ( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 , M a d g e
w e l l - w o o d e d , h i ll y c o u n t r y , u p t o 4 0 0 0 m , b u t
& B u r n 1 9 8 8 ).
t h e y a r e a ls o k n o w n lo c a lly t o in h a b it m o r e
T h is
s p e c ie s
fo re s te d
riv e rs
seem s
to
p refer
h e a v ily
o p e n c o u n t r y ( M a d g e & B u r n 1 9 8 8 , S ie g f r i e d
s w if t
1 968) a n d n a tu r a l la k e s a n d m a r s h e s (S e rle e t
f l o w in g ( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ) , b u t is o f t e n r e c o r d
al. 1 9 7 7 ) . T e r r i t o r y s i z e v a r i e s b e t w e e n 2 0 0 m
ed
w h ic h
are
re la tiv e ly
c o u n try
- 1 0 0 0 m o f r i v e r ( B r o w n e t al. 1 9 8 2 , O s b o r n e &
( S c h a u e n s e e 1 971) a n d a ls o o n la g o o n s a n d
T ig a r 1 9 90). T h e y h a v e a ls o b e e n f r e q u e n tly
la k e s ( B e r n a t h 1 9 6 5 , A . J o h n s o n p e r s . c o m m .
1 9 9 2 ) . It is v e r y s p a r s e l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h
r e c o r d e d in p a i r s a n d s m a l l g r o u p s o n a r t i f i
on
riv e r s
in
m o re
open
cia l im p o u n d m e n ts , w h ic h m a y b e s e a s o n a lly
(A .
im p o r ta n t d u r in g th e d r y s e a s o n w h e n m a n y
J o h n s o n p ers. c o m m . 1 992). H o w e v e r, m u c h
o f t h e r i v e r s d r y u p (A .J. T r e e in litt. 1 9 8 9 ).
o f its h a b i ta t is v e r y r e m o te , p a r tic u la r ly
B re e d in g
a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n A n d e s a n d , i n C h i le , i t is
B l a n t y r e d a m s in M a la w i ( B e n s o n & B e n s o n
p a irs
h o ld in g
e x te n s iv e
te rrito rie s
has
been
re c o rd e d
w e ll p r o t e c t e d w i t h i n N a t i o n a l P a r k s a n d F o r
1977)
e s t R e s e r v e s (A . J o h n s o n p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 2 , A.
A s p in w a l l in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
a n d M o n z u m a D am
r e g u la rly
at
i n Z a m b i a (D .R .
S e r r e t p er s. c o m m . 1992, S c o tt & C a rb o n e ll
T h e m a j o r t h r e a t s t o t h e s p e c i e s in S o u t h
1 9 8 6 ) . I n A r g e n t i n a , it h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d in
f iv e N a t i o n a l P a r k s s i n c e 1 9 8 2 : L a n in , N a h u e l
A f r ic a c o m e f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n o f r i v e r s b y
d a m m in g a n d w a te r e x tra c tio n , e ith e r d ir e c tly
H u a p i,
P e rito
M o ren o ,
L os
G la c ia re s
and
fo r
irrig a te d
c ro p
fa rm in g
in d ire c tly
th ro u g h
a l s o o c c u r s in C o p a h u e P r o v i n c i a l R e s e r v e
g r a s s l a n d s (D . A lla n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e
f r e q u e n t r e c o r d s fro m a rtific ia l im p o u n d
(M .l. C h r i s t i e in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . R e c e n t s u r v e y s in
c o m m e rc ia l
or
T i e r r a d e l F u e g o (E . R a m il o in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d
a ffo re s ta tio n
of
L a n in a n d N a h u e l H u a p i N a t i o n a l P a r k s a n d
m e n ts su g g e s t th a t th is d u c k c a n a d a p t to
th e s u r ro u n d in g a r e a fo u n d a p o p u la tio n of
t h e s e n e w h a b i t a t s (D .A . A lla n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d
a b o u t 700, s u g g e s tin g a to ta l p o p u la tio n of
m a y b e i n c r e a s i n g lo c a l l y in s o u t h e r n A f r ic a a s
3 00 0-3 5 0 0 fo r t h e
w h o le
o f A rg e n tin e
P a t a g o n i a ( C h r i s t i e e t a l. in p r e p . ) . T h e o n l y
a r e s u l t (D .A . E w b a n k in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . C h e m ic a l
a v a i l a b l e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n e s t i m a t e is 1 0 ,0 0 0 -
s ig n ific a n t t h r e a t , b u t fe w d a t a e x is t o n th e
1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,
a n d s t a b l e ( R o s e & S c o t t 1 9 9 3 ).
M -L S
t h i s m a y a l s o b e t h e c a s e in s o m e o t h e r r a n g e
c o u n trie s .
A b y s s i n i a n B la c k D u c k A n a s s p a r s a
l e u c o s t ig m a
i m p a c t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s (D . A lla n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
D e f o r e s t a t i o n is k n o w n t o b e a m a j o r t h r e a t t o
t h e d u c k in K e n y a (L . B e n n u n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) a n d
S o u t h A f r ic a n B la c k D u c k A n a s s p a r s a
sp a rsa
c o n ta m in a tio n a n d s ilta tio n of riv e rs m a y b e a
M -L S
T h e s o u t h e r n r a c e is t h o u g h t t o b e c o m
m o n e r th a n
T h e s e tw o ta x a o c c u r a c r o s s a w id e e x p a n s e of
th e
n o rth e rn
fo rm
(D e la c o u r
A f r ic a , i n c l u d i n g E t h i o p i a , S u d a n , C a m e r - o o n ,
1 9 5 6 ) , a n d is s ti l l r e l a t i v e l y p l e n t i f u l in s o u t h
e r n A f r ic a ( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ) . In t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h e
K e n y a , U g a n d a , N ig e r ia , Z a i r e , T a n z a n i a , A n
p o p u l a t i o n o f A . s. s p a r s a o n a r t i f i c i a l im
g o la , Z a m b ia , M a la w i, M o z a m b i q u e , S w a z i
p o u n d m e n t s in Z i m b a b w e w a s e s t i m a t e d t o
la n d , Z i m b a b w e , L e s o t h o , B o t s w a n a , N a m i b ia
b e in t h e t h o u s a n d s b u t t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n
a n d S o u t h A f r ic a , w h e r e t h e y a r e t h i n l y d i s
in c lu d in g th o s e o n riv e r s w a s n o t th o u g h t to
t r i b u t e d ( U r b a n & B r o w n 1 9 7 1 , M o r e a u 19 6 6 ,
e x c e e d 1 0 ,0 0 0 (D .A . E w b a n k in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . It is
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
158
c o n s id e r e d to b e a n u n c o m m o n b re e d in g r e s
l e y s o f N e w M e x ic o a n d a d j a c e n t A r i z o n a a n d
i d e n t in L e s o t h o , w i t h a n e s t i m a t e d p o p u l a
w e s t T e x a s , s o u th lo c a lly th r o u g h t h e c e n tr a l
t i o n o f 1 0 0 0 - 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s (D . A lla n in litt.
u p la n d s
1 9 9 2 , O s b o r n e & T i g a r 1 9 9 2 ) . S w a z il a n d h a s a n
p o p u l a t i o n s u s e d t o m o v e s o u t h t o w i n t e r in
of
M e x ic o
to
P u e b la .
e s tim a te d p o p u la tio n of 500 b re e d in g a d u lts
c e n t r a l M e x ic o , w h i l e
(V . P a r k e r in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d i t is s c a r c e in A n
s o u t h e r n U S A in w i n t e r ( M a d g e & B u r n 1 9 8 8 ) .
g o l a a n d N a m i b i a ( d e l H o y o e t a l. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e
to ta l p o p u la tio n s e e m s c e rta in to e x c e e d
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f 5 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e U S A
h a s in t h e p a s t b e e n r e p o r t e d a s e x t i n c t d u e
2 0 ,0 0 0
t o h y b r i d i s a t i o n w i t h t h e f e r a l M a l l a r d ( G r ie g
in d iv id u a ls .
