International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 THE JĀTAKAMĀLĀ RELIEFS OF BOROBUDUR: BENEFICIAL AND INSIGHTFUL ACTS IN ADVERSE TIMES So Tju Shinta Lee Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia [email protected] ; [email protected] ABSTRACT This study is aimed to examine seven selected allegories of Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā engraved in Candi Borobudur, to analyze the multiple aspects of the six perfections (pāramitās) exemplified in them and how these perfections are applied in day-to-day life. The literature study involved data collection triangulation to determine the extant Jātakamālā and pāramitā texts closest to the sources. Content analysis on the Jātakamālā texts and observation of its corresponding reliefs were carried out to identify the message and substantial points of each allegory. Both the actions and the motivation driving the character to perform such actions are considered. Using thematic analysis, the actions performed are categorized and correlated with the definition and meaning of each pāramitā. The results of the research indicate that although emphasis may be placed more on a particular perfection, multiple aspects of the perfections are presented in each allegory. The practice of the six perfections which to be cultivated jointly by those walking the path to Perfect Awakening also represent the universal values of generosity, non-harmfulness, tolerance, joyous effort, vigilance, and wisdom. This study allows one to see Borobudur’s carved reliefs in a way, which will hopefully engender appreciation for the cultural heritages of our ancestors. KEYWORDS: ancient-teachings, Borobudur, Jātakamālā, six pāramitās, skillful-acts INTRODUCTION Since the publication of N.J. Krom’s monograph titled “Barabudur: Archaeological Description” in 1927, not many comprehensive studies on the Jātakamālā reliefs have been written. To date, only a handful of the Jātakamālā allegories engraved in Candi Borobudur are known to the public, and the messages contained therein are often not properly conveyed, despite the fact that Borobudur appears to be the only monument in the world where the entire collection of Jātakamālā of Āryaśūra in 34 allegories are depicted consecutively in its entirety in 135 panels. This collection was chosen to be carved at the very beginning and as an opening of the serial Jātaka and Avadāna reliefs in Borobudur, which total 720 panels. 347 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 In other parts of the world, Jātakamālā (as well as other Jātakas and Avadānas) have become subjects of sculpture and painting, among others in India at the Ajaṇṭā caves, Bhārhut Stupa, Sāñcī Stupa, Bodhgaya Temple, Amarāvatī Stupa, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Goli, and in Gandhāra (Kwon, 1997). In China, some of the Jātakamālā are depicted in the Kizil caves (Zhu, 2012) in Xīnjiāng Province and Mògāo caves in Dūnhuáng, Gānsù Province (Wu, 2008). Similarly, some of the corresponding Jātakamālā stories as in the Pāli texts are preserved in Sri Lanka (Somathilake, 2013), Myanmar (Luce, 1956), and in particular the Vessantara (Viśvantara) Jātaka is much celebrated in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. In Nusantara, Jātakamālā of Āryaśūra must have already been known and studied deeply, even before Borobudur was built. Yì Jìng, a Chinese pilgrim who visited Nusantara in the 7th century CE, witnessed that both monks and householders in these islands recited and memorized Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā by heart and that “It is the most beautiful (favorite) theme for laudatory poems, agreeable to the popular mind and attractive to readers” (Takakusu, 1896: 163). A similar tone was conveyed by another Indian poet, Haribhaṭṭa, stating that “A preacher of the Dharma, having first recited one of the sermons of the Buddha, afterwards illuminates it in detail by telling a Jātaka of the Bodhisattva … and (thereby) creates utmost happiness in the mind of his audience...” (cited by Peter Skilling in Appleton and Shaw, 2015: xx). Jātaka, as a form of teaching is indicated in the Lotus Sutra that Buddha may use various definitions and reasons as well as causes and parables, through prose, verse, histories, his previous lifetimes, etc. to make beings understand his teachings (Roberts, 2020: chap. 2.71-2.72). As a means of education, F. Max Muller suggested to “look upon these birth-stories as homilies used for educational purposes and for inculcating the moral lessons of Buddhism (Speyer, 1895: x). A contemporary study carried out by Hendrik Janné (2014) show that ancient Jātakas can be used as pedagogical tools to teach ethics and morals to the students. Many Buddhist texts, both from Sanskrit and Pāli sources, connect Jātaka with the teachings of pāramī or pāramitā (perfection). Teachings on pāramitā must have been widely known in Nusantara as they were stated in Talang Tuo inscription of the 7th century CE and in Saṅ Hyaṅ Kamahāyānikan, an Old Javanese Buddhist text, written in 10th century CE. Talang Tuo inscription (684 CE) lines 10 and 11 read: “tyāga marçila kṣānti … vīryya … samāhitacinta prajñā smṛti” (Cœdès, 1930: 40), which translates as “generosity without attachment to one’s possessions; non-violent ethical living with a commitment not to harm; un-angered forbearance, tolerant endurance … energetic joyous effort in doing good … focused awareness, thought, analysis, reflection; insight, deeper wisdom; attentive presence and recollection1. Meanwhile, Saṅ Hyaṅ Kamahāyānikan mentions these practices in the section of ṣaṭpāramitā: “dānaśīlañca kṣāntiśca vīryya dhyānañca prajñāca ṣaṭpāramitam” (Kandahjaya, 2020: 50). 1 Sudimuja, http://www.sudimuja.com/id/, quoted on September 1, 2020. 348 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 For the study of Jātakamālā of Āryaśūra, some attempts were made to categorize the themes or correlate them to the pāramitās. In the English text by J.S. Speyer (1895), a Sanskrit term is attached to the title of each allegory to indicate the topic, all of which were grouped into 15 themes: dāna, śīla, karuṇā, hrī, dhairya, satya, vāra, praviveka, kṣānti, maitrī, anukampā, dayā, anuvartinā, satsaṁga, dan saṁvega. With regards to the association of the six perfections (ṣaṭ-pāramitā), the general understanding is that the thirty-four stories of Jātakamālā of Āryaśūra “are arranged in accordance with the first three of the six perfections” (Ohnuma, 2003: 400-401; Khoroche, 2003: 32), namely generosity (dāna), ethical discipline (śīla), and forbearance (kṣānti). While this conclusion is generally adopted, it is not always clear how this association was derived. When discussing the Pāli parallel versions of Jātakamālā, Gihyun Kwon (1997: 207-225) called out 20 out of 34 stories. Out of the 20 stories, six were associated with generosity (dāna), four with ethical discipline (śīla), six with forbearance (kṣānti), two with perseverance (vīrya), one with meditative concentration (dhyāna), and another one with insight or wisdom (prajñā). Lygžima Chaloupková (1989) attempted to associate the Jātakamālā of Āryaśūra with the six perfections by using Tibetan commentarial texts on pāramitās that were written in the 16th to 19th centuries CE. Associating each story with one particular pāramitā, she concluded that allegories no. 1-10 are related to the practice of generosity, allegories no. 11-20 to ethical discipline, allegories no. 21-30 to forbearance, allegory no. 31 to perseverance, allegory no. 32 to meditative concentration, and allegories no. 33-34 to insight. Those studies, whether grouped by theme or by perfection, associate each allegory with only a single pāramitā. In addition, although Kwon and Chaloupková both employed the context of the six perfections, their conclusions for some of the stories are different. Based on the above findings, this research intends to reevaluate the subject matter to examine the texts and carvings of Jātakamālā, to discern how the allegories represent the practice of the six perfections and how they exemplify universal values. The study is aimed at answering three questions:  What aspects of the perfections (pāramitās) are demonstrated in the seven selected Jātakamālā allegories?  