Syracuse: The founding, rise and fall of a greek colony

Syracuse: The foundation, rise and fall of a greek colony This presentation aims at analyzing the events, reasons and the process of the foundation of Syracuse. Furthermore, emphasis will be given on the civilization of the city regarding the evolution of culture, religion, language and its ethics. Moreover, other aspects of the city will be presented, such as the demographic development, the financial condition including agriculture, mining and trade. In addition, this essay shall endeavor to explain the cultural, political and financial relations with the founding state, as well as, its contribution to wars that shaped the ancient greek world, such as the Peloponnese War. Despite the political, economical and military facts concerning the survival of the city in times of crisis, attention will be paid on the socio-political structure of the city regarding the form of government and its institutions, the rights of residents, the gender inequalities and the place of women in the society. Moreover, diplomacy will also be included in the context, insofar as the survival of the city and its people were deeply connected to politics and the strong bond with other city-states, coalitions or even empires. Syracuse was also the seat of numerous leaders who played a pivotal role in the expansion, protection and military augmentation of the city. Also, some of them were students of renown philosophers and scholars of that time like Plato. These leaders dealt decisively with hurdles that threatened the very existence of the city, such as the city-state of Athens, Rome and Carthage. Therefore, it is considered crucial that a short citation must be made to those leaders. Finally, the reasons and consequences of the siege of the city and its subjugation to roman rule will also be analyzed thoroughly. The city itself is a monument of the ancient greek world that still affects the local and Hellenic identity. The establishment of Syracuse: the political, social and financial structure According to the archaeological archives and foundings, Syracuse was founded at 735/3 by Corinthians, descendants of Dories, one of the greek founding tribes. The founder of the city was Archias or Archytas who, according to the founding myth, first visited the temple of Delphi in an effort to receive a prophecy from the oracle. He had to choose between riches and health and as he chose the first, the oracle urged him to travel west. There, Archias founded the city of Syracuse on a small island called Ortygia where the first minor settlements were established. Jonathan Hall ( trans. Ioannis Xydopoulos), Ancient greek history: The archaic period: 1200-479BC, Ziti Publications, Thessaloniki, 2013, p. 151 Michael Scott, Space and Society in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2013, p. 112 Jeff Champion , The tyrants of Syracuse: War in Ancient Sicily, vol.1: 480-367BC, Pen and Sword Military, London, 2010, p. 21. Luca Cerchai, Lorena Janelli , Fausto Longo, The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily, Getty Publications, California, 20041. The establishment of Syracuse was part of a larger plan of colonization known as the Second Greek colonization which took place on Asia Minor, Southern Italy and Sicily during the 8th century. It is important to mention that the founding of a colony included a very thoughtful and careful plan. A plan was put to use, when people from the metropolitan Greece due to the lack of ressources, such as food and water, as well as due to the tough climatic changes that took place on the late 8th century, such as aridity, were forced to abandon their ancestral lands in order to seek to new areas in search not only for food, but also for adventure and trade. These people were separated in smaller groups that travelled sporadically one after another. J. Hall, p. 161-162, 171, 173. Unfortunately, the scientific research is very limited regarding the exact details of a colony’s founding during that era. All we know, is that there was a founder called oikistis, for whom we also have access to limited data, and a founding myth that contributes to the commemoration of the day the colony was established, a memory that was passed to future generations. According to modern research, the founder was named hero of the new city. Finally, more information about the founding of a city is located on coins, even on ceramic architecture. J. Hall, p. 152-153, 154, 157-158. Syracuse consisted of vast fields that could be farmed. These lands were steadily urbanized during the years and each