In E t h i o p i a , A . s. l e u c o s t ig m a is s a i d t o
b e “...f r e q u e n t t o
c o m m o n ...” o n
h ig h la n d
1 9 80), a lth o u g h
o th e rs
N o rth e rn
re m a in e d
th e ta x o n o m ic
in
d is tin c tio n
b e t w e e n A . d i a z i a n d A . fu lv ig u la is s t i ll u n
s t r e a m s ( U r b a n & B r o w n 1 9 7 1 ) , a n d in 1 9 8 7
c le a r
w a s r e p o r t e d t o b e a f a ir ly c o m m o n r e s i d e n t
1992). In 1986, t h e to ta l p o p u la tio n o f A d ia z i
in S u d a n ( d e l H o y o e t al. 1 9 9 2 ) . L o u e t t e ( 1 9 8 1 )
w a s e s t i m a t e d a t 5 5 ,5 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ( S c o t t &
d e s c r i b e d it a s a r a r e r e s i d e n t in G a b o n a n d
C a r b o n e l l 1 9 8 6 ), w h i c h is p r e s u m a b l y d e c l i n
C a m e r o o n . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n is c e r t a i n t o
in g d u e t o h y b r i d i s a t i o n w i t h M a ll a r d s .
(G re e n
1992, C. H a y e s p ers.
com m .
c o n s is t o f o v e r 2 5 0 0 in d iv id u a ls .
T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f a n y w i d e s p r e a d
H a w a i ia n D u c k A n a s w y v i l l i a n a
M -L E
d e c lin e o f e i th e r ta x a , o n ly lo c a lis e d in c r e a s
es an d d ecreases.
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s d u c k is n o w t h o u g h t t o
b e s ta b le , w ith a n e s tim a te d 2 5 00 in d iv id u a ls ,
A m e r i c a n B la c k D u c k A n a s r u b r i p e s
M -L S
i n c l u d i n g 2 0 0 0 o n K a u a i, 3 0 0 o n O a h u , a n d 2 0 0
o v e r e a s te rn
w i t h f e r a l M a l l a r d is n o t a s w i d e s p r e a d a s r e
o n H a w a ii ( E n g il is & P r a t t 1 9 9 3 ) . H y b r i d i s a t i o n
A w id e s p re a d
d u c k , ra n g in g
N o r th A m e ric a . It b r e e d s f ro m M a n ito b a e a s t
p o r t e d p r e v i o u s l y ( G r if fin & B r o w n e 1 9 9 0 ) , a s
t o L a b r a d o r a n d N e w fo u n d la n d , s o u th o v e r
t h e tw o s p e c ie s a r e la rg e ly n a tu r a lly is o la te d ,
t h e G re a t L a k e s r e g io n a n d a lo n g t h e A tla n tic
w ith
c o a s t to N o rth C a ro lin a . N o r th e r n p o p u la
w e tla n d s , s u c h a s h o te l p o n d s , a n d t h e H a w a i
m o s t f e r a l M a ll a r d
in h a b itin g
u rb a n
tio n s m o v e s o u th to w in te r o v e r th e e a s te r n
ia n D u c k p r e f e r r i n g t o b r e e d o n r e m o t e s t o c k
s e a b o a r d o f U S A s o u t h t o F l o r i d a a n d t h e G u lf
p o n d s , m o n ta n e b o g s a n d m o u n ta in riv e rs .
c o a s t, w ith s m a ll n u m b e r s in to T e x a s (M a d g e
T h e H a w a i ia n D e p a r t m e n t o f F o r e s t r y a n d
& B u r n 1 9 8 8 ).
W i ld lif e (D O F A W ) h a s r e c e n t l y i n c r e a s e d i t s
T h i s d u c k a n d t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d M a ll a r d
A n a s p . p la ty r h y n c h o s h a v e
com e
in to
in
c r e a s in g c o n t a c t th is c e n tu r y a f te r la n d u s e
c h a n g e s b y m a n , w h ic h h a v e fa c ilita te d c o lo
n iz a tio n b y M a lla rd s o f e x te n s iv e a r e a s o f th e
e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l a n d e r a d i c a t e f e r a l M a ll a r d
a n d h y b r i d s f r o m a l l t h e i s l a n d s ( E n g il is &
P r a tt 1993).
P h ilip p in e D u c k A n a s lu z o n ic a
M -L V ?
e a s te r n U SA t h a t w e r e fo rm e r ly o c c u p ie d b y
M a ll a r d b y g a m e k e e p e r s h a s a l s o p l a y e d a
A s u rv e y of h u n tin g p r e s s u r e o n w a te rb ird s
in L u z o n , c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e A s ia n W e t l a n d
m a j o r r o l e in t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e M a ll a r d .
B u re a u P h ilip p in e s F o u n d a tio n , fo u n d th a t
N u m b e r s o f B la c k D u c k s a r e d e c lin in g r a p id ly
h u n tin g w a s la rg e ly u n c h e c k e d a n d u n r e g u
B la c k D u c k s . T h e p r o p a g a t i o n a n d r e l e a s e o f
d u e to h a b ita t lo s s a n d g ro w in g h y b r id is a tio n
l a t e d in t h e a r e a s v i s i t e d ( C a g a y a n , N u e v a
w ith a n d p o s s ib ly c o m p e titiv e e x c lu s io n b y
t h e m o r e n u m e r o u s M a ll a r d s . I t h a s b e e n s u g
V iz c a y a , P a m p a n g a a n d L a g u n a P r o v i n c e s ) .
g e s t e d t h a t t h e M a l l a r d w ill e v e n t u a l l y c a u s e
tio n , a n d A n a s lu z o n ic a w a s fo u n d to b e a n
th e
im p o r ta n t q u a r r y s p e c ie s . H u n tin g p r e s s u r e
e x tin c tio n
W e a th e rh e a d
of
th is
ta x o n
(B ro d sk y
&
H u n t i n g is m a i n l y f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , n o t r e c r e a
1 9 8 4 , D a v is o n A n k n e y e t al.
is g r e a t e s t f r o m A u g u s t - O c t o b e r a n d J a n u a r y -
1 9 8 7 , H e p p e t al. 1 9 8 8 ) . B l a c k D u c k n u m b e r s
M a rc h , w h e n th o u s a n d s o f P h ilip p in e D u ck
have
a r e t a k e n e v e r y w e e k a n d m a i n l y s o l d in t h e
re c e n tly
been
e s tim a te d
at
2 7 7 ,8 0 0
( R o s e & S c o tt 1 993).
n u m e ro u s a v a ila b le m a rk e ts . W e a k e n fo rc e
m e n t o f c o n s e r v a tio n la w s a n d la c k o f a lte r n a
M e x ic a n D u c k A n a s d i a z i
M -L V ?
tiv e s o u r c e s o f in c o m e fo r t h e lo c a l p e o p le
h in d e r
e ffo rts
to
im p r o v e
th e
s itu a tio n
T h i s d u c k ’s r a n g e t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e d t h e
(A lo n z o -P a s ic o la n
e x tr e m e s o u t h e r n U SA a n d c e n tr a l M e x ic o ,
e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e R io G r a n d e a n d P e c o s v a l
t i o n s e e m s li k e ly t o b e in t h e r a n g e o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
1990). T h e to ta l p o p u la
i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d d e c li n i n g .