How do the applications of these allegories form the necessary qualities to attain Perfect Awakening?  What are the universal values exemplified or represented in these allegories and how are those values applicable in day-to-day life? 349 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 METHODS The data was collected through literature study of Jātakamālā and pāramitā texts and photography of the reliefs. For Jātakamālā and pāramitā, data triangulation (Sutopo, 2006: 93-94) was applied to determine the texts that are closest to its sources. The English Jātakamālā translated by Speyer (1895) was selected for its literal rendition to the Sanskrit. The Sanskrit text by P.L. Vaidya (1959) were occasionally used to check and verify keywords. For the pāramitās, three canons that discuss the six perfections were selected, i.e.: Question of Subāhu/Subāhuparipṛcchāsūtra (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c), Perfection of Generosity/Dānapāramitā (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020a), and Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines/Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020). These early sutras, which were translated from Sanskrit to other languages in the 5th to the 9th centuries CE, have recently been made available in English in 2020. The reasons for using these three sutras is that the pāramitās are explained in detail from the practical point of view, with examples, analogies, and elaborations on what defines a pāramitā. Content analysis (Vaismoradi, Turunen, and Bondas, 2013) on the Jātakamālā text was conducted to comprehend the essence and the message of each allegory, coupled with observation of its corresponding reliefs. Such analysis was conducted based on the consideration that not only external acts, i.e. the act of giving itself, but also the thinking or the motivation behind it are worth examining. The thematic analysis (Nowell, Norris, White, and Moules, 2017) based on types of actions performed are categorized and subsequently correlated with the definition and meaning of each pāramitā to identify which ones are contained in the allegory. JĀTAKAMĀLĀ AND PĀRAMITĀ Jātakamālā Jātaka literally translates as “birth-story” while mālā means “garland”, hence Jātakamālā refers to a series of stories about Jātaka. Jātaka as birth-stories particularly refers to stories of previous births of the historical Buddha, i.e. Gautama or Sakyamuni Buddha. Jātaka stories function “to illustrate how the Bodhisattva, in life after life, cultivated various virtues and qualities that ultimately contributed to his attainment of Buddhahood” (Ohnuma, 2003: 401). In many Jātakas, the chief figure, the Bodhisattva, in order to help, lead or teach others, demonstrated beneficial and virtuous actions motivated by his wisdom and compassion. Jātaka stories are recorded in many languages, among them in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Pāli. The Sanskrit and Pāli traditions have somewhat different literatures. Jātakamālās are written in 350 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Sanskrit and constitute a generic name for the garland of Jātaka stories, for there exists different collections with the same name, but not necessarily the same stories, for instance Jātakamālā by Āryaśūra with 34 stories, Jātakamālā by Haribhaṭṭa2 which also consists of 34 stories, and Jātakamālā by Gopadatta in 16 stories (Hahn, 2007: 20). Among them, Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā, which is also referred to as Bodhisattvāvadānamālā (Speyer, 1895: xvi) is the most well-known. Some of the corresponding stories of the Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā can be found in the Pāli collection, namely Jātaka-aṭṭhavaṇṇanā (The Elucidation of the Meaning of the Jātaka)3, which consists of 547 stories written in prose and verses. Another Pāli-based text is the Cariyāpiṭaka (Collection on [the Bodhisatta’s] Conduct), containing 35 short stories in verses and appear to be based on the stories from the Pāli Jātaka collection4. Pāramitā Pāramitā means “coming or leading to the opposite shore”, “complete attainment”, “perfection”, “transcendental virtue”5, and “transcendent perfection” particularly in the sutras on the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñā-pāramitā). A similar expression is “to reach the other shore” or “to cross over”, meaning that one goes from the ordinary world of samsara (i.e. this shore) to the realm of the other shore (Kawamura, 2003: 631). “The other shore” here refers to total liberation (Nirvana) or Perfect Awakening (Buddhahood), depending on the tradition followed. “Complete attainment” or “perfection” refers to virtues to be practised by a bodhisattva in order to attain Buddhahood6. In the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, the highest potential of human beings, and in fact of all beings, is the highest and unsurpassed complete Awakening (anuttara-samyaksaṃbodhi; anuttarābhisamyaksaṃbodhi). To reach that state, one first has to generate bodhicitta—the aspiration and wish to achieve Awakening for the benefit of others. Subsequently, one generates a strong determination and realizes those determinations through the practice of the pāramitās, which are continuously cultivated to perfection. Through the practice of these pāramitās, a bodhisattva (‘a Buddha-to-be’) cultivates and completes his or her capacities and qualities. 2 The University of Edinburgh, https://jātakastories.div.ed.ac.uk/textual-collections/haribhattas-Jātakamālā /, quoted on August 27, 2020. 3 The University of Edinburgh, https://jatakastories.div.ed.ac.uk/textual-collections/jatakatthavannana/; Internet Sacred Text Archive, https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/j1/index.htm, quoted on August 27, 2020. 4 The University of Edinburgh, https://jātakastories.div.ed.ac.uk/textual-collections/cariyapitaka/, quoted on August 27, 2020. 5 Sanskrit Dictionary, https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=pāramitā&iencoding=iast&lang=sans, quoted on August 27, 2020. 6 Wisdom Library, https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pāramitā, quoted on August 27, 2020. 