Ancient Yuezhi Gurjar States Notes on Central Asian History during 200 BC and its effects on later history, Role of Yuezhi migration in Ancient History of Central Asia, settlement of Yuezhi after migration and various theories about current form of Ancient Yuezhi tribe: (Gurjar/ Gujjar/ Gujar/ Gusar/ Gusur/ Khazar/ Ughar/ Gazar/ Gusarova) By: Adesh Kat ariya I m p or t a n t N ot e Ti ll n ow m an y Y u ez h i / Gu r j a r r esea r ch es p u bl i sh ed on t he h i st or y of Gr ea t t r i be bu t sch ol a r s a r e n ot i n p osi t i on t o cl a r i f y a l l h a p p en i n gs i n a ser i es. I n t h i s a r t i cl e, w e a r e t r y i n g t o com p i l e a l l h a p p en i n gs a s p er t h ei r t i m i n gs. W e a l so w ou l d l i k e t o cl a r i f y t h a t t h e m a t er i a l u n d er t h i s a r t i cl e i s n ot a cop y r i gh t m a t t er a n d m a i n m ot i v e of t h i s a r t i cl e i s, t o a t t r a ct good sch ol a r s t o d i scu ss a n d r esea r ch on t h e gr ea t Y u ez h i / Gu r j a r T r i be. - Adesh Katariya ( [email protected]) Ancient Yuezhi States: Xiūmì ( 休密) in Western Wakhān :(Region of modern Ishkashim): This easily defended t errit ory cont rolled all t he m ain st rat egic rout es nort h int o Badakhshan, sout heast over t he Dorah Pass (4,554 m or 14,940 ft ) t o M ast uj and Chit ral, and sout hw est t o t he Panjshir Valley and Kabul. “ There are t w o roads t ow ards Chit ral from Gow -khanah and Zé-bak; one leading t hrough t he dist rict of Sanglich and crossing t he chain of Hindú Kosh by t he pass named Dorah , nearly sout h of Zé-bak; t he ot her runs t o t he sout h-east , and affords t hree dist inct passes over t he mount ains. The rout e by one of t hese, t he Nuksan pass, has been recent ly t raversed and surveyed by one of M ajor M ont gomerie’s emissaries. The road int o Kaffirist an also leads by Sanglich, and t hence by a pass called t he Dozakh Dara , or valley of hell. – (Faiz Baksh).” Wood (1872), p. 202, n. 1. In this ancient period, Xiumi might have been bordered by the region of Ishkashim. Betw een Ishkashim and Wakhan stands the ancient fortress of Yamchum [= Qala Panja – Qal‘eh-ye Panjeh or Kila Panj], w hich w as in existence in the Kushan period, perhaps marking the border betw een Xiumi as a part of the Great Yuezhi and Nandou.” Shuangmi 雙靡 in theregion of Shughnān: In the Hanshu the capital of the xihou of Shuangmi is said to have the same name as the country. Shughnān was of great strategic importance. Not only was it on the track running through Wakhān to Badakhshān, but also formed the western terminus of an important route through the Pamirs leading north to Sary-Tash. Here it connected w ith tw o other major caravan routes. These w ere the main east w est route betw een Kashgar and dow n the Kyzyl Suu Valley tow ards modern Dushanbe, and the main route northw est into the Ferghana Valley and thence to Samarkand. Along the w ay to Sary-Tash there are at least tw o reasonably easy passes across the ranges to the east into the Kashgar oasis. They had the added advantage of avoiding the Ak Baital (‘White Horse’) Pass that, at 4655 metres (15, 272 feet), w as the highest pass on the route betw een Khorog and Sary Tash. Shughn ān was famous for its climate, good w ater and w ine. It w as also the source of the celebrated “ Balas rubies” (actually spinel, not t rue rubies) of the ancient w orld. Shughnān nowadays refers to the area centred near the modern town of Khorough (Korog) on the upper Oxus or Ab-i-Panj River, north of Ishkashim and the entrance to the Wakh ān Valley, but separated from them, and from lower Badkashān by narrow and difficult gorges. In winter, if the upper Oxus freezes over, it is sometimes possible to travel from Shughnān to Badakhshān on the ice, but this was not possible every year. Kushan 賣霜 [Kuei-shuang] : Kushan referred to the region of modern Badakhshān plus the adjoining region to the north of t he Amu Darya or Oxus river, part icularly t he Vakash and Kafirnigan valleys w here imit at ions of Eucrat ides and a number of coins of Heraos have been