settlement started expanding. Due to lack of archaeological data it is difficult to pinpoint the expansion and development of each settlement. We know for certain that the architecture of Syracuse followed the typical form of metropolitan greek city-state, known as polis or polis-kratos. The highest place of the city was called acropolis which provide a useful vantage point in order to observe the vast lands that lied beyond. On the center of the polis lied the agora, the political and financial place where the central market was located alongside important buildings and institutions responsible for the city’s administration. Moreover, this was the place where the court was built, together with the council of citizens which was responsible for crucial political decisions, such as the declaration of war and the sign of peace treaty. Regarding the architecture, on the central island of Ortygia where the first settlements were established, there lied the first huts and tombs of the colonists alongside the Sicilian monuments of the locals that lived there before the Dories. As we know, the place, where the market was founded and where the major buildings, statues and temples were found, was called asty which was separated from the vast farmlands by a central road axis. On asty various excavations brought to light numerous ceramic instruments and coins that proved the value of this city as a major for trade between Sicily, Greece, Syria and Egypt. M. Scott, p. 113-116. J. Champion vol.1, p. 38-39 It is vital to mention and analyze the social structure of Syracuse. Recent scientific researchers, such as Jeff Champion, Michael Scott and Luca Cerchai confirm that the hierarchy of the city was at first comprised of the elite class known as agathoi or gamoroi, meaning the good and virtuous landholders who stemmed from aristocratic tribes, the kakoi or demos who were the commoners and the slaves known as kylliroi. Furthermore, social disturbances and conflicts took place during the 7th and 6th that led to the overthrow of the elite class by the commoners and the slaves. Similar incidents also took place in Greece, for example in Athens between landholders and the simple folk whose freedom was dependent from the elites. However, during the 5th century the elites returned under the leadership of a man who was the first that imposed the political reign system of tyranny. Syracuse’s leaders and their reign will be thoroughly analyzed later. J. Champion vol.1, p. 46-47, 58. Luca Cerchai… p. 202. Despite some cultural and political differences, not all colonies shared the exact same political, financial, social and religious system with their mother state. For example, Syracuse starts adopting a different architecture, regarding the shape of temples, after the 6th century. In Syracuse the dominant style for constructing temples was the Ionian until that century. Moreover, variations and major differentiations can be observed in religion. In Corinth, the dominant gods worshiped by the populous were Poseidon, Hera and Aphrodite, while in Syracuse, mostly Aphrodite and Artemis. Also, not many burial artifacts imported from Syracuse can be found in Corinth during the 7th century, a factor that confirms a minimal connection between the two city-states, insofar as coins, jewelry, armor, weapons were put inside the tombs of the dead. More differences were observed between the burial rites of the two city-states. Nonetheless, both cities seemed eager to contribute to the PanHellenic monuments around Greece, such as the holy grounds on Olympia, where both cities erected their own holy treasures filled with offerings to the gods. Syracuse’s nostalgia for the motherland can be detected on these holy grounds which also hosted the Olympic games. Also, the close contact with Athens during the 6th and early 5th century led to a development in the field of arts and metallurgy in Syracuse. M. Scott, p. 117-118, 119. Another important factor which is vital to mention regarding the social structure of the city is the great inequality between the two sexes. According to ancient sources, such as Hesiod and Simonides, the ancient greek world was ruled by antifeminism. The reason behind this condition relates to the small and restricted place of women in ancient greek society. Moreover, the women were commonly treated as parasites to the man ruling presence and their only use was the perpetuation of the family. Their presence was limited to the domestic affairs of the house known as oikos. Furthermore, common women also worked in the fields, while the elite class used them as way to sign alliances