351 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Six pāramitās as a means, or ways or prerequisite qualification for attaining Perfect Awakening are stated in many early sutras as follows: “as the qualities that bodhisattvas, great beings should have if they are to awaken swiftly and completely to unsurpassed and perfect awakening” in the Question of Subāhu or Subāhuparipṛcchāsūtra (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.2-1.3); “as a gateway to the light of the Dharma” in The Play in Full or Lalitavistara Sutra (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020b: chap. 4.28); that “all virtues meant for bodhisattvahood are included in the six perfections and it is the result of the six perfections that the Buddha was able to gain the grand enlightenment” in the Laṅkāvatāra Sutra (Suzuki, 2007: 365); that the six pāramitās constitute a bodhisattva’s buddhafield and the domain of the six pāramitās is the domain of the bodhisattva in The Teaching of Vimalakīrti or Vimalakīrtinirdeśa (Thurman, 2019: chap. 1.37-1.39; 4.30). The six perfections especially the perfection of insight is described comprehensively in the sutras on the Perfection of Wisdom, among which two sutras have been made available in English, i.e. The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020) and The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines (Conze, 1994). The six perfections that are listed in the those sutras are: the perfection of generosity (dānapāramitā), the perfection of ethical discipline (śīla-pāramitā), the perfection of forbearance (kṣānti-pāramitā), the perfection of perseverance (vīrya-pāramitā), the perfection of meditative concentration (dhyāna-pāramitā), and the perfection of insight or wisdom (prajñā-pāramitā). 1. Perfection of Generosity (Dāna-pāramitā) The practice of generosity, or sometimes called the perfection of giving, can be categorized into three groups: giving material possessions, protection from fear, and the gifts of Dharma (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.9). From all types of giving, sharing or teaching Dharma is considered to be the foremost and supreme (chap. 1.12) for it enables others to transform their actions and mind. The acts of giving range from providing material gifts, up to giving one’s limbs and life, including: offering foods, beverages, vehicles, clothing, ornaments, lamps, music, perfumes; flowers, delicacies, residences, beds and pillows, seats, provisions, medicine; precious substances, to offering their limbs, flesh and blood, marrow of their bones (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020a: chap. 2.3-2.97). The acts of giving should be performed in accordance with one’s capacity. Whatever the gift, the act of giving should be done with a happy frame of mind: “With great inspiration, intense joy, and strong faith, they give little if they possess but little, they give much if they possess much” (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.4). The givings should be presented 352 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 respectfully and with a motivation which is pure, wholesome, and virtuous (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020a: chap. 2.99). Not all acts of giving qualify as “generosity”, since the important factor is not the external act itself but the attitude or motivation behind it: “It is not done for fame, reputation, or praise. It is not done out of cowardice, fear, hoping for reward, or for the sake of a high rebirth. It does not involve hypocrisy, pretense, or disdain” (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.4) and it should not be done “out of attachment, aversion, delusion, irritation, contempt, violence, deprecation, disrespect, reproach, pride, or haughtiness” (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020a: chap. 2.99). A generous heart counters selfishness which manifests as stinginess, greed, and a constant sense of dissatisfaction. By practicing the perfection of generosity, one does not preoccupy oneself with miserliness (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 31.54). 2. Perfection of Ethical Discipline (Śīla-pāramitā) The practice of ethical discipline (śīla) is about living ethically, being committed to not harming others. There are many types of śīla, both for householders or monastics. One of the common divisions are avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions (akuśalākarma) and cultivating their opposites. The ten non-virtuous actions to be abandoned are: killing, stealing (taking what is not given), sexual misconduct, lying, slander, harsh words, idle gossip, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020a: chap. 1.18-1.34). The first three actions are committed via body, the next four via speech, and the last three via mind, hence śīla involves disciplining one’s actions of body, speech, and mind. Practicing the perfection of ethical discipline enables one to prevent the degeneration of morality (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 31.54). 3. Perfection of Forbearance (Kṣānti-pāramitā) The practice of forbearance means not to react negatively to unpleasant and undesirable experiences, whether toward people, objects or situations. Although others hurt and harm them physically or by speech, one does not retaliate, get angry in return, or harbour animosity or resentment toward them (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.35). The perfection of forbearance enables one to relinquish malice, aggression, anger as well as pride, arrogance, and conceit (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020b: chap. 4.28). In Engaging in Bodhisattva Behavior (Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra), a text written by Śāntideva in the 8th century CE, it is stated that no negative force resembles anger, and no trial resembles forbearance or patience, hence one must meditate on forbearance with effort and in 353 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 various ways (Berzin: part 6, verse 2). The practice of forbearance involves many levels, from thinking that one’s experiences is the ripening of negative actions one has committed in the past (chap. 1.36), that the suffering of hell beings, pretas and animals are much more severe (chap. 1.41), that all life faculties are subject to exhaustion, abandonment, and extinction (chap. 1.39), up to not associating one’s body and mind with “me” or “mine” (chap. 1.40). 4. Perfection of Perseverance (Vīrya-pāramitā) The perfection of perseverance is defined as being enthusiastic and energetic in engaging in virtuous actions, which enables one to sustain the practice of all virtuous endeavours (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020b: chap. 4.28) and not sink into indolence (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 31.54). Engaging in Bodhisattva Behavior by Śāntideva, defines vīrya-pāramitā as zestful vigor for being constructive, whereas the opposite is lethargy (Berzin, part 7, verse 2). The text also gives an analogy that just as without wind, there is no motion; similarly, without perseverance, there will not be any positive force (Berzin, part 7, verse 1). The bodhisattvas continuously practice perseverance with a sense of urgency as though their hair and clothes were on fire. They constantly and perpetually listen to, ascertain, and reflect upon Dharma teaching as well as any Dharma teaching that leads to the completion of the perfections of generosity, ethical discipline, forbearance, perseverance, meditative concentration, and wisdom (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.56). Thus, perseverance causes the other perfections to be practiced earnestly, continuously, and indefatigably, as well as introducing and leading others to practice the same six perfections (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 9.40). 