W ild fo w l a t R is k
159
N e w Z e a la n d G re y D u c k A n a s s u p e r c ilio s a
i s l a n d s o f V iti L e v u a n d V a n u a L e v u , p r o b a b l y
s u p e r c ilio s a
d u e to n e s t- a n d d u c k lin g p r e d a tio n b y th e
M -L V
A u s t r a l i a n B la c k D u c k A n a s s u p e r c i l i o s a
in tro d u c e d
rog e rsi
ta t u s ( W a tl in g 1 9 8 3 ) . I t is u n c o m m o n o n S a
M -L S
m o n g o o s e H e r p e s te s
au ro p u n c -
m o a , b u t c a n b e s e e n c o m m o n ly a lo n g th e
T h e d is tin c tio n o f th e s e tw o ta x a m u s t b e
q u e s t i o n e d a s t h e r e is d o c u m e n t e d e x c h a n g e
c o a s tlin e s
of b ird s a c r o s s th e T a sm a n S ea (b a s e d o n
h a b ita t lo s s , a n d t h e r e a r e u n c o n f ir m e d r e
m o v e m e n ts o f a fe w b a n d e d b ir d s ) , w h ic h
p o r t s f ro m t h e in te r io r o f E fa te I s la n d (V a n
c o u l d q u i t e p o s s i b l y b e m o r e e x t e n s i v e (M .
u a tu ) o f th e d e a th o f “...c o n s id e ra b le n u m
W i ll ia m s
in
litt.
1 9 9 2 ) . A ls o ,
M a rc h a n t
&
of
th e
F ij i- T o n g a - S a m o a
a re a
( W a tl in g 1 9 8 3 ) . T h r e a t s i n c l u d e h u n t i n g a n d
b e r s ...” o f th is
duck
cau sed
by
b a c te ria l
p o i s o n i n g , p o s s i b l y b o t u l i s m ( B r e g u l l a 1 9 9 2 ).
H ig g in s ( 1 9 9 0 ) f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e s in s i z e o r
p lu m a g e a s d e s c r ib e d b y A m a d o n (1 9 4 3 ).
H u n t i n g is c o n t r o l l e d in V a n u a t u , w h e r e t h e
T h e p r o b l e m o f h y b r i d i s a t i o n w i t h t h e in
b i r d is s t i ll c o m m o n l o c a l l y ( B r e g u l l a 1 9 9 2 ) .
t r o d u c e d M a ll a r d is a c o n t i n u i n g m a j o r p r o b
F u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i s t a x o n is n e e d e d u r
l e m f o r t h e N e w Z e a l a n d p o p u l a t i o n . It is n o w
g e n t ly . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s e e m s li k e ly t o
b e in t h e r a n g e 1 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ,
e s tim a te d t h a t a s m a n y a s 40% o f t h e M a lla rd /
G r e y D u c k p o p u l a t i o n in N e w Z e a l a n d a r e h y
b rid s , a n d
it is li k e ly t h a t t h e
M a ll a r d
a n d d e c li n i n g .
is
o u t c o m p e t i n g t h e G r e y D u c k in t h e a g r i c u l
M e ll e r ’s D u c k A n a s m e l l e r i
M -L E
t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t (M . W il lia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
R e c e n tly , th e p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n e s tim a te d
T h e to ta l p o p u la tio n h a s r e c e n tly b e e n e s ti
a t 8 0 ,0 0 0 - 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ( R o s e & S c o t t
m a te d a t 2 00 0-5 0 0 0 in d iv id u a ls , a n d d e c lin in g
1993), in d ic a tin g a n e x p o n e n tia l d e c lin e s in c e
(R o s e & S c o tt 1993).
t h e 1981 e s t i m a t e o f 1.2 m il li o n ( s e e G r e e n
1 9 9 2 ).
B o r r e r o ’s C i n n a m o n T e a l A n a s c y a n o p t e r a
T h e A u s t r a l i a n B la c k D u c k p o p u l a t i o n c u r
re n tly g re a tly e x c e e d s
( M a r c h a n t & H ig g in s
1 0 0 ,0 0 0
in d iv id u a ls
1 9 90), b u t a s im ila r
M -L C?
borreroi
T r o p ic a l C in n a m o n T e a l A n a s c y a n o p te r a
M -L C ?
tr o p i c a
p r o c e s s o f h y b r i d i s a t i o n w i t h f e r a l M a ll a r d is
a t a n e a r l i e r s t a g e in A u s t r a l i a ( B r a i t h w a i t e &
A s w e ll a s S a b a n a d e B o g o ta (2 6 0 0 m ), s m a ll
M i ll e r 1 9 7 5 ).
n u m b e rs
o f r e s id e n t C in n a m o n T e a l h a v e
b e e n d e s c r ib e d r e c e n tly fro m th e r a n g e of
L e s s e r G re y D u c k A n a s s u p e r c ilio s a
A n a s c y a n o p t e r a b o r r e r o i a t S i b u n d o y V a l le y
M -L V ?
p e le w e n s is
( 2 2 0 0 m ) a n d L a F l o r i d a M a r s h e s ( 2 5 5 0 m ) in
C o lo m b ia
T h i s t h i r d r a c e o f A . s u p e r c il io s a , a l s o k n o w n
( H il ty
&
B ro w n
1986,
S c o tt
&
C a r b o n e l l 1 9 8 6 ).
a s t h e P e l e w I s l a n d G r e y D u c k , is a l s o p o o r l y
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f A .c . tr o p i c a h a s b e e n e s t i
d e f i n e d . I t s r a n g e is r e s t r i c t e d t o c e r t a i n i s
m a t e d r e c e n t l y a t f e w e r t h a n 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u
la n d s o f t h e s o u th w e s t P a c ific , in c lu d in g t h e
a ls, a n d d e c lin in g (R o s e & S c o tt 1993).
S o c ie ty Is la n d s (T a h iti, M o o r e a a n d M a a o ),
th e
Cook
Is la n d s
( A it u ta k i,
A ti u ,
M it ia r o ,
M a u k e , R a r o t o n g a a n d M a n g a ia ) , T o n g a , S a
E a s t I n d i a n G r e y T e a l A n a s g i b b e r if r o n s
M -L V ?
g i b b e r if r o n s
m o a , F iji, t h e T u b u a i I s l a n d s ( R a p a , T u b u a i
and
R a iv a v a e ) , N e w C a l e d o n i a , L o y a l ty I s
T h e c u r r e n t s ta tu s a n d d is tr ib u tio n of th is
l a n d s , V a n u a t u , S a n t a C r u z , S o l o m o n I s la n d s ,
ta x o n a r e u n c e rta in d u e to th e p o s s ib le c o n
th e B is m a rc k A rc h ip e la g o , P a la u , T ru k a n d
f u s io n a n d o v e r la p w ith t h e A u s tr a lia n G re y
n o r t h e r n l o w l a n d N e w G u i n e a ( P r a t t e t al.