found. It seems likely t hat t heir cont rol may have included t he region around modern Dushanbe w here several import ant rout es converge: t he rout e nort h via Ayni and t hen w est t o Panjakent t o Samarkand; t he rout e nort h t hrough Aini and t he Ura Tyube oasis t o t he Ferghana Valley, and t he rout e t o t he nort heast along t he Alai valley t hrough Garm and Sary Tash t o Kashgar. According t o t he Chinese sources , it w as locat ed about 100 km east of Termez, in t he t errit ory lat er cont rolled by Heraus (cfr. Hulsew e & Loew e 1979, 122- 3, n. 296). The circumst ances of t he format ion (in t he first cent ury BC?) of t he five yabghu ment ioned by t he Chinese sources t ow ards Termez, in t he t errit ory w hich w as earlier occupied by t he Sacaraucae, have st ill t o be det erm ined (Hulsew e & Loew e 1979, 122- 3, n.296). Xidun 肹頓 [Hsi-tun] : It seems to have included at least the region of Bactra or Balkh and the Shibirghan oasis to the east. The name of the seat of the ruler of Xidun is given in the Hanshu as Bomao 薄茅 [ Po-mao ].This state w as located near Panjshir River. The heavily fortified tow n of Yemshi-tepe, just five kilometres to the northeast of modern Shibarghan on t he road to Akcha, is only 450 to 500 metres from t he now -famous necropolis of Tillya-tepe w here an immense treasure w as excavated from the graves of the local royal family by a joint Soviet -Afghan archaeological effort from 1969 to1979. This w as in the w esternmost section of ancient Bactria w hich had, by this time, been under Kushan rule for over a hundred years. Six royal tombs w ere excavated at Tillya-tepe revealing a vast amount of gold and other treasures. The latest date for any of these burials is indicated by the find of several coins dating up to the early 1st century CE with none dating from after that point indicating, presumably, the extinction of the local royal dynasty after the conquests of all the other Yuezhi xihou by Kajula Kadphises around the middle of the century. It is probably w orth quoting the discussions of the various coins found in the tombs – as they are critical for dating the burials. “ Tw o coins w ere recovered from t he t hird t omb. One is of gold and bears t he bust in profile of t he w reat h-crow ned Roman Emperor Tiberius. On t he reverse is an ent hroned, sumpt uously draped female figure holding a spray and scept er. Coins of t his order w ere mint ed in t he cit y of Lugdunum in Gaul, bet w een A.D. 16 and 21. t he Tillya-t epe coin is t he first case of such a coin t o be found not merely in Afghanist an, but in cont iguous Cent ral Asia. The second coin is silver and has on t he obverse t he st amped, bearded head of a ruler in profile w earing a diadem. Depict ed on t he reverse is a seat ed archer holding a bow in his right , out st ret ched hand; an inscript ion in Greek runs around t he rim. t he coin w as mint ed by t he Part hian king M it hridat es II, w ho ruled bet w een 123 and 88 B.C. Proceeding from t he lat er Roman coin w e may presume t he t hird t omb t o dat e from t he first cent ury A.D.” Sarianidi (1985), p. 34. Not e: M ark Passehle (personal com m unication, 7 July 2003) has kindly point ed out t hat G. R. F. Asssar (2003), VI, pp. 26-29, has recently “ proven” t hat M it hradat es II act ually ruled ca. Oct. 122 – Oct. 91 B.C. “ Discovered in t his fourt h t omb w as but one gold coin; it s obverse has embossed upon it a male figure rest ing on t he Wheel of Dharma and also carries and inscript ion in t he old Indian language (ill. 131). The reverse depict s a lion w it h upraised paw and carries t he inscript ion “ as fearless as a lion.” The coin is unique and w ill not be found in any numismat ic cat alogue in t he w orld. King Agat hocles from t he Greco-Bact rian cit y of Ai Khanoum is know n t o have mint ed a similar t ype of coin; furt her, t he lion w as oft en port rayed on coins st ruck by t he kings of ancient India and t he Sakas. Evident ly, t he coin is of a t ype st ruck during t he t ransit ional st age bet ween t he Indo-Greek and Kushan epochs, and