5. Perfection of Meditative Concentration (Dhyāna-pāramitā) The practices of meditative concentration encompass being attentive and vigilant about restraining the movements of one’s mind toward worldly covetousness, unhappiness, and factors connected with evil deeds and non-virtues. Meditative equipoise and calm abiding are practiced continuously whether one is walking, standing, sitting, lying, or being silent. Bodhisattvas complete the practice of meditative concentration by not clinging to the characteristics and features when seeing sights with their eyes, hearing sounds with their ears, perceiving smells with their noses, experiencing tastes with their tongues, feeling contact with their body and cognizing phenomena with their minds (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020c: chap. 1.63-1.64). 354 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Practicing the perfection of meditative concentration means to not preoccupy oneself with distractions (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 31.54) since “a person having a distracted mind is set between the fangs of disturbing emotions” (Śāntideva in Berzin, part 8, verse 1). In other words, those whose minds are wandering and unattentive become vulnerable toward negative thoughts and negative actions. 6. Perfection of Insight or Wisdom (Prajñā-pāramitā) Perfection of insight or wisdom is about having proper understanding and correct view, i.e. being able to see “as is”. The perfection of insight enables one to relinquish the dark fog of ignorance, to abandon incorrect views, and to lead others from preoccupation with incorrect knowledge (Dharmachakra Translation Committee, 2020b: chap. 4.28). The perfection of insight is cultivated through listening, contemplating, and cultivating the teachings. The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā) differentiates between mundane and supramundane pāramitās. The former refers to practicing pāramitās which are bound by the notion of a self (“I am giving”), others (“they are receiving”), and the act of giving. By contrast, supramundane pāramitās are not bound by those fetters and are free of grasping on the three spheres i.e. subject, object, and their interaction. The practice of pāramitā that are not clinging to the three spheres i.e. the giver (subject), the recipient (object), and the act of giving (the interaction), are considered to be of the highest form (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: chap. 9.44-9.45). Practicing the Perfections in Tandem: Integrating Upāya and Prajñā All pāramitās are to be practised by integrating both insight or wisdom (prajñā) and skilful means (upāya). It is said in The Teaching of Vimalakīrti Sutra as well as in the Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment by Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna Atīśa, that wisdom without liberative art/skilful means, and liberative art, too, without wisdom are referred to as bondage (Thurman, 2019: chap. 4.22; Sonam, 1997: verse 43, p. 104). On the contrary, wisdom integrated with liberative art and liberative art integrated with wisdom is liberation (Thurman, 2019: chap. 4.22). The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines also emphasizes the importance of prajñā as a guide in practicing the other pāramitās as follows: “Just like those who are blind cannot set out on a road, or enter a hamlet, town, city, or country without a guide; the five other transcendent perfections have no scope to attain omniscience unguided by the transcendent perfection of wisdom. Guided by the 355 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 transcendent perfection of wisdom, the other five transcendent perfections will be endowed with vision” (Padmakara Translation Group, 2020: Introduction, i.60; chap. 17.5). THE ALLEGORIES, RELIEFS AND PĀRAMITĀS THEY REPRESENT This study was based on Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā with seven selected allegories, namely: the Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka, Śakra Jātaka, Supāraga Jātaka, Vartakāpītaka Jātaka, Śarabha Jātaka, Bisa Jātaka, and Mahābodhi Jātaka. For the purpose of presenting the readers with the key points, summaries of each allegory are provided in this paper based on the English text by Speyer (1895). All Jātakamālā reliefs are carved on the upper row balustrade on the first floor, at the southeast quadrant and half of the southwest quadrants. The seven selected allegories discussed in this study are all situated at the southeast quadrant. In most cases, each allegory is carved in more than one relief. For the discussion that follows, only a selected number of reliefs are presented. The numbering of the reliefs begin at the eastern entrance following the clockwise direction. Following the Jātakamālā reliefs identification by Serge d’Oldenburg and N.J. Krom (1927), the notations of the reliefs were summarized by the researcher with additional notes if applicable. Fig. 1 The overview of Jātakamālā reliefs on the upper row of balustrade on the first floor (Source: Lindra Hismanto, 2020) 356 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka, the Head of a Guild (Allegory No. 5) Born into an illustrious family, Aviṣahya, the Bodhisattva became the head of a guild and acquired a great deal of wealth. He was renowned for his generosity and unrelenting efforts to help the needy. Śakra, the Lord of devas, heard of his benevolence and decided to test him by depriving him of all possessions except for a rope and a sickle. Almost possessing nothing, Aviṣahya took the rope and sickle and went out to toil in the fields, gathering grass to sell as crops. He took the little money he earned and immediately used it to give further aid to mendicants. Śakra was astounded by his unshakable calm and devotion to giving, even while suffering extreme poverty. Śakra appeared before him, proclaiming that Aviṣahya should give up his generosity and focus on rebuilding his own wealth. Aviṣahya humbly refused and he firmly asserted that under any circumstances, he would never stray from his path of generosity. This delighted Śakra who then promptly returned the Bodhisattva’s possession and then disappeared into the sky (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 43-51). Fig. 2 Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 20 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) On the above relief, Aviṣahya is performing giving. On the left, he is standing, holding a dish in his hand, accompanied by a servant. The receivers of charity are on the right, two kneeling and another two standing (Krom, 1927: 327). 