T e a l A g ib b e r if r o n s g r a c ili s . R i p le y ( 1 9 4 2 ) d e
1 9 8 7 , M a d g e & B u r n 1 9 8 8 , M a r c h a n t & H ig g in s
s c rib e d th e m o s t n o ta b le fe a tu re of th e E a st
1 9 9 0 ) . P r a t t e t a l. ( 1 9 8 7 ) d e s c r i b e t h i s d u c k a s
I n d ia n G r e y T e a l a s b e i n g t h e e n l a r g e m e n t o f
d e c l i n i n g in s o m e p a r t s o f P o l y n e s i a , a n d a s
th e fro n ta l s in u s o n th e c ra n iu m .
b e i n g r a r e o n P a la u , T r u k a n d t h e C o o k Is
la n d s
(in c lu d in g
A it u ta k i,
A ti u ,
A n a s g. g i b b e r if r o n s is d e s c r i b e d c u r r e n t l y
M it ia r o ,
f r o m s o u t h e r n S u m a t r a , J a v a , B a li, L o m b o k ,
M a u k e , M a n g a ia , a n d p o s s ib ly e x t ir p a te d o n
S u m b a , S u m b a w a , F l o r e s ( a n d o f f s h o r e is
R a r o t o n g a ) . W a tl i n g ( 1 9 8 3 ) d e s c r i b e s it a s
la n d s ),
“..w id e s p r e a d , b u t n e v e r p a r tic u la r ly a b u n
S u la w e s i, M u n a , B u n t u n g , P e l e n g a n d S a l a y e r .
d a n t . . ” . In F iji, it h a s d e c l i n e d r a p i d l y o n t h e
In 1987 50-70 b ir d s w e r e r e c o r d e d f ro m n e w ly
K aro m p a ,
T im o r,
R o ti,
W e ta r,
W ild fo w l a t R is k
160
r e c l a i m e d t a m b a k s in P u l a u J a w a , K a l im a n
B r o w n T e a l A n a s c h l o r o ti s
M -L E
ta n , w h ic h w e r e t h e firs t r e c o r d s fo r th is s p e
c i e s in B o r n e o . I n I n d o n e s i a , A . g. g r a c ili s h a s
b e e n d e s c r i b e d f r o m M a lu k u ( M o l u c c a s ) ,
I r ia n J a y a , A m b o n , A r u a n d K a i I s l a n d s . G r e y
T e a l a ls o o c c u r o n T a n im b a r a n d O e r Is la n d s
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o u t l i n e d b y
G re e n (1 9 9 2 ) t h e r e a r e a ls o s c a tte r e d , tin y
n u m b e r s o f th is d u c k o n s e v e r a l s m a ll is la n d s
b u t it is u n c e r t a i n w h i c h s u b s p e c i e s is c o n
in t h e H a u r a k i G u lf a n d o n K a p i ti I s l a n d (M .
c e r n e d (E v e & G u ig u e 1989, A n d re w
W i ll ia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e e s t i m a t e o f t o t a l
1992,
M a r l e & V o o u s 1 9 8 8 , W h i t e & B r u c e 1 9 8 6 , D .A .
H o lm e s in litt. 1 9 9 2 , B . v a n B a le n in litt. 1992,
Y . R u s il a N o o r in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
T h e t y p i c a l h a b i t a t o f A . g. g ib b e r if r o n s a p
p e a r s to b e c o a s ta l w e tla n d s , w h ic h in c lu d e
m u d d y o ffsh o re , m a n g ro v e e d g e s , b ra c k is h
fis h -p o n d s , a n d s h a llo w f r e s h w a te r s w a m p s
a n d la k e s w h i c h m a y e x t e n d s o m e d i s t a n c e
i n l a n d . In t h e e a s t o f i t s r a n g e , t h e h a b i t a t e x
te n d s t o in la n d r ic e fie ld s a n d s h a llo w r iv e r s
in S u l a w e s i (D .A . H o lm e s in litt. 1 9 9 2 , B. v a n
p o p u la tio n s iz e h a s b e e n r e d u c e d t o 15002 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s . A n n u a l f l u c t u a t i o n s o f 20%
o f p o p u l a t i o n s i z e h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d (G .
D u m b e l l in litt. 1 9 9 2 , M . W il lia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
T h e N o rth la n d p o p u la tio n of a p p r o x im a te
ly 5 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s is d e c l i n i n g d e s p i t e c o n t i n
u o u s r e - in tr o d u c tio n s o f c a p tiv e -b r e d b ir d s
o v e r th e la s t te n y e a r s , t h e m a in t h r e a t s b e in g
h a b ita t d e s tr u c tio n a n d p r e d a to r s . A D e p a rt
m e n t o f C o n s e r v a t i o n R e c o v e r y P l a n is in
p r e p a r a t i o n (M . W i ll ia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
B a le n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e A u s t r a l i a n G r e y T e a l is
h ig h ly d is p e r s iv e fro m b r e e d in g s ite s a n d r e
A u c k la n d I s l a n d T e a l A n a s a u c k l a n d i c a
s p o n d s to c lim a tic c h a n g e s w ith m o v e m e n ts
o v e r g r e a t d i s t a n c e s ( M a r c h a n t & H ig g in s
a u c k la n d ic a
M -L E
1 9 9 0 ) . In c o n t r a s t , t h e E a s t I n d i a n G r e y T e a l
s e e m s t o b e s e d e n t a r y ( F u ll a g a r 1 9 9 2 , D .A .
T h is
H o lm e s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e
A dam s,
A u s tra lia n r a c e u n d e r ta k e s s e a s o n a l m o v e
m e n t , R o s e , O c e a n , E w in g a n d E n d e r b y . O c
m e n t s t o i s l a n d s in s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n I n
d o n e s i a , w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h e E a s t I n d ia n
c a s i o n a l l y i t a l s o o c c u r s o n F r e n c h a n d F ri
d a y I s l a n d s . F i e l d w o r k in t h e 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 2
G re y
s u m m e r h a s fo u n d th is ta x o n to b e m o re
T eal
(p a rtic u la rly
T im o r
and
N usa
duck
is
know n
M o n u m e n ta l,
fro m
th e
D u n d as,
isla n d s
of
D is a p p o in t
T e n g g e ra ). H o w ev er, th e s e s e a s o n a l m o v e
a b u n d a n t o n E w in g a n d R o s e I s l a n d s t h a n
m e n ts o f th e A u s tr a lia n r a c e a r e n o t u s u a lly
th o u g h t p re v io u s ly , w h ic h m a y a ls o b e th e
a s s o c ia te d w ith
c a s e o n A d a m s a n d D is a p p o in tm e n t Is la n d s
a n y b r e e d i n g a t t e m p t s in
t h e s e s u b - e q u a t o r i a l r e g i o n s ( F u ll a g a r 1 9 9 2 )
(M . W i ll ia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a
a n d s o i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e t w o t a x a r e m a i n
tio n
g e n e tic a lly is o la te d .
in d iv id u a ls ,
A . g. g i b b e r if r o n s is “ . . . q u i t e c o m m o n .. . ”
a r o u n d t h e c o a s t s o f S u la w e s i a n d t h e L e s s
has
re c e n tly b e e n
and
s ta b le
s u ita b le
h a b ita t
e s tim a te d
(R o se
a t 2000
&
S c o tt
1 9 9 3 ).
M o st
fo r
th e
T eal
on
e r S u n d a s . A ls o , l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n s c o n t i n u e
E n d e r b y Is la n d h a s b e e n e a te n a w a y b y fe ra l
t o b e d i s c o v e r e d in s o u t h e a s t S u m a t r a , a n d
r a b b its a n d c a ttle , b u t b o th of th e s e m a m
th e ta x o n m a y p r o v e to b e r e s id e n t o n th e
m a ls a r e ta r g e ts o f c u r r e n t e r a d ic a tio n p r o
e a s t c o a s t o f K a l i m a n t a n . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is
g r a m m e s ( M . W il lia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e D e
p a r tm e n t o f C o n s e rv a tio n
is
c u rre n tly
s t i ll c o m m o n a r o u n d t h e c o a s t s o f J a v a a n d
B a li, d e s p i t e t h e w i d e s p r e a d c o n v e r s i o n o f
d r a f tin g a m a n a g e m e n t p la n , t h e m a in a im of
m a n g ro v e s to fis h p o n d s , in d ic a tin g a c e r ta in
w h i c h is t o e r a d i c a t e f e r a l m a m m a l s in t h e
d e g re e of a d a p ta b ility to
A u c k la n d I s la n d s g r o u p a n d e v e n tu a lly re -e s -
h a b ita t c h a n g e s
(D .A . H o lm e s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . C r i t e r i a f o r d i s t i n
t a b l i s h t h i s d u c k o n A u c k l a n d I s l a n d i t s e l f (M .