through marriage. J. Hall. P. 277, 279. Syracuse during the 7th and 6th century engaged in warfare with the local Sicilian settlements conquering them and expanding its borders. Soon, it became a force to be reckon with and even established its own colonies, such as Kamarina. In the 5th century, Syracuse’s power was received as a threat to other city-states and kingdoms which resulted in war between Syracuse, Athens and Carthage. In most cases, the reasons for war between the above were the control of trade routes and ressources, as well as the expansion of political power and control over other provinces. The tyrants of Syracuse and conflicts with others During the Persian wars, Syracuse was convinced that the Persian Empire would conquer Greece. Therefore it aligned itself with the Persians through a secret treaty which was later revealed, something that had a negative impact on Syracuse’s reputation and trustworthiness in Greece. The reasons for allying with the Persians are mostly political and financial. For example, Syracuse’s governing system underwent many political turbulences and rapid changes, from oligarchy to democracy and then to tyranny, events that totally affected their political view about other city-states and kingdoms. M. Scott, p. 121. After the Persian Wars, Syracuse’s leaders attempted to strengthen their bond with Greece for political reasons by trying to imitate Athen’s and Sparta’s victories through victories over the Sicilians, Etruscans and Carthaginians. Herodotus, the historian, confirms even the adoption of Hercules as a symbol of valor in Syracuse. Also, numerous political implications which will be analyzed shortly led to improvement or aggravation in the relations between Syracuse and its mother state, Corinth. M. Scott, p. 123-124 Syracuse’s first tyrant was Gelon, the leader of Gela, another city of Sicilian origins. Gelon with the help of the overthrown by the commoners and slaves elite captured the city on the early 5th century. Quickly, the tyrant engaged in warfare both with the Sicilians and the Carthaginians. The latter were defeated in 480 BC on Himara, a city which was controlled by Syracuse. Carthage’s naval superiority forced her to target large and wealthy ports of other states in an effort to control more trade routes and have access to ressources.. After Gelon, his son Hieron the First also focused on political expansion on Sicely and Southern Italy by winning battles against the Etruscan League. Alas, he also ruled with an iron fist which led to incursions and soon to a coup from the democrats and a league of Sicilian states which overthrew him. Hieron’s end coincided with more political implications in Greece that led to conflicts, such as the Peloponnesian War ( 431-404 BC) between the city-states of Athens and Sparta, as well as their allies. Luca Cerhai…, p. 202-203. After the Persian Wars , Athens’s political power increased massively leading to a coalition known as the Delian League which was controlled by Athens. On the other hand Sparta’s also increased power in combination with a long year distrust towards Athens due to political and cultural differences led Sparta to form an alliance that rivaled Athens’s, know as the Lakedaimonian League. The first ten year period of this war is called Archidamios or Then year war from 431 to 421 BC. This period ended with peace, which was eventually short lived, known as the peace of Nicias. This peace was signed by all Greeks except Corinth and Thebes. The first didn’t sign because it was about to lose many of its lands, while Corinth lost to much and expected to win them back. Thebes and Corinth threatened to join forces with Argos by forming an alliance against Athens and Sparta, should their demands weren’t met. Facing such threat Athens and Sparta formed a temporary alliance which was disbanded after Argo’s defeat at Mantinea by Sparta. Jeff Champion vol.1, p.133-134. The second period of the Peloponnesian War is known as the Sicilian Expedition ( 415-412) which resulted in a war between Athens and Syracuse. After the death of the democratic leader Cleon, two new leaders rose to power from different social backgrounds, the first and elder was Nicias, a general and the second was the politician and general Alcibiades. Alcibiades was found guilty in a series of crimes and proposed to the council of demos an opened war with Syracuse in an effort to conquer a potential threat to Athens’s naval supremacy. So, in 416/5 Athens’s sent a small naval reconnaissance team to evaluate Syracuse’s defenses and pillage some minor ports which ended in an Athenian