357 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Fig. 3 Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 21 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) On the left of the relief, Aviṣahya sits with his wife. Under the seat is a sickle and bundles of grass tied-up, which he used for continuing his acts of generosity. Standing on the right and leaning on a staff is a brahman, who is none other than Śakra in disguise (Krom, 1927: 327-328). This is the moment when Śakra again put Aviṣahya’s generosity to the test, that he should consider his own interests before the interests of others. Fig. 4 Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 22 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) 358 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 This relief, which is heavily damaged, shows Aviṣahya’s recovered wealth as indicated by the heaps of money bags in the middle of the relief. On the right, a group of people are kneeling and standing, indicating that Aviṣahya is performing acts of generosity as he used to (Krom, 1927: 328). Analysis on the text and reliefs: it is quite obvious that the head of a guild, Aviṣahya, was demonstrating the perfection of generosity (dāna-pāramitā), by giving material possessions. His generosity is without attachment, firm, and did not degenerate even under challenging circumstances. This is particularly encouraging, because under such conditions, the most common reaction would be to simply give up. Furthermore, it is perseverance (vīrya-pāramitā) that enables him to tirelessly sustain such unwavering virtue. Śakra Jātaka (Allegory No. 11) Once, the Bodhisattva was born as Śakra, the Lord of devas, but his greatness became a reason for tremendous jealousy among the demi-gods (asuras), who declared war on him and his retinue. During the fierce battle, the demi-gods were advancing and Śakra’s army began to lose. As Śakra and his charioteer, Mātali, were preparing to make their last stand, they saw an eagle’s nest directly in their path. Overcome with compassion for the eagles and its unhatched eggs, Śakra ordered Mātali to swoop down to save the birds, even if it meant making themselves vulnerable to an attack, which they would not have survived. Śakra proclaimed that dying by the weapons of the demi-gods was nobler than letting creatures be killed. As they flew down and rescued the birds and its eggs, the army of demigods became perplexed and fearful. When Śakra's chariot turned toward the demi-gods, in their confused state they did not know what actions to take and before long, the demi-gods were conquered (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 143-149). Fig. 5 Śakra Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 47a (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) 359 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 This relief depicts the battle between the gods and demi-gods, with swords and shields, bows and arrows as well as battle-axes and a man blowing a conch-shell. A tree and a bird are seen in the middle of the relief. Krom identified the warrior on the top right with demi-gods and concluded that the army of gods must be on the left with Śakra advancing from that side, preceded by a banner bearing a cakra (1927: 342). On the lower left appearing with mustaches and beards are armies of the demi-gods. To the right of the tree, is most probably “the figure in the attire of an Arhat” in the front of Śakra’s chariot mentioned in the text. Analysis of the text and the relief: the allegory of Śakra Jātaka demonstrates the practice of ethical discipline (śīla-pāramitā), especially abandoning killing or depriving the life of others. Śakra’s nobleness is shown from his restraint from harming others, performed not only under ordinary conditions but even at the risk of losing his own life. Although he possessed great power, he did not neglect those who are powerless and defenseless, and instead, Śakra displayed virtuous action by protecting life. Supāraga Jātaka (Allegory No. 14) In one of his many lifetimes, the Bodhisattva became a great captain of the ship named Supāraga who had extensive knowledge of the constellations. Even as an old man in retirement, a group of merchants still wanted him to captain their vessel and out of compassion, he agreed. When they began to travel into a further part of the ocean, they ran into a terrible storm. Unable to maintain their course, they were blown through many seas, encountering sea creatures that look like demons. Eventually, they had reached the dreadful place, the mouth-like entrance of death. The merchants began to cry and wail, begging devas for aid as they continued on toward the deep abyss. At that point, out of compassion, Supāraga declared words of truth: “Since the time when I have become conscious of my deeds, I don’t recollect, however much I ponder, having injured any living being. By the power of this Act of Truth and by the power of my store of meritorious actions, may the ship turn safely”. So great was the power of his truth that the current and winds immediately changed direction. As the sky began to clear, the ship moved smoothly across the seas and they reached their destination safely with abundant treasures (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 171-184). 360 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Fig. 6 Supāraga Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 53 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) On the above relief, the merchants are requesting Supāraga to sail with them. Supāraga is standing on the left with an umbrella held over him. Three merchants are on the right, one of whom is carrying a garment as an offering, and another one is kneeling with hands in sembah. (Krom, 1927: 347). His folded hands are pointing in the other direction, indicating their request to join them on their journey. Supāraga extends his hand, perhaps signifying his consent. Fig. 7 Supāraga Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 54 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) 361 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 The relief shows that the ship is hit by a violent storm. On the left corner, storm-clouds are gathering. The lower part of the relief shows large waves, causing the ship to lose direction. On the upper right corner, a crew member is setting the sail. On the deck, Supāraga is standing and holding a jug, pouring water into the sea. On the lower right, a sea-monster has its jaws wide open. Krom suggested that this may depict “vaḍavāmukha” (the jaws of the mare), the actual “mukha” of the monster at the moment of the greatest danger (1927: 347). Analysis of the text and the reliefs: Supāraga, the ship captain, demonstrated ethical discipline (śīla-pāramitā) both via speech and body. The fact that his speech (vākya) as well as his merit (puṇya) have power (bala), indicate that he maintained the śīla of speaking the truth and the śīla of not injuring others as he had declared. This is summed up in the phrases “satyavākyena mama puṇyabalena” (Vaidya, 1959)7 which means “by the power of truth-speaking and by the power of my merit”. The allegory also implied that the character possessed insight or wisdom (prajñā) as he knew what to do in such chaotic circumstances, and as mentioned in the text, he was wise and mastered science and art. Vartakāpītaka Jātaka, the Quail’s Young (Allegory No. 16) At another time, the Bodhisattva was a young quail, living in a forest in the Himalayas in a nest built by his parents, together with his many siblings. Refusing to feed on any living creatures, he would only eat small amounts of vegetables, which did not help his wings to develop or his body to grow properly. One day, an enormous fire erupted in the forest, which rapidly spread. All the forest animals fled in fear, including the quail’s family, except for the young quail, who did not have sufficient strength to leave the nest. As the fire quickly approached and was about to engulf the nest, the young quail declared words of truth: “My feet are not strong enough, my wings are unable to fly. I have nothing worth offering a guest such as you. Therefore, fire, turn back!” Because these words were spoken true and honestly, as soon as they were uttered, the fire subsided, even though it was fanned by fierce winds (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 191-194). 