g u i s h i n g t h e s e t w o t a x a in t h e f i e l d a r e r e
W il lia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
q u i r e d t o a l lo w a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
r a n g e a n d s t a t u s o f t h e t w o t a x a in I n d o n e
s i a . If t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o u t l i n e d a b o v e is a c
c u r a t e a n d t h e A u s t r a l i a n r a c e is n o m o r e
C a m p b e ll I s la n d T e a l A n a s a u c k la n d ic a
n e s io tis
M -L C
th a n a n u n c o m m o n m ig r a n t w ith in th e r a n g e
o f t h e E a s t I n d i a n G r e y T e a l, it is u n li k e ly
T h e N ew Z e a la n d D e p a rtm e n t o f C o n s e rv a
t h a t t h e l a t t e r is t h r e a t e n e d (D .A . H o lm e s in
t i o n is c u r r e n t l y d r a f t i n g a m a n a g e m e n t p l a n
f o r t h i s t a x o n (G . D u m b e l l in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e
litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n s e e m s lik e ly
to
b e in t h e
v id u a ls .
r a n g e o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 -1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in d i
p o p u l a t i o n is n o w e s t i m a t e d a t 3 0 -1 0 0 in d i
v i d u a l s (M . W i ll ia m s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) .
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
A n d e a n S p e c k le d T e a l A n a s a n d iu m a n d iu m
M -L V ?
B a ik a l T e a l A n a s fo r m o s a
161
M -L V
T h i s d u c k is n o w l i s t e d o n C IT E S A p p e n d i x II
T h e A n d e a n S p e c k l e d T e a l is a s p a r s e l y d i s
(C .M . P o o l e in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) , w h i c h s h o u l d h e l p t o
t r i b u t e d r e s i d e n t o f la k e s , p o n d s , m a r s h e s ,
c o m b a t th e e x p o r t of b ir d s fro m C h in a to H on g
a n d s u l p h u r s p r i n g s in t h e p a r a m o z o n e ( h u
K o n g a n d J a p a n . T h e C h u n a m L a k e s in S o u t h
m id g r a s s - s h r u b a s s o c ia tio n t h a t b o r d e r s th e
K o re a , w h e r e a la r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e k n o w n
u p p e r li m i t s o f t h e t e m p e r a t e f o r e s t s in t h e
w o rld p o p u la tio n w in te rs , h a s b e e n b e e n d e s
A n d e s ) of th e c e n tr a l a n d w e s te r n c o rd ille ra s
i g n a t e d a G a m e S a n c t u a r y b y t h e lo c a l c o u n t y
o f t h e A n d e s , in C o l o m b i a a n d n o r t h e r n E c u a
(A n o n . 1992). S a p k y o L ak e , lo c a te d w ith in
d o r . I t is s e l d o m s e e n b e l o w 3 5 0 0 m a n d r a n g e s
A s a n B a y o n t h e w e s t c o a s t o f c e n tr a l K o re a ,
u p t o t h e s n o w - li n e ( D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 6 , H ilt y &
h a s b e e n id e n tifie d r e c e n tly a s a n im p o r ta n t
B ro w n 1986).
n o n -b re e d in g s ite fo r th is s p e c ie s , w h e r e a n
T h is ta x o n h a s p r o b a b ly d e c lin e d d u e to
d e v e l o p m e n t p r e s s u r e s in t h e C o l o m b i a n A n
e s tim a te d
3 0 ,0 0 0 -3 5 ,0 0 0
in d iv id u a ls
w ere
p r e s e n t o n 16 F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 3 . A s i m u l t a n e o u s
d e s ( P . C a n e v a r i p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 2 ) ; a l s o , ille g a l
c o u n t a t C h u n a m R e s e rv o ir re v e a le d a n a d d i
h u n t i n g i s w i d e s p r e a d in C o l o m b i a a n d E c u a
t i o n a l 2 0 ,0 0 0 b i r d s ( P y o n g - O h 1 9 9 3 ) .
dor
(S c o tt
&
C a rb o n e ll
1 9 86).
H o w ev er,
p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h i s d u c k a r e p r e s e n t in r e
s e r v e s in C o l o m b i a ( P u r a c e N a t i o n a l P a r k a n d
L o s N e v a d o s N a tio n a l P a rk ) a n d
M a rb le d T e a l M a r m a r o n e tta a n g u stiro stris
M -L V
E cuador
and
A f u ll r e v i e w o f t h e s t a t u s a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n o f
C o to p a x i N a tio n a l P a r k ) (S c o tt & C a rb o n e ll
M a rb le d T e a l h a s b e e n c o m p le te d r e c e n tly
(C a y a n m b e -C o c a
E c o l o g ic a l
R e se rv e
1 9 8 6 ) . B e t w e e n 2 7 a n d 3 0 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 ,1 2 4
( G r e e n 1 9 9 3 ). T h e c u r r e n t w o r l d w i n t e r i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e c o u n t e d a t L a g u n a d e O tu n ,
p o p u l a t i o n p e a k s a t 3 3 ,0 0 0 - 4 0 ,0 0 0 , w i t h a t
a 1 5 0 h a la k e w i t h i n L o s N e v a d o s N a t i o n a l
l e a s t 2 5 ,0 0 0 b i r d s in I r a n , 5 0 0 0 in P a k i s t a n a n d
P ark , d u rin g w h ic h tim e b r e e d in g w a s o b
3 0 0 0 in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n ( t h e m a j o r
s e r v e d (J .E . B o t e r o in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e t o t a l p o p
i t y w i n t e r i n g in M o r o c c o ) . T h e w o r l d p o p u l a
u l a t i o n is l ik e ly t o b e u n d e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s
a n d d e c li n i n g .
tio n h a s d e c lin e d b y a t le a s t 50% th is c e n tu ry ,
w ith la rg e r d e c lin e s in d ic a te d w h e r e q u a n tita
tiv e h is to r ic a l d a t a a r e a v a ila b le . B re e d in g
p o p u l a t i o n s in S p a i n a n d t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h
M e rid a S p e c k le d T e a l A n a s a n d iu m
M -L V ?
a ltip e te n s
of I n d e p e n d e n t S ta te s h a v e d e c lin e d b y o v e r
9 0 % s i n c e 1 9 0 0 , w h i l e IW R B m i d - w i n t e r c o u n t s
T h i s d u c k is r e s i d e n t in t h e p a r a m o z o n e o f t h e
show
n o r t h e r n A n d e s , in V e n e z u e l a ( P r o v i n c e s o f
c lin e d b y o v e r 60% s in c e 1970.
th a t th e T u rk is h p o p u la tio n h a s d e
M e r i d a , T a c h i r a , a n d T r u j il lo ) a n d C o l o m b ia
D e s tru c tio n of b r e e d in g h a b ita t a n d h u n t
( e a s t e r n c o r d i l l e r a s s o u t h t o B o g o t a ) . L ik e A .