most likely is of t he first cent ury A.D., w hen t he w arrior in t he fourt h t omb w as apparent ly int erred.” Ibid . p. 44. “ When t he dead w oman w as laid t o rest , a silver coin w as insert ed int o her mout h – quit e in keeping w it h t he Greek rit ual of int ernment , as t he coin w as int ended t o symbolize t he fee t o Charon for ferrying t he dead person across t he St yx t o Hades (ill. 129). Depict ed on t he obverse is t he embossed bust of a bearded king w earing a diadem t hat is knot t ed at t he nape of t he neck w it h long, flow ing ribbons. To one side t he coin has been count erst amped w it h t he design of a miniat ure helmet ed w arrior enclosed in a dot t ed circle. The reverse carries t he figure of an ent hroned archer and a Greek legend t hat t ells us t hat t he coin w as init ially st ruck during t he reign of t he Part hian King Phraat es IV (38-32 B.C.) The count ermark, w hich is of part icular int erest , w as impressed during t he reign of Sapaeisis, a nomad Yüeh-Chih t ribal chieft ain, w ho ruled Bact ria before t he rise of t he Great Kushan Empire. Not e t hat t he count erst amp w as neat ly added so as t o not damage t he port rait of t he reigning Part hian ruler, w hich, as expert s cont end, indicat es a cert ain degree of dependency of local pot ent at es upon t heir Part hian neighbours. Clasped in t he deceased’s left hand w as one more coin, t his one of gold (ill. 128). The obverse depict s t he profile of a bearded king w it h finely et ched feat ures, a slight ly aquiline nose, deep-seat ed eyes, and fullish lips; he w ears a round t iara. In t he empt y field behind his head is a heavily w orn count ermark in t he shape of a miniat ure full-faced head. The revers bears t he image of an ent hroned archer holding a bow , and along t he rim runs a Greek inscript ion ment ioning a Part hian king. No numismat ic cat alogue in t he w orld reproduces anyt hing like it , from w hich it m ay be deduced t hat t his gold Part hian coin is unique.” Ibid . pp. 52-53. It is clear from t he above finds t hat Shibarghan w as t he seat of an im port ant Yuezhi family up unt il t he early 1st cent ury CE. It seems very likely t hat it formed t he st ronghold of t he xihou of Xidun unt il Kujula Kadphises combined all five Bact rian (or Yuezhi) xihou int o a single unit y around t he middle of t he first cent ury. Alt hough much of t his fabulous t reasure now seems t o have disappeared during t he recent depredat ions of t he Taliban regime, t he det ails of t hese excavat ions and beaut iful colour phot ographs of t he ext raordinary finds have, most fort unat ely, been carefully preserved for us in a series of art icles and books by t he famous Russian archaeologist , Vikt or Sarianidi (see t he Bibliography under Sarianidi for some of w hat is available in English). Here is a survey of w hat lit t le has been preserved for us in t he lat er hist ory of Shibarghan unt il t he t ime of M arco Polo: Xuanzhang, aft er repeat ed ent reat ies from t heir kings, made brief visit s t o t w o ‘kingdoms’ t o t he sout hw est of Balkh: Ruimot uo [Jui-m o-t ’o] and Hushijuan [Hu-shih-chien]. “ The kings, being overjoyed, offered him gold and precious st ones, and abundance of drink and food ; t he M ast er of t he Law declined all such gift s, and ret urned.” Beal (1911), p. 51. The name of t he second of t hese ‘kingdoms,’ Hushijuan, w as, according t o Wat t ers (19045), p. 114, ident ified first by M . Saint M art in w it h t he dist rict t he Persians called Juskān (modern Jowzjān) bet w een Balkh and t he dist rict of M erv; t he main cit y of w hich w e know w as Shibarghan. This ident ificat ion appears t o be correct . Xuanzhang says about it : “ This count ry is about 500 li from east t o w est , and about 1000 li from nort h t o sout h. The capit al is 20 li in circuit [or, roughly 6.5 km based on t he Tang li equivalent t o about 323 met res]. It has many mount ains and river-courses. It produces excellent ( shen ) horses [lit erally: ‘divine’ or ‘Heavenly’ horses]. To t he nort h-w est is Dalajian.” Adapt