defeat. This event created a precedent which deteriorated the relations between the two city-states. On the other hand, Alcibiades known for his machinations betrayed Athens’s interests to Sparta which sent a small force of 4 ships under the command of Gyllipos. Athens retaliated by ravaging the lands of Catane and YvlaiaMegara, cities garrisoned by Syracuse’s forces. At late 415 BC plans were made for a siege of Syracuse, while some small battles took place, such as the battle of heights of Epipolai. These heights offered a vantage point over the city and its strategic value was immense. The heights were conquered briefly by the Athenians, while Syracuse sent a force of 600 hoplites to reclaim it. The battle ended in Syracuse’s defeat for Athens already held the high ground. After the battle, Athenians started building walls to cut off the city from supplies and destroying the underground water pipes in order to cause a water shortage. Jeff Champion vol. 1, p. 165, 167-168 After a long siege, Sparta arrived with reinforcements and relieved the Syracusians. Athens started losing ground and retreated to the ships, some of which were destroyed. A new attack commenced when general Demosthenes of Athens arrived with reinforcements of 73 ships on which embarked 5.000 hoplites and 3.000 light infantry. Demosthenes assumed command alongside with Nicias and Lamachus assaulting the walls of Syracuse under the cover of darkness, but in the end was forced to retreat after being outflanked and suffering heavy casualties. 2.000 Athenians were slaughtered by the Syracuse’s cavalry. Jeff Champion vol. 1, p. 188-191, 210-212. During the late 413 Athens suffered a major naval defeat losing 60 ships. Nicias fell into ambush and he was captured which cause disturbance in the Athenian lines. Finally, they suffered a decisive after almost a year of battles. More than 20.000 were killed or executed, while 7.000 were captured. Out of 50.000 Athenians only a few returned home. After this defeat Athens could not recover and signed a peace treaty with Sparta in 404 BC. Sparta imposed its own political system of oligarchy to Athens. Jeff Champion vol. 1, p.222-223, 232-235 Syracuse’s pride and popularity increased rapidly after the demise of Athens. Nonetheless, an old threat reappeared while the city was savoring the fruits of its victory. It was none other than Carthage which under leadership of Hannibal ravaged and conquered cities of Southern Italy, such as Selinous. Himara was also besieged by 40.000 Carthaginian troops and while Syracuse sent help, the city was captured and pillaged, while its inhabitants were put to the sword.. A last great battle took place in 406 BC at Akragas where 60.000 Carthaginians, Phoenicians, Libyans, Numidians and mercenaries pillaged the city. Jeff Champion vol. 1, p. 258-260, 267, 276 Luca Cerchai…, p. 204 Syracuse was in dire need of a new leader who could deliver it from total annihilation. That person was Dionysius the First, follower of Hermocrates who defended Syracuse against Athens. Dionysius gained progressively more political power through extortions towards the simple who didn’t want to lose their property. Dionysius’s basic aim was the restoration of syracusian authority in Sicily. He also succeeded in forcing poor citizens disappointed by democracy to join the ranks of his personal guard. Moreover, the year he attained power in 405BC, he also adopted the title strategos-autocrator which means supreme general. Finally, he managed through donations , theft of holy artefacts and high taxation to strengthen the navy and the fortifications around Syracuse. The war with Carthage lasted form 405 BC to 392BC. Dionysius also recaptured between 389 BC to 388 BC Rhegion, Ancona, Adria and Lissa, important ports in upper and middle Adriatic sea, while he also pillaged lands in Corsica and Etruria. In 369 a new war erupted with Carthage that led to the capture of Selinous and Agrigento by Carthage. After the death of Dionysius, Carthage signed a peace treaty which was endorsed by his son, Dionysius the Second. M. Scott, p.146. Jeff Champion vol. 1, p.279, 283-284, 285, 287, 295-297 Luca Cerchai…, p. 204. Dionysius the Second and his brother Dion were the new contestants for throne, while they had to deal with the threat of Syracuse. Dionysius ruled from 367-357 BC, then after his fall from power, regained the throne in 346 BC until 344BC. Dionysius also engaged in warfare with the Italians and more specifically, the Lucanians against whom he won and then proceeded in building new cities in order to commemorate his victory and deal with