in g p r e s s u r e d u r in g t h e b r e e d in g s e a s o n a r e
a. a n d i u m i t is a h i g h a l t i t u d e s p e c i e s , i n h a b i t
th e m a in th r e a ts , a n d a r e c o n tin u in g a c r o s s
in g s m a l l l a k e s , p o n d s a n d b o g s b e t w e e n 3 2 0 0 -
t h e r a n g e . O n ly 3 7 % o f 1 4 0 s i t e s o f c u r r e n t
4000 m
H ilt y & B r o w n 1 9 8 6 ) . S c o t t & C a r b o n e l l ( 1 9 8 6 )
im p o rta n c e fo r th e s p e c ie s h a v e b e e n g ra n te d
a n y k in d o f p r o t e c t i o n s t a t u s . A l a r g e p r o p o r
r e c o r d e d b r e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h i s d u c k in
t i o n o f t h e m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n w i n t e r i n g in I r a n
t h e C h i n g a z a N a t i o n a l P a r k , C o l o m b ia , a n d t h e
is t h o u g h t t o b r e e d in t h e w e t l a n d s o f t h e lo w
S ie r ra N e v a d a N a tio n a l P a rk , V e n e z u e la .
e r T ig r is a n d E u p h r a t e s i n I r a q w h i c h a r e s e r i
A lth o u g h T o d d (1 9 7 9 ) d e s c r ib e d th is d u c k
a s “. . . a p p a r e n t l y n o t a b u n d a n t a n y w h e r e . . . ” ,
o u s ly th r e a t e n e d b y a la rg e n e w ir rig a tio n
G o m e z - D a ll m e ie r & C r in g a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) d e s c r i b e it
m a r s h e s ( P e a r c e 1 993). T h e s e w e tla n d s a r e
a s c o m m o n in L a g u n a N e g r a , M e r i d a P r o v i n c e ,
a ls o th r e a te n e d b y th e c o n s tru c tio n of n e w
and
d a m s u p s t r e a m in T u r k e y a n d S y r i a (D .A . S c o t t
in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
( G o m e z - D a l lm e ie r & C r i n g a n
e s tim a te
t h a t V e n e z u e la
h o ld s
1989,
2500-
1 7 ,5 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s w h i c h t h e y s u g g e s t c o n s t i
canal
c o n s tru c te d
to
d ra in
th e
s o u th e rn
t u t e s 2 5 -4 5 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s s u g
g e s ts a m in im u m to ta l p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t
S o u t h A m e r i c a n P o c h a r d N e tt a
5 5 0 0 in d iv id u a ls . H o w e v e r, n o d a t a a r e p r e
e r y th r o p th a lm a e r y th r o p th a lm a
s e n te d to ju s tify th e s e e s tim a te s a n d th e y
m u s t m u s t b e tr e a te d w ith s o m e s c e p tic is m .
T h i s d u c k is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in d a n g e r o f
M -L V
In C o l o m b i a t h e d u c k is c o n s i d e r e d a s c a r c e
e x t i n c t i o n in P e r u . I t o c c u r s a l o n g t h e c o a s t o f
r e s i d e n t ( H il ty & B r o w n 1 9 8 6 ) .
P e r u , w h e r e it is h u n t e d s p o r a d i c a l l y , a n d is
162
W il d fo w l a t R i s k
p r e s e n t in j u s t t w o p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , P a r a c a s
F a w e n in litt. 1 9 9 2 , F . D ia n J in in litt. 1 9 9 2 , V .G .
N a tio n a l R e s e r v e a n d t h e N a tio n a l S a n c tu a r y
V i n o g r a d o v in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
o f L a g u n a s d e M e jia ( P u l i d o 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e
D u rin g t h e b r e e d in g s e a s o n (M a rc h to N o
p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n e s tim a te d r e c e n tly a t
v e m b e r),
2 5 ,0 0 0 - 5 0 ,0 0 0 a n d
T a d z h i k i s t a n , U z b e k i s t a n , n o r t h e a s t A f g h a n i
d e c lin in g (R o s e & S c o tt
1 9 9 3 ).
its
ran g e
in c lu d e s
K ir g iz i s t a n ,
s t a n , P a k i s t a n , I n d i a ( K a s h m i r - L a d a k h ) , C h i
n a ( s o u t h a n d w e s t X iz a n g , T i b e t , n o r t h e a s t
B a e r ’s P o c h a r d A y t h y a b a e r i
M -L V
a n d s o u t h e r n Q in g h a i , T s i n g h a i , w e s t K a n s u ,
T u r k e s t a n , a n d S in k ia n g P r o v i n c e s ) a n d M o n
In 1 9 9 1 , t h e K h a n k a N a t u r e R e s e r v e w a s e s
g o l ia . D u r i n g t h e n o n - b r e e d i n g s e a s o n ( D e
t a b l i s h e d o n K h a n k a L a k e , F a r E a s t R u s s i a , in
c e m b e r to m id -F e b ru a ry ) m o s t o f th e p o p u la
a n a r e a o f t h e la k e w h e r e a m a j o r i t y o f t h i s
tio n m ig r a te s to lo w e r a ltitu d e s , in c lu d in g
d u c k ’s f a v o u r e d h a b i t a t o c c u r s ( N e c h a e v &
T a d z h ik is ta n ,
G l u s c h e n k o 1 9 9 3 ) . In F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 2 , t h e A W C
f o o t h i l l s o f t h e H im a l a y a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y n o r t h
re c o rd e d
a
to ta l
of
4031
K ir g iz i s ta n ,
In d ia
(s o u th e rn
in d iv id u a ls
e r n P u n j a b ) , C h i n a ( H e ilu n g k ia n g , S in k ia n g ,
( P e r e n n o u & M u n d k u r 1992). T h e p o p u la tio n
Y u n n a n a n d n o r th e r n S z e c h w a n P ro v in c e s )
h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d a t o v e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u
a l s , a n d d e c l i n i n g (IW R B in p r e p . ) .
V .G . V i n o g r a d o v in li t t 1 9 9 2 , D e m e n t ’e v e t al.
a n d n o r t h e r n B u r m a ( A b d u s a ly a m o v 1971,
1952, Iv a n o v 1949, J o h n s g a r d 1978, P a lu d a n
M a d a g a s c a r P o c h a r d A y t h y a in n o t a t a
M -L C
1 9 5 9 , Q . F a w e n in litt. 1 9 9 2 , F. D ia n J in in litt.
1 9 9 2 , B a n g s & P e t e r s 1 9 2 8 , A li & R i p le y 1 9 8 3 ,
T h e o n e k n o w n i n d i v i d u a l h e l d in c a p t i v i t y
S m y t h i e s 1 9 8 6 , S u s h k i n 1 9 3 8 ).
( G r e e n 1 9 9 2 ) h a s n o w d i e d (H .G . Y o u n g p e r s ,
N o d a ta a r e a v a ila b le o n p o p u la tio n n u m
co m m . 1993). M is s o u ri B o ta n ic a l G a r d e n s a r e
b e rs , tr e n d s o r th r e a ts , a lth o u g h th e p o p u la
c o n d u c tin g
t i o n s i z e is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y h i g h e r t h a n 2 5 0 0
fu rth e r
su rv ey s
of
th e
L ake
A l a o t r a a r e a in t h e h o p e o f f in d in g m o r e i n d i
in d iv id u a ls . C r ite r ia fo r t h e fie ld id e n tif ic a
v id u a ls to e s ta b lis h a c a p tiv e b r e e d in g p r o
tio n of th is ta x o n a n d M. m . m e rg a n s e r a re
g r a m m e (L . W i lm é in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
u rg e n tly r e q u ire d .
S t e l l e r ’s E i d e r P o ly s t ic ta s t e l l e n
M -L V
S c a ly -s id e d M e r g a n s e r M erg u s s q u a m a tu s
M -L V
T h e p o p u la tio n
of th is
d u c k w in te rin g
in
n o r th e a s t E u ro p e h a s b e e n e s tim a te d to to ta l
P l a n s t o lo g t h e m a j o r b r e e d i n g s i t e o f t h i s
1 5 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s . N u m b e r s w i n t e r i n g in t h e
B a lti c ( E s t o n i a , L i t h u a n i a a n d P o l a n d ) h a v e
m e r g a n s e r i n t h e B ik in R i v e r , R u s s i a n F a r
i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y in r e c e n t y e a r s , t o 3 5 0 0
H y u n d a i w e re s to p p e d b y a o r d e r fro m th e
R u s s i a n S u p r e m e C o u r t in e a r l y D e c e m b e r
(IW R B in p r e p . ) .