ed from Beal (1884) I, p. 48. Not e: t his Dalajian seems t o be ident ical t o t he Talaqan of t he lat er M uslim w rit ers w hich has been variously ident ified in t he region of modern Chechakt u or Qala Vali (w hich are very close t oget her) about 200 km sout hw est (not nort hw est ) of Shibarghan. It w as on t he upper east ern reaches of t he M urqap River t hat flow s int o t he M erv oasis and considered Persian t errit ory at t hat t ime. Dumi 都密 [Tu-mi] : almost cert ainly refers t o ancient Tarmit a (m odern Termez), on t he nort h bank of t he Oxus or Amu Darya, and probably included t he w hole of t he Surkhan Darya region w here “ Heliocles imit at ions dominat e by far” (Sebast ian St ride, email, 5 January 2003). Also, see Pulleyblank (1963): pp. 124, 213, 222-223; and t he excellent discussion in CICA, p. 122, n. 296. Yu (1998), pp. 27-28 proposes t hat t his w as t he principal court of t he Da Yuezhi sit uat ed nort h of t he Oxus River at t he t ime w hen Zhang Qian visit ed t he region c. 119 BCE and lat er on (presumably aft er Yuezhi pow er became cent red in Bact ra [= Lanshi/ Jianshi?] became t he seat of one of t he xihou . This suggest ion makes very good sense bot h on st rat egic grounds and commercial grounds and t he fact w e also know it w as a major cent re for t he Yuezhi/ Kushans. Termez not only cont rolled one of t he major crossing point s of t he Oxus, but t he nort hern approaches t o Bact ra/ Balkh, t he major t rading cit y of t he region. These included t he main rout es leading from Kashgar via Xiuxun and along t he valley of t he Kizyl Su river past t he region of modern Dushanbe, and t he rout es leading sout h over t he ranges from t he Ferghana Valley. It w as also st rat egically placed t o guard t he w est ern approaches t o t he region along t he river and w as close enough t o maint ain cont rol over t he st rat egic “ Iron Gat es” guarding t he main rout e t hrough t he Hissar range from t he plains of Sogdiana t o t he nort h. Yu (1998), pp. 27-28 agrees w it h t he ident ificat ion of Dum i w it h Termez/ Taram it a/ Tirmidh and adds t he int erest ing and suggest ion t hat : “ The Da Yuezhi had possibly est ablished it s principal court in Tirm idh at t he beginning of t heir conquest of Daxia. Lat er, aft er having moved t heir capit al t o t he sout h of t he River Gui [Oxus], t he Da Yuezhi might have est ablished anot her Xihou in Tirm idh.” Lat er, as t hey gained more secure cont rol of t he region, t hey presumably moved “ seat of government ” across t he river t o Bact ra (now Balkh), t he largest and most im port ant cit y of t he region, about 50 km t o t he sout h, leaving Termez t o become one of t he five xihou . Now , t he Hanshu (see CICA, pp. 138-139) says t hat t he “ seat of t he king’s government ” of Xiuxun (called Xiuxiu in t he W eilue) w as in t he Niaofei Valley (‘t he valley w here t he birds fly’), and t hat t he Da Yuezhi w ere 1,610 li [669 km] t o t he w est . This is almost exact ly t he figure one get s if one measures on t he map along t he valley from t he region of m odern Dushanbe t o Bact ra/ Balkh, providing addit ional support for bot h ident ificat ions. Zhang Qian's Trip to Central Asia: When Chineese Emperor Jingdi got ent hroned in 156 B.C., he cont inued t he int er-marriage policy. At one t ime, King of Zhao, t oget her w it h Chu King and Yue King, for sake of rebelling against t he emperor, had request ed w it h t he Huns for support . Once Zhao rebellion w as quelled, Huns agreed t o int er-marriage. Huns had small scale border harassment t hroughout Emperor Jingdi's reign.Han Em peror Wudi's Abort ive At t empt At Ambushing t he Huns It w ould be during t he reign of Emperor Wudi (140-86 BC) t hat t he Chinese fought back w it h t heir regular enemy Huns . Huns and Chinese t raded w it h each ot her at t he foot of t he Great Wall t ill a Han emissary from M ayi cit y w as dispat ched t o t he Huns for set t ing up a t rap t o ambush t he Huns. Huns w ere seduced t o Wuzhou-sai border garrison w it h t he offer of riches of M ayi