7 Verse 31. Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon, http://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/22/237, quoted on September 1, 2020. 362 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Fig. 8 Vartakāpītaka Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 58 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) This Vartakāpītaka Jātaka allegory is carved only in a single relief. On the bottom left, the raging fire caused the forest animals to flee to save their lives. Birds, deers, and monkeys are seeking refuge. The young quail is perched in a round nest in the bottom center, turning toward the fire, declaring Words of Truth (Krom, 1927: 350). Analysis of the text and the relief: The allegory is about the power of honesty and speaking truthfully, which are related to the ethical discipline (śīla-pāramitā) of speech: śīla of not lying in the ten virtuous actions. The young quail declared Words of Truth or satyavacana (Vaidya, 1959)8, coupled by his virtue through the body that he refused to feed on any living creatures. Because of the truth (satya/sacca) that he declared, supported by his virtuous intention, his word had tremendous power, causing the fire to subside. Śarabha Jātaka (Allegory No. 25) In another lifetime, the Bodhisattva was born as a fabulous Śarabha deer. During a large hunt, a king was separated from his retinue and became lost in the remote woods inhabited by the deer. The king spotted the impressive deer and immediately strung his bow and started to pursue it. The chase continued until they reached a gaping chasm. The deer 8 The second last sentence. Ibid, http://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/22/239, quoted on September 1, 2020. 363 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 jumped across with ease but the king’s horse suddenly halted, throwing the king off the horse. When the deer turned around, he saw the horse at the chasm’s edge and quickly realized what had happened. His heart overflowed with compassion. Completely forgiving the man’s attempt to kill him, the deer climbed down, offered aid, and carried the king out of the chasm. The king felt intense remorse for what he did, was filled with gratitude, and honored Śarabha’s plea to stop hunting henceforth. (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 311-320). Fig. 9 Śarabha Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 91 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) This relief depicts the king falling into the chasm while chasing Śarabha the deer. On the left, the king’s horse is standing on the cliff’s edge. The king lifts both his hands in a gesture of requesting (Krom, 1927: 371). 364 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Fig. 10 Śarabha Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 92 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) This relief indicates the moment the deer saves the king. The king gets on Śarabha’s back, who then climbs out of the cliff. Krom mentioned that the deer possesses spare legs (1927: 371), however, since the text makes no mention of this, it is likely to be the carver’s skill in illustrating movement of the deer’s feet. Analysis of the text and the reliefs: the Śarabha Jātaka shows the practice of forbearance (kṣānti-pāramitā) by not retaliating to those who seek to harm him. Instead, the deer responded with mercy and compassion toward an enemy. It also reflects the practice of ethical discipline (śīla-pāramitā) by saving life as well as the practice of generosity (dāna-pāramitā) by giving protection, and neither disregarding nor abandoning those in need of help. Bisa Jātaka, the Lotus-Stalks (Allegory No. 19) After the demise of their parents, a group of siblings, comprising six brothers and a younger sister, with the Bodhisattva being the eldest brother, all decided to become ascetics. Accompanied by one comrade, one male servant, and one female-servant, they lived in a forest near a lake and began their individual solitary meditation. Each of them had their own hut and they only met every fifth day to hear the Bodhisattva teaches. Excelled in their meditative practice, they sustained themselves on nothing more than lotus roots. Śakra, the Lord of devas, witnessed this family and became impressed with their dedication and he 365 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 decided to test them to see if they were truly free from desire and attachment. At every meal, Śakra would secretly steal the Bodhisattva’s portion, but he remained calm and completely untroubled, even as he was starving. When the time came for the group to meet, the brothers and sister saw the Bodhisattva was not well, with an emaciated body. Instead of becoming angry and making accusations, each of them demonstrated compassion and recited a prayer for anyone who stole the roots. A yakṣa, elephant, and monkey witnessed this. Watching with astonishment, Śakra approached the ascetics and admitted he had taken the roots. Śakra was even more impressed, for they had conquered their desires to the point where even a praise from the Lord of devas meant nothing to them (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 213-226). Fig. 11 Bisa Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 67 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) This relief illustrates food being served for the ascetics on a regular basis. On the upper part of the relief is the pond with lotuses, flowers, leaves, and two waterfowls. On the lower left is the shore where six portions of food are wrapped in large leaves. To the right, sits the servant and behind her sits a yakṣa, one of the three forest-dwellers who witnessed the family’s conduct (Krom, 1927: 356). Since only six portions are visible, this relief indicates that one portion was taken by Śakra. 