E a s t,
by
th e
S o u th
K o re a n
c o n g lo m e ra te
19 9 2 . T h i s f o l l o w e d a n a p p e a l b y l o c a l e n v i
S p e c t a c l e d E i d e r S o m a t e r i a f is c h e r i
M -L V
T h e e a s te r n S ib e ria n p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n e s
t i m a t e d t o c o n s i s t o f a m i n i m u m o f 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
in d iv id u a ls fro m
th e e v id e n c e of b re e d in g
p o p u la tio n d e n s itie s ( K is tc h in s k i 1 9 81). H o w
e v e r , it is n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r t h e r e c e n t m a
j o r d e c l i n e in A l a s k a ( s e e G r e e n 1 9 9 2 ) h a s
a l s o o c c u r r e d in S ib e r ia .
r o n m e n ta lis ts o n th e g ro u n d s th a t th e r e w a s
n o E n v iro n m e n ta l Im p a c t A s s e s s m e n t a n d n o
c o n s u l t a t i o n o n a lo c a l le v e l ( S u r v iv a l I n t e r n a
t i o n a l p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 3 ).
B r a z il i a n M e r g a n s e r M e r g u s o c t o s e t a c e u s
M -L C
T h e s ta tu s o f th is s p e c ie s h a s b e e n re v ie w e d
r e c e n t l y in d e t a i l b y C o l la r e t a l. ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d it
is n o w r e g a r d e d a s o n e o f t h e r a r e s t b i r d s in
O rie n ta l M e rg a n s e r M erg u s m e rg a n s e r
S o u th A m e ric a . R e g u la r r e p o r ts o f th is d u c k
M -L V ?
o r ie n ta lis
c o n t i n u e t o b e m a d e in S e r r a d a C a n a s t r a N a
t i o n a l P a r k , M in a s G e r a i s , B r a z il (W . B a r t m a n
T h is p a r tia lly m ig r a to r y d u c k in h a b its m a in ly
in litt. 1 9 9 2 , B . F o r r e s t e r in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . H o w e v
m o u n ta in
of
e r , it is b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y li k e ly t h a t t h e
w o o d e d r e g i o n s , in e a s t e r n A s ia . I t s e x a c t
s p e c i e s is e x t i n c t o r v e r y c l o s e t o e x t i n c t i o n
ra n g e a n d s ta tu s a r e u n c e rta in , d u e th e c o n fu
in P a r a g u a y , w h e r e s u r v e y s o f p a r t s o f t h e
s i o n a n d o v e r l a p w i t h M .m . m e r g a n s e r (Q .
P i r a t i y a n d J e ju i- m i R i v e r s in 1 9 9 2 f a il e d t o
riv e rs
and
la k e s ,
e s p e c ia lly
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
163
f i n d it. T h e r e a r e v e r y f e w r i v e r s le f t in e a s t
S e w a g e W o r k s in t h e
e r n P a r a g u a y w ith g o o d q u a lity f o r e s t s u r
S o u t h A f r ic a (C .W . H e y l in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e t o t a l
C a p e T o w n a r e a of
r o u n d i n g t h e m ( T . B r o o k s in litt. 1 9 9 2 ) . A ls o , it
p o p u l a t i o n s e e m s c e r t a i n t o e x c e e d 1 0 ,0 0 0
s e e m s t h a t t h e A r g e n t i n e a n d B r a z il i a n
p o p u la tio n s of th e s p e c ie s a r e n o w is o la te d
in d iv id u a ls , w ith lo c a lis e d in c r e a s e s a n d d e
c r e a s e s e v id e n t.
f r o m e a c h o t h e r d u e t o e x t e n s i v e lo g g in g o p
e r a t i o n s in t h e P a r a n a P r o v i n c e o f s o u t h e a s t
C o lo m b ia n R u d d y D u ck O x y u ra ja m a ic e n s is
B ra z il.
a n d in a
M a c c o a D uck O xyura m a c c o a
M -L S
M -L V ?
T h i s r a c e o f t h e R u d d y D u c k is a r e s i d e n t o f
th e
A ndes
of c e n tra l
and
east
C o lo m b ia
T h e r e a r e th o u g h t to b e tw o s u b p o p u la tio n s
( J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ) . A ll r e c o r d s o c c u r b e t w e e n
of th is d u ck . T h e e a s te rn p o p u la tio n o c c u rs
2 5 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 0 m ( H i lty & B r o w n 1 9 8 6 ) , a l
in E t h i o p i a , K e n y a , T a n z a n i a , Z a i r e , S u d a n ,
th o u g h th e r e m a y b e s o m e a ltitu d in a l m o v e
U g a n d a , R w a n d a a n d B u r u n d i (J .S . A s h in litt.
m e n t w i t h i n t h i s r a n g e . T h e s o u t h e r n lim it o f
1 9 9 2 , B r i t t o n 1 9 8 0 , S h o r t e t a l. 1 9 9 0 , B r o w n e t
al. 1 9 8 2 , W i lli a m s 1 9 6 3 , H u g h e s & H u g h e s
its
1 9 9 2 , D e l a c o u r 1 9 5 9 ). T h e s o u t h e r n p o p u l a
Fuquene
t i o n o c c u r s in M o z a m b i q u e , M a la w i, R e p u b l i c
a n d B o y a c a ( L e h m a n n 1 9 46).
ran g e
is
th e
P u ra c e
re g io n
( 2 ° 0 0 ’N,
7 6 ° 3 0 ’W ) a n d i t s n o r t h e r n l im it is L a g u n a d e
( 5 ° 1 5 ’N ,
7 3 ° 3 0 ’W ) ,
C u n d in a m a rc a
o f S o u t h A f r ic a , B o t s w a n a , L e s o t h o , Z im b a
T h e d u c k in h a b its t h e la k e s a n d la g o o n s of
b w e a n d N a m i b i a ( B r o w n e t a l. 1 9 8 2 , B e n s o n
th e p a r a m o s . B r e e d in g p o p u la tio n s o c c u r o n
1 9 8 2 , M il s te i n 1 9 7 5 , J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e
d u c k p r e f e r s s h a llo w , n u tr ie n t- r ic h w a te r s
L a g u n a s d e l P a ra m o d e B o c a-G ra n d e, L a g u n a
w ith e x te n s iv e e m e r g e n t v e g e ta tio n , u p to
N e u s a , L a g u n a d e O tu n , a n d L a g u n a d e S a n
3 0 0 0 m ( C la r k 1 9 6 4 , J o h n s g a r d 1 9 7 8 ) . B i r d s
a r e la rg e ly s e d e n ta r y , w ith s o m e lo c a l m o v e
R a m o n (B o r re ro 1952, L e h m a n n 1946, S c o tt &
m e n t s in s o u t h e r n A f r ic a (IW R B in p r e p . ) .
v i d u a l s w e r e c o u n t e d o n L a g u n a d e O tu n ,
A l t h o u g h it is a w i d e s p r e a d s p e c i e s , i t is
u n c o m m o n o r r a r e in a n u m b e r o f r a n g e c o u n
d e T o t a , L a g u n a d e S a n R a f a e l, E m b a l s e d e
C a r b o n e l l 1 9 8 6 ) . In D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , 8 2 in d i
w ith in
L os
N evados
N a tio n a l
P ark
(J.E .