cit y. A Han general by t he name of Wang Hui w as t he person w ho proposed t hat Han army set up a t rap t o at t ract t he Huns int o an ambush. Yushi Dafu Han An'guo led 300,000 army and set up a t rap at M ayi, but Hunnic Chanyu, suspicious of t he quiet ness along t he w ay, caught a Han capt ain [Shi Xingjiao at Yanmen] w ho disclosed t he ambush scheme. Huns, in t he number of 100,000 cavalry, fled home. Chanyu conferred t he t it le of " t ian-w ang [heaven king]" ont o Shi Xingjiao. Wang Hui, w it h 30,000 men, did not dare t o at t ack t he Huns w hen Huns ret reat ed and he w as imprisoned for his cow ardice. Hence t he Huns declined int er-marriage and began t o raid int o China frequent ly. Ban Gu st at ed t hat t he Huns also t raded w it h Han Dynast y in border fairs at t he same t ime. From t he mout h of a defect ing Hun, Emperor Wudi learnt about t he relocat ion of t he Yueh-chih (Yuezhi) M ajor t o t he w est of t he Huns. Hence, in 138 B.C.E., Wudi sent an emissary called Zhang Qian, a Hun guide called Tangyifu (Ganfu) and 100 people on a t rek across t he w est . Zhang Qian w as arrest ed by t he Huns soon, and he w as forced t o live among t he Huns for dozens of years and he had married and bor n t w o children. Zhang, how ever, did not forget about Wudi's order, and he fled w it h his Hun guide t o t he w est and reached t he st at e of Dayuan [Daw an] (Kokand?, Fergana Valley) at about 128-127 B.C.E. Wit h t he assist ance from Dayuan [Daw an] king, he w as escort ed t o Kangju w here t he Kanju king assist ed him furt her on his t rip t o Bact ria, t he place w here t he Yueh-chih (Yuezhi) M ajor had set t led dow n. Aft er a st ay of about one year, Zhang Qian ret urned east at about 125 B.C.E. Zhang Qian , recorded his observat ions, w hich provide an insight int o t he sit uat ion on t he nort h side of t he Oxus at t hat moment . Zhang Qian w rot e: " ...t he Great Yuezhi live ... nort h of t he Gui Oxus river. They are bordered on t he south by Daxia Bact ria and on t he w est by Anxi Part hia... They are a nat ion of nomads, moving from place t o place w it h t heir herds... They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer w arriors." A descript ion of t he Greco-Bact rian kingdom made by Zhang Qian aft er t he conquest by Yuezhi is revealing: " Daxia Greco-Bact ria is locat ed ... sout h of t he Gui Oxus river. It s people cult ivat e t he land and have cit ies and houses. ... It has no great ruler but only a number of pet t y chiefs ruling t he various cit ies. The people are poor in t he use of arms and afraid of bat t le, but t hey are clever at commerce. Aft er t he Great Yuezhi moved w est and at t acked t he lands, t he ent ire count ry came under t heir sw ay. The populat ion of t he count ry is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capit al is called t he cit y of Lanshi Bact ra, present -day Balkh and has a market where all sort s of goods are bought and sold. ... The men have deep-set eyes and ... are skilful at commerce and w ill haggle over a fract ion of a cent ." On his ret urn t rip he w as again capt ured by t he Xiongnu w ho again spared his life because t hey valued his sense of dut y and composure in t he face of deat h. Tw o years lat er t he Xiongnu leader died and in t he midst of chaos and infight ing Zhang Qian fled back t o China w it h Hunnic w ife, t w o children and t he Hun guide. Sima Qian and hist ory chornicles called Zhang Qian's t ravel t o t he w est by t he t erm of " piercing t he vacuum " as an eulogy of his personal verificat ion of t he West . Zhang Qian's reports The report s of Zhang Qian's t ravels are quot ed ext ensively in t he 1st cent ury BCE Chinese hist oric chronicles " Records of t he Great Hist orian" (Shiji) by Sima Qian. Zhang Qian visit ed direct ly t he kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, t he t errit ories of t he Yuezhi in Transoxiana, t he Bact rian count ry of Daxia w it h it s remnant s of Greco-Bact rian rule, and Kangju (康居). He also made report s on neighbouring count ries t hat he did not visit , such