piracy. Another important event is Dionysius’s deep love for philosophy, his devotion encouraged him to invite Plato the philosopher to Syracuse, but soon the leader’s authoritarian behavior forced Plato to argue with him regarding the correct type of government and the virtues of a true leader. Plato was exiled eventually from Syracuse. Finally, in 357 BC Dionysius was overthrown by Dion whom he murdered in 346 BC, thus causing civil war. M. Scott, p. 147. Jeff Champion vol. 2. P.15-16, 17-18, 39, 54-55. Luca Cerchai…, p. 204. The civil war was intense and it was finally ceased by Timoleon the First, a Corinthian general who received an invitation from some Syracusians in order to intervene and stop the civil war. In 344 BC Timoleon seized the city of Syracuse, destroyed the royal palace on Ortygia, as well as the tombs of the tyrants. Then, he proclaimed himself strategos and successfully defended the city against Carthage. Timoleon’s reign rejuvenated Syracuse, though it was short lived as he died in 339 BC. More political incursions and civil war followed between the democrats and oligarchs until Agathocles, a democrat, made a coup by slaughtering the oligarchic council of 600 and proclaimed himself king. However, Syracuse was beaten and forced to sign a peace treaty in 306 BC. Luca Cerchai…, p. 204 The following until 278 BC were marked by civil war which was halted by the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Thrace and Macedonia who tried to rule Syracuse while also dealing with the Romans. After his defeat at Maleventum by the Romans however, he was forced to leave Sicily for good. A threat of a new civil war arose, but one of the supporter of Pyrrhus, Hieron the Second became general and then king. He ruled form 275 BC to 215 BC. M. Scott, p. 149 Luca Cerchai…, p. 205. Syracuse also participated in the First Carthaginian War ( 264-241 BC). The war began when an envoy of the Marmertins , pirates and mercenaries, arrived in Rome seeking its assistance against Carthage in exchange of roman occupation over their city. Although Syracuse formed an alliance with Carthage, they were both defeated at the siege of Messini, a roman city. With the peace treaty signed Syracuse was forced to pay 100 talants, while sustaining their control over Accra, Leontini, Yvlaia Megara, Helorus, Neetum and Tauromenium. Jeff Champion vol. 2, p. 288, 290, 294, 298 During the second Carthaginian War ( 218-202 BC), Hannibal Barca formed a secret alliance with Syracuse against Rome, while the tyrant Hieronymus, son of Hieron the Second sent 17.000 men against Rome. Hieronymus was murdered by roman supporters and a peace treaty was signed in 214 which didn’t last long for the anti-roman party retaliated by ravaging roman lands in Sicily. Therefore, the council of Roman citizens against the will of Senate decided the declaration of war against Syracuse. Jeff Championvol.2, p. 351, 363-364 The siege lasted almost two or three years. Marcellus, the roman general sent to deal with Syracuse sent ground forces to seize the norther gate, while 60 ships were sent to assault the sea wall of Achradina. Syracuse’s defenses were organized by the mathematician and inventor Archimedes who unleashed catapults and ballistae with flaming shots against the roman ships. Another invention was the arpagai, large machines that lifted entire ships from their stern and crushing them down. Moreover, Archimedes’ mirrors concentrated the sunlight on the roman ships causing them to be lit and destroyed by fire. Despite Rome’s blockade, Carthage sent a relief force of 23.000 men under the command of Himilco who was later defeated by the Romans in spite of some victories he achieved towards the Romans. The siege raged on and finally Marcellus realised that the only way to take the city was a careful machination which could help the Romans seize the city from within. Marcellus’s first attempt was to send exiled Syracusian aristocrats in order to convince their followers to incite a revolt. However, that plan failed, but one of the syracusian deserters sneaked into the city ann raised the gates, while the locals were celebrating Artemis. The roman army rushed forth and managing to claim a part of the city. The rest of it was seized 3 months later. The city was pillaged and many of its inhabitants were slaughtered as revenge against the so many Romans who lost their lives. Also, despite Marcellus’s orders to bring Archimedes to him alive, one soldier killed the mathematician in his quarters, while he was experimenting on something new . Jeff Championvol.2, p. 365-366, 368-369, 371-373, 379-380.