B o t e r o in litt. 1 9 9 3 ).
t r i e s , f o r e x a m p l e in K e n y a , M a la w i, Z i m b a
T h e d u c k is e n c o u n t e r e d i n g r o u p s t y p i c a l
b w e , L e s o t h o a n d T a n z a n i a ( O s b o r n e & T ig a r
ly o f f iv e t o t e n i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t h a s b e e n r e
1 9 9 0 , R .D . M e d l a n d in litt. 1 9 9 3 , B r i t t o n 1 9 8 0 ,
c o r d e d in f lo c k s o f 3 0 -5 0 0 b i r d s ( T o d d 1 9 7 9 ).
L. B e n n u n in litt. 1 9 9 2 , B r o w n e t a l. 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e
H ilt y & B r o w n ( 1 9 8 6 ) d e s c r i b e it a s lo c a l l y
p o p u la tio n o f Z im b a b w e w a s e s tim a te d to b e
c o m m o n b u t , f o llo w in g t h e h i g h d e v e l o p m e n t
in t h e h u n d r e d s in t h e 1 9 7 0 s (D .A . E w b a n k in
p r e s s u r e s in t h e C o l o m b i a n A n d e s , n u m b e r s
litt. 1 9 9 3 ) , a n d , in L e s o t h o , t h e r e a r e a n e s t i
a r e t h o u g h t t o h a v e d e c l i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y (L .
m a t e d 1 0 -1 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s ( O s b o r n e & T ig a r
N a r a n jo p ers. c o m m . 1992). S c o tt & C a rb o n e ll
1 9 9 0 ) . In t h e s o u t h e r n R ift V a ll e y n u m b e r s
(1 9 8 6 ) d e s c r ib e it a s “..s c a r c e a n d lo c a l..”.
h a v e d e c lin e d s h a rp ly d u e to th e w id e s p re a d
ill e g a l u s e o f g ill n e t s (L . B e n n u n in litt. 1 9 9 2 ).
T h e p o p u l a t i o n is lik e l y t o b e in t h e r a n g e o f
2 5 0 0 - 1 0 ,0 0 0 a n d d e c li n i n g .
H o w e v e r , t h e s p e c i e s is s ti l l c o m m o n in
c e rta in a re a s . U p to
1000 in d iv id u a ls h a v e
W h ite - h e a d e d D u c k O xy u r a le u c o c e p h a la
o c c u r r e d s e a s o n a l l y in A r u s h a N a t i o n a l P a r k
M -L V
in T a n z a n i a ( B r i t t o n 1 9 8 0 ) , a n d a t o t a l o f 8 9 9
w a s c o u n t e d in t h e N a m ib ia n W a te rf o w l C e n
C o n c e rn a b o u t th e th r e a t to th is s p e c ie s fro m
s u s in J u l y 1 9 9 2 (R . S i m m o n s in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e
h y b r id is a tio n a n d c o m p e titio n w ith t h e r a p
to ta l p o p u la tio n
in t h e
C a p e P ro v in c e
of
id ly s p r e a d in g , in tr o d u c e d N o r th A m e ric a n
S o u t h A f r ic a is e s t i m a t e d a t 2 4 0 0 (C .W . H e y l
in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . In E th i o p i a , U r b a n & B r o w n
R u d d y D u c k O. j a m a i c e n s i s is g r o w i n g . T h e
R u d d y D u ck h a s n o w b e e n r e c o r d e d fro m
( 1 9 7 1 ) d e s c r i b e d t h e s p e c i e s a s “. .c o m m o n t o
M o r o c c o , w h e r e s i x b i r d s w e r e s e e n in N o
lo c a l l y a b u n d a n t . . ” o n a l k a li n e l a k e s . In S o u t h
v e m b e r 1 9 9 2 ( S h e r if B a h a E l D in p e r s . c o m m .
A f r ic a a n d N a m i b ia , t h e n u m b e r s m a y h a v e
to
in c re a s e d
A n d a lu c ia n
f o ll o w in g
th e
w id e s p re a d
con
s t r u c t i o n o f d a m s a n d s e w a g e s e t t l e m e n t la
G.
A llp o rt).
The
w e tla n d s
n u m b e rs
w ith
seen
on
W h ite -h e a d e d
D u c k h a v e in c r e a s e d r a p id ly s in c e 1985 w ith
g o o n s (W . T a r b o t o n in litt. 1 9 9 3 , R . S im m o n s
57
in litt. 1 9 9 3 ) . In M a y 1 9 8 0 , a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
R o d r i g u e z d e lo s S a n t o s 1 9 9 2 ) a n d b r e e d i n g
1024 b ir d s w a s o b s e rv e d o n S tra n d fo n te in
w a s f i r s t c o n f i r m e d in 1 9 9 1 . H y b r i d s w e r e
s ig h tin g s
in
1990
(P in to s
M a rtin
&
164
W il d f o w l a t R i s k
f i r s t s e e n in S p a i n in 1 9 9 1 a n d a t l e a s t 18 h y
b r id s h a d b e e n s h o t b y M a rc h 1993, in c lu d in g
a n d S o m a te r ia m o llis s im a s e d e n ta r ia . T h e a u
th o r s r e q u e s t u p d a te d in fo rm a tio n fro m
s o m e th a t w e re a t le a s t s e c o n d g e n e ra tio n
r e a d e r s o n a n y o f t h e t a x a l i s t e d in t h i s r e v i e w
(A M A A n d a l u c í a p e r s . c o m m . 1 9 9 3 ) . F a i l u r e t o
or
a d d r e s s t h i s p r o b l e m q u i c k l y is lik e l y t o r e
( 1 9 9 2 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n in t h e f o r m o f a s h o r t a r t i
s u l t in t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e W h i t e - h e a d e d
c l e is w e l c o m e d f o r s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e n e w s
D u ck o v e r th e n e x t c e n tu ry .
T h e f o llo w in g t a x a m a y h a v e a p o p u l a t i o n
th e
a d d itio n a l
ta x a
co v e red
in
G re e n
l e t t e r o f t h e IW R B T h r e a t e n e d W a t e r f o w l R e
search
G ro u p .
A ll
rea d ers
s u b m ittin g
o f u n d e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s a n d a r e d e c l i n
i n f o r m a t i o n w ill b e i n c l u d e d o n t h e m a il in g
in g ; t h e y a r e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r r e v ie w : M a r e c a
( A n a s ) fa lc a ta , N e t t a e r y t h r o p t h a l m a b r u n n e a
lis t fo r f u tu r e is s u e s o f t h e n e w s le tte r .
M a n y p e o p l e h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t h a s a s s i s t e d in th is c o m p i l a t i o n . M a n y t h a n k s to
a l l t h o s e q u o t e d a b o v e a s “in litt. ” a n d “p e r s . c o m m . ”, a n d t o t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to th e
T W R G n e w s l e t t e r a n d to t h e r e v i e w o f t h e f i r s t d r a ft o f t h e C A M P . A m o n g s t t h e s e w e w o u l d l i k e to
p a y p a r t i c u l a r t h a n k s to D . A ll a n , D . R . A s p i n w a l l , J.E . B o te r o , G. V. B y r d , P. C a n e v a r i, M .l. C h r is tie ,
L. v o n E s s e n , D .A . E w b a n k , J. F je ld s a , S. G a r n e tt, D .A . H o lm e s , P .S . H u m p h r e y , R . T. K in g s fo r d , P.
O s b o r n e , D .A . S c o tt , E .T . V a ld iv ie s o , V.G. V in o g r a d o v , P. W h i t e h e a d a n d H .G . Y o u n g . T h a n k s a ls o
to S u s i e E llis - J o s e p h , N i g e l H e w s to n a n d J e f f B l a c k f o r v a r i e d a s s i s ta n c e .
References
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