as Anxi (Arsacid t errit ories), Tiaozhi (M esopot amia?), Shendu (Pakist an) and t he Wusun. Dayuan (Ferghana): Count ries described in Zhang Qian's report . Visit ed count ries are highlight ed in blue. Zhang Qian st art s w it h a report on t he first count ry he visit ed (aft er his capt ivit y among t he Xiongnu), Dayuan, inFerghana, w est of t he Tarim Basin. They are considered by him as sophist icat ed urban dw ellers, on t he same foot ing as t he Part hian and t he Bact rians. The name Dayuan (meaning Great Yuan), may be a t ranslit erat ion of t he w ordYona used t o designat e Greeks, w ho occupied t he region from t he 4t h t o t he 2nd cent ury BCE. " Dayuan lies sout hw est of t he t errit ory of t he Xiongnu, some 10,000 li (5,000 kilomet ers) direct ly w est of China. The people are set t led on t he land, plow ing t he fields and grow ing rice and w heat . They also make wine out of grapes. The people live in houses in fort ified cit ies, t here being some sevent y or more cit ies of various sizes in t he region. The populat ion numbers several hundred t housand" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Yuezhi (Tocharians) Aft er obt aining t he help of t he king of Dayuan, Zhang Qian w ent sout hw est t o t he t errit ory of t he Yuezhi, w it h w hom he w as supposed t o obt ain a milit ary alliance against t he Xiongnu. " The Great Yuezhi live some 2,000 or 3,000 li (1,000 or 1,500 kilomet ers) w est of Dayuan, nort h of t he Gui (Oxus) river. They are bordered t o t he sout h by Daxia (Bact ria), on t he w est by Anxi, and on t he nort h by Kangju (康居). They are a nat ion of nomads, moving place t o place w it h t heir herds and t heir cust oms are like t hose of t he Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer w arriors." (adapt ed from Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Zhang Qian also describes t he origins of t he Yuezhi, explaining t hey came from t he east ern part of t he Tarim Basin, a m oment ous explanat ion w hich has encouraged hist orians t o connect t hem t o t he Caucasoid mumm ies, as w ell as t o t he Indo-European-speaking Tocharians t hat have been ident ified from precisely t he same area: " The Yuezhi originally lived in t he area bet w een t he Qilian or Heavenly M ount ains (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang, but aft er t hey w ere defeat ed by t he Xiongnu t hey moved far aw ay t o t he w est , beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), w here t hey at t acked t he people of Daxia (Bact ria) and set up t he court of t heir king on t he nort hern bank of t he Gui (Oxus) river." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Daxia (Bactria) Zhang Qian probably w it nessed t he last period of t he Greco-Bact rian Kingdom , as it w as being subjugat ed by t he nomadic Yuezhi. Only small pow erless chiefs remained, w ho w ere apparent ly vassals t o t he Yuezhi horde. Their civilizat ion w as urban, almost ident ical t o t he civilizat ions of Anxi and Dayuan, and t he populat ion w as num erous. " Daxia is sit uat ed over 2,000 li (1,000 kilomet ers) sout hw est of Dayuan (Ferghana), sout h of t he Gui (Oxus) river. It s people cult ivat e t he land, and have cit ies and houses. Their cust oms are like t hose of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of pet t y chiefs ruling t he various cit ies. The people are poor in t he use of arms and afraid of bat t le, but t hey are clever at commerce. Aft er t he Great Yuezhi moved w est and at t acked and conquered Daxia, t he ent ire count ry came under t heir sw ay. The populat ion of t he count ry is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capit al is Lanshi (Bact ra) w here all sort s of goods are bought and sold." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t ranslat ion Burt on Wat son). Shendu (Northwest Part of India) Zhang Qian also report s about t he exist ence of Shendu sout heast of Bact ria. The name Shendu (身毒) comes from t he Sanskrit w ord " Sindhu" , meaning t he Indus river of Pakist an. Sindh w as one of t he richest regions of India at t he t ime, ruled by Indo-Greek Kingdoms, w hich explains t he report ed cult ural similarit y bet w een Bact ria and India: " Sout heast of Daxia is t he kingdom of Shendu (Sindh, Pakist an)... Shendu, t hey t old me, lies several t housand li sout heast of Daxia (Bact ria). The people cult ivat e t he land and live much like t he people of Daxia. The region is said t o be hot and damp. The inhabit ant s ride elephant s w hen t hey go in bat t le. The kingdom is sit uat ed on a great river (Indus)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Anxi Zhang Qian ident ifies " Anxi" as an advanced urban civilizat ion, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and [16] Daxia (Bact ria). The name " Anxi" is a t ranscript ion of " Arshak" (Arsaces), t he name of t he founder of Arsacid Empire t hat ruled t he regions along t he silk road bet w een t he Tedzhen river in t he east and t he Tigris in t he w est , and running t hrough Aria, Part hiaproper, and M edia proper. " Anxi is sit uat ed several t housand li w est of t he region of t he Great Yuezhi. The people are set t led on t he land, cult ivat ing t he fields and grow ing rice and w heat . They also make w ine out of grapes. They have walled cit ies like t he people of Dayuan (Ferghana), t he region cont ains several hundred cit ies of various sizes. The coins of t he count ry are made of silver and bear t he face of t he king. When t he king dies, t he currency is immediat ely changed and new coins issued w it h t he face of his successor. The people keep records by w rit ing on horizont al st rips of leat her. To t he w est lies Tiaozhi (M esopot amia) and t o t he nort h Yancai and Lixuan (Hyrcania)." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Tiaozhi Zhang Qian's report s on M esopot amia are in t enuous t erms. He did not himself visit t he region, and w as only able t o report w hat ot hers t old him. Tiaozhi (M esopot amia) is sit uat ed several t housand li w est of Anxi (Arsacid t errit ory) and borders t he West ern Sea (Persian Gulf/ M edit erranean?). It is hot and damp, and t he people live by cult ivat ing t he fields and plant ing rice... The people are very numerous and are ruled by many pet t y chiefs. The ruler of Anxi (t he Arsacids) give orders t o t hese chiefs and regards t hem as vassals. (adapt ed from Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Kangju (康居) northwest of Sogdiana (粟特) Zhang Qian also visit ed direct ly t he area of Sogdiana (Kangju), home t o t he Sogdian nomads: " Kangju is sit uat ed some 2,000 li (1,000 kilomet ers) nort hw est of Dayuan (Bact ria). It s people are nomads and resemble t he Yuezhi in t heir cust oms. They have 80,000 or 90,000 skilled archer fight ers. The count ry is small, and borders Dayuan. It acknow ledges sovereignt y t o t he Yuezhi people in t he Sout h and t he Xiongnu in t he East ." (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Yancai 奄蔡 (Vast Steppe) " Yancai lies some 2,000 li (832 km) nort hw est of Kangju (cent ered on Turkest an at Beit ian). The people are nomads and t heir cust oms are generally similar t o t hose of t he people of Kangju. The count ry has over 100,000 archer w arriors, and borders a great shoreless lake, perhaps w hat is now know n as t he Nort hern Sea (Aral Sea, dist ance bet w een Tashkent t o Aralsk is about 866 km)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quot e, t rans. Burt on Wat son). Socond Trip of Zhang Qian: About 124-123 B.C.E., Zhang Qian w as sent on anot her t rip t o t he w est , t his t ime t o visit ing t he Wusun people. M eanw hile, Wudi sent search t eams across Sout hw est ern China t o look for t he pat h of India t o Bact ria. In 123, Zhang Qian assit ed Wei Qing in campaigning against t he Huns, and t he next year, assist ed Li Guang on anot her campaign. Aft er China defeat ed t he Huns and t ook over t he West ern Corridor t errit ory, Emperor Wudi dispat ched dozens of m issions t o t he w est , w it h up t o t en missions in a year somet imes, and st affed by as many as several hundreds of people. Wudi's