366 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Fig. 12 Bisa Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 68 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) In this relief, Śakra returns the Bodhisattva’s portion of the meal upon putting the family to the test. Śakra, the Lord of devas, stands on the right with his companion, Airavata. Śakra is extending his hands over the food on the ground in front of him, giving it back. On the left, the Bodhisattva, five brothers, and the sister, are sitting inside the hut (Krom, 1927: 356). Since Śakra has returned the Bodhisattva’s lotus roots, the total number of portions now adds up to seven. Analysis of the text and the reliefs: the allegory of Bisa Jātaka conveys the practice of meditative concentration (dhyāna-pāramitā), in which the ascetics absorbed themselves in meditation, living in solitude and detached from worldly pleasures. The Bodhisattva also exemplified the practice of forbearance (kṣānti-pāramitā) by not feeling agitation or anger when he discovered that his food was taken and had to starve as a result of that. Mahābodhi Jātaka (Allegory No. 23) The Bodhisattva once an ascetic named Mahābodhi, whose knowledge and wisdom were widely known. When the wise man was wandering about from one place to another and eventually reached a kingdom, the king invited him to stay and built him a dwelling in his own park. Attending the ascetic’s daily discourses, the king’s affection for him continued to grow. The royal ministers started to feel threatened and began to slander the ascetic, telling the king that he was a spy sent by a rival king. This caused the king’s faith toward the Bodhisattva to decline. Noticing this, the Bodhisattva left the kingdom and returned to the forest to continue his ascetic practice. While meditating in the woods, he had a vision 367 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 and saw that the king was being misled by his advisors by various wrong views. He decided to free the king from such wrong views, and therefore he created the illusion of a monkey skin shawl, wearing it and using it as an aid to correct the mistaken views of the king’s advisors. The Bodhisattva managed to lead the king, his attendants, and the entire kingdom, away from their false paths and showed them the right paths (summarized by the researcher; Speyer, 1895: 275-298). Fig. 13 Mahābodhi Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 83 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) On the relief, Mahābodhi resides in a dwelling built for him by the king in his own park and is served by royal attendants. On the right, Mahābodhi is sitting and being served a large dish, perhaps containing food. To his left, an attendant is fanning Mahābodhi (Krom, 1927: 366). Fig. 14 Mahābodhi Jātaka, southeast quadrant, panel no. 85 (Source: Bumi Borobudur, 2019) 368 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 On the right sits Mahābodhi under a canopy supported by pillars. Near his right knee, the monkey’s head can be seen on the shawl Mahābodhi is seated on. On the left, the king and his heretic counsellors are sitting (Krom, 1927: 367). This relief captures the moment when Mahābodhi created an illusory monkey shawl that he wore, and used it to refute the incorrect views propagated by the king’s ministers and counsellors. Analysis of the text and the reliefs: Mahābodhi demonstrates the practice of wisdom (prajñā-pāramitā) by teaching others. Knowing that the king was misled by various incorrect views, he returned to the capital to offer his help and succeeded not only in dispelling the king’s incorrect views, but also those of his counsellors and ministers. This allegory also conveys Mahabodhi’s forbearance (kṣānti-pāramitā) toward the ministers who once slandered him and whom he eventually established on the right paths. The analysis on the above seven allegories with the perfections contain therein, are summarized in the table below: Table 1 The Seven Selected Jātakas and the Aspects of Pāramitās Title & Allegory No. in the Āryaśūra’s Jātakamālā Aviṣahyaśreṣṭhi Jātaka (no. 5) Panel No. at IBa at Borobudur Quadrant 19-22 Southeast Perfections or Pāramitā(s) Demonstrated   Śakra Jātaka (no. 11) 44-47a Southeast  Supāraga Jātaka (no. 14) 53-55 Southeast   369 Generosity (dāna) by giving material possessions. Perseverance (vīrya) by not giving up generosity under difficult situations. Ethical discipline (śīla) by not depriving the life of others, and instead respecting them. Ethical discipline (śīla) both in speech and body for his words were spoken true and his refrain of harming others. Insight (prajñā) by knowing how to act as well as his mastery of knowledge on science and art. International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Vartakāpītaka Jātaka (no. 16) 58 Southeast  Śarabha Jātaka (no. 25) 89-93 Southeast    Bisa Jātaka (no. 19) 64-68 Southeast   Mahābodhi (no. 23) Jātaka 81-85 Southeast   Ethical discipline (śīla) both in speech and body as the young quail’s speech was truthful and his reluctance to feed on living beings. Forbearance (kṣānti) by not retaliating to the king who intended to harm him. Ethical discipline (śīla) by saving the life of the king. Generosity (dāna) by giving protection. Meditative concentration (dhyāna) by being absorbed in meditation and being detached from sensory pleasures. Forbearance (kṣānti) through the absence of agitation or anger while enduring hunger. Insight (prajñā) by pointing out incorrect views and showing the right paths. Forbearance (kṣānti) by not harbouring resentment toward those who slandered him. Note: IBa: I = first floor, B = Balustrade, a = above or upper row Practicing Perfections in Tandem as a Path to Awakening The perfections as reflected in above seven selected Jātakamālā allegories imply that they are to be cultivated and practiced in tandem. Although a particular main perfection is focused upon, the analyses suggest that multiple aspects of pāramitās are contained in each allegory, hence implying that the pāramitās are to be practiced together. Each of the pāramitā actually reinforces one another, and collectively, constitute a more integrated practice of the path. With generosity, one is not preoccupied by miserliness and as a result, one can give without attachment, whether it be with material objects, love and protection, or teachings. With ethical 370 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 discipline, one is committed to give up harming others and maintain conscience in all actions. Forbearance allows one to endure unpleasant experiences and as a result, is not easily agitated or does not react negatively. Perseverance enables the other pāramitās and positive qualities to grow continuously, without getting exhausted or turning back. Meditative concentration causes one to be able to see and act with a clear mind, and minimizes distractions. Insight or wisdom brings the other pāramitās to perfections in the “highest” sense, i.e. free from grasping to inherent existence. The six perfections unite skilful means (upāya) and wisdom (prajñā), and hence become powerful. It is through the practice of the six perfections in tandem that one will be able to attain the highest potential of Perfect Awakening. Universal Values The Jātakamālā allegories, as a means of teaching using past events of former lives, contain universal values, which are not uniquely Buddhist. Seeing it as a means of education, these values manifest as positive qualities which appears in various forms, i.e. consideration, altruism, truthfulness, empathy, tolerance, ethics, impartiality, and an absence of a self-centered attitude. Therefore, the Jātakamālā allegories clearly demonstrate an engaged form of spiritual practices, which promote active engagement in society. As summarized by Rafe Martin (2010), the character, the great being “does not turn his back on the world and ignore the sufferings around him in order to attain his own peace. Instead he actively engages with the issues, problems, and difficulties of his circumstance and times” (p. 217). CONCLUSION Earlier studies correlated each allegory with a single theme (Speyer, 1895) or a single pāramitā (Chaloupková, 1989; Kwon, 1997). This study, which is based on a deeper analysis on the texts and the sutras, shows that multiple aspects of pāramitās are contained in one allegory. While the main pāramitā is more significant, the accompanying pāramitās may not always be immediately obvious. The fact that multiple pāramitās are contained in each allegory is substantiated by the sutras asserting that the pāramitās are to be practiced together, through the combination of skilful means (upāya) and wisdom (prajñā). Nonetheless, the study too has its limitations due to interpretive methods applied. Variations on the results may have occurred depending on the characteristics or aspects focused upon. Furthermore, in a deeper sense, one action of a bodhisattva may be driven by some, if not all, aspects of the perfections. By revisiting the teachings and the values contained in these Jātakamālā reliefs in Borobudur, it is hoped that the stone carvings may be viewed with a perspective that is relevant in 371 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 daily life. Understanding how the universal values are embodied in the reliefs will raise the appreciation towards our rich and marvellous cultural heritages, especially to the one-of-a-kind Borobudur. REFERENCES Appleton, Naomi and Shaw, Sarah. (2015). The Ten Great Birth Stories of the Buddha: The Mahānipāta of the Jātakatthavaṇṇanā. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. Berzin, Alexander. (n.d). Engaging in Bodhisattva Behavior by Śāntideva. August 10, 2020. https://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/original-texts/sutra-texts/engaging-inbodhisattva-behavior. Chaloupková, Lygžima. (1989). Ārya-śūra’s Jātaka-mālā as a Commentary to the Six Pāramitās in Tibet. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Vol. 43, No. 2/3, pp. 217- 222. Cœdès, George. (1930). Les inscriptions malaises de Çrīvijaya. Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, Volume 30, Numéro 1, pp. 29-80. Conze, Edward. (1994). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publication. Dharmachakra Translation Committee. (2020a). The Perfection of Generosity (Dānapāramitā). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh182.html. _______. (2020b). The Play in Full (Lalitavistara). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh95.html. _______. (2020c). The Sutra of the Question of Subāhu (Subāhuparipṛcchāsūtra). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh70.html. Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon. http://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/content/22/. Hahn, Michael. (2007). Gopadatta’s Jātakamālā on the First Complete Edition of Its 16 Extant Legends. Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 55, No. 3, March 2007, pp. 15-23. Internet Sacred Text Archive. https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/j1/index.htm. Janné, Hendrik. (2014). The Buddhist Jātaka Stories. An Analytical Survey of a Few Jātakas and Their Use in Schools in the City of Benares, Uttar Pradesh, India. Faculty of Social and Life Sciences, History of Religions, Karlstads Universitet, pp. 1-53. Kandahjaya, Hudaya. (2020). Kitab Suci Saṅ Hyaṅ Kamahāyānikan: Teks dan Terjemahan. Jakarta: Penerbit Dian Dharma. Kawamura, Leslie S. (2003). Pāramitā. In Robert E. Buswell (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 1: 631-632. USA: Macmillan Reference. Khoroche, Peter. (2003). Āryaśūra. In Robert E. Buswell (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism), 1: 32. 372 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Krom, N.J. (1927). Barabudur: Archaeological Description, Vol. I. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Kwon, Gihyun. (1997). An Analytical Study of the Origins and Development of the Jatakas. Thesis submitted for the degree of doctor of philosophy in Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology. Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University. Luce, G.H. (1956). The 550 Jātakas in Old Burma. Artibus Asiae, Vol. 19, No. 3/4, pp. 291-307. Martin, Rafe. (2010). Past Lives: Entering the Buddhist Imagination. Storytelling, Self, Society, Vol. 6, No. 3, September-December 2010, pp. 212-222. Wayne State University Press. Nowell, Lorelli S., Norris, Jill M., White, Deborah E., and Moules, Nancy J. (2017). Thematic Analysis: Striving to Meet the Trustworthiness Criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, Vol. 16: 1–13. Ohnuma, Reiko. (2003). Jātaka. In Robert E. Buswell (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism), 1: 400401. USA: Macmillan Reference. Padmakara Translation Group. (2020). The Transcendent Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Daśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh11.html. Roberts, Peter Alan. (2020). The White Lotus of the Good Dharma (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html. Sanskrit Dictionary. https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=pāramitā&iencoding=iast&lang=sans. Somathilake, Mahinda. (2013). Painted Jataka Stories of Ancient Sri Lanka. International Journal of Arts and Commerce, Vol. 2 No. 6, June 2013, pp. 139-150. Sonam, Ruth. (1997). Atisha’s Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment, Commentary by Geshe Sonam Rinchen. New York: Snow Lion Publications. Speyer, J.S. (1895/2010). Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth Stories by Āryaśūra (electronic ed.) July 1, 2020. https://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Garland-of-BirthStories/Garland-of-Birth-Stories.pdf. Sudimuja. http://www.sudimuja.com/id/. Sutopo, H.B. (2006). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif: Dasar Teori dan Terapannya dalam Penelitian. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret. Suzuki, D.T. (2007). The Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Takakusu, J. (1896). A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago. Oxford: Clarendon Press. The University of Edinburgh. https://jātakastories.div.ed.ac.uk/textual-collections/. Thurman, Robert A.F. (2019). The Teaching of Vimalakīrti (Vimalakīrtinirdeśa). August 10, 2020. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. https://read.84000.co/translation/toh176.html. 373 International Review of Humanities Studies www.irhs.ui.ac.id, e-ISSN: 2477-6866, p-ISSN: 2527-9416 Vol. 6, No.1, April 2021 (Special Issue), pp. 347-374 Vaidya, P.L. (1959). Jātakamālā. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning. August 1, 2020. http://www.dsbcproject.org/canontext/book/22. Vaismoradi, Mojtaba; Turunen, Hannele; and Bondas, Terese. (2013). Content Analysis and Thematic Analysis: Implications for Conducting a Qualitative Descriptive Study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 15, 398–405. Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd. Wisdom Library. https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pāramitā. Wu, Ming-Kuo. (2008). The Jataka Tales of The Mogao Caves, China: In Anthropological Perspective. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology. Washington State University. Zhu, Tianshu. (2012). Reshaping the Jatāka Stories: From Jātakas to Avadānas and Praṇidhānas in Painting at Kucha and Turfan. Buddhist Studies Review, Vol. 29.1, pp. 57-83. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The researcher wishes to express her gratitude to Salim Lee, who has inspired her to research this topic and who has provided valuable suggestions, and to Guido Schwarze for refining the English. 374