anot her object ive w as t o check out t he source of t he Yellow River, w here t he legendary M t . Kunlun, i.e., t he land w here t he im mort als lived. In anot her w ord, Han Em peror Wudi, like Qin Emperor Shihuangdi, w as looking for t he elixir. Ot her t han The Legends of t he M ountains and Seas, ancient classics Er Ya st at ed t hat t he Yellow River originat ed from t he Kunlun-xu, i.e., t he Ruins of Kunlun, and hint ed Kunlun t o be t he land of jade, w hile classics Yu Ben Ji st at ed t hat t he same, hint ing t hat Kunlun could be as t all as 2,500 li. Hist orian Sima Qian ridiculed Han Emperor Wudi and emissary Zhang Qian for t heir seeking t he myt hical Kunlun t hat did not exist in his opinion. Emperor Wudi, in frust rat ion, personally pinned t he mount ain sout h of t oday's Khot an t o be M t . Kunlun. (Possibly follow ing t he m ore reliable " m ount ains" component of The Legends of t he M ountains and Seas, some lat er Chinese w rit ing, as cont ained in t he " w est ern [w it hin t he over-]seas" sect ion and t he " w est ern [overseas] w ilderness" sect ion, st at ed respect ively t hat Kunlun-xu w as locat ed t o t he nort hw est of China and t hat Kunlun-qiu [hill] w as bet w een t he Chi-shui [Red Wat er River] and Hei-shui [Black Wat er River]. Hit orical Chinese records point t o Kunlun as t he source of jade and diamond t rade; how ever, not hing part icular beyond Chinese Turkist an w as ment ioned. The t rade on t he Silk Road did not flourish t ill hundreds of years lat er. In hist ory, t here w ere at least t w o pat hs t hat could have more im port ant roles t han Silk Road 2000 years ago. Cert ainly, t he sea rout es also exist ed bet w een Rome and China, by w hich t he silk had act ually been shipped rat her t han via t he more precarious land of conflict ing st at elet s and t ribes. The precarious nat ure of t he Road across desert s could be see in General Li Guangli's losing 80% of his soldiers w hen he first campaigned against Dayuan [Daw an] (Kokand?, Fergana Valley) in 104 BC. (People w ho claimed nomadic propagat ion of horse and cavalry t o China m ight propose a nort hern belt rout e. Should w e read t he Chinese records, t hen w e oft en encount ered passages like t he nomads losing 6-7 out of 10 people and cat t le during some st orms. A good example of t he same kind of precarious nat ure on t he st eppe could be illust rat ed in Zhizhi Chanyu's losing t he bulk of fight ers during t he relocat ion t o Kang-ju t errit ory. While Zhizhi Chanyu st at ioned in t he Jiankun t errit ory, Sogdia king int ended t o at t ack t he Wusun St at elet w it h t he Hunnic assist ance. Zhizhi Chanyu arrived in t he dest inat ion w it h only 3000 remnant s.) Upon Zhang's ret urn from t he w est , aft er a span of 13 years, Emperor Wudi first ordered 4 expedit ions t o t he sout hw est of China t o search for a rout e t o India. This is because Zhang Qian report ed t hat he saw Ju-jiang (some kind of spicy sauce), Zangke (a place in t oday's Sichuan Province) bamboo product s (Qiong-zang) and Sichuan clot hing (Shu-bu) w hich t he Bact ria merchant s said w ere shipped over from India. Wudi got in t ouch w it h t he Yelang St at elet and Dian-Yue St at elet et c. A gold seal w as conferred upon t he Dian-yue king. Political Structure Of yuezhi Kingdom in Bectria: The locat ion of t he royal court of t he Da Yuezhi nort h of t he Amu Darya at t he t ime of t he visit of t he Chinese envoy Zhang Qian is not know n. There are different t heories, t w o of w hich are short ly described: 1. Lazlo Torday point s out : “ The great German Iranist M arquart recognised in t he Yuezhi t he t ribe know n t o Pt olemy as t he ‘Iat ioi’…The most likely Han-period pronunciat ion of Yüeh-shih w as * Yw at i, sounds w hich a Hellenist ic source could only have t ranscribed as Iat i (oi)…Pt olemy marks t he Yüeh-shi (Iat ioi) along t he low erm ost sect ion of t he Jaxart es.The king’s camp w as, t herefore, in t he ‘Scyt hian delt a’, formerly t he sit e of K’ang-chü w int er camps, in t he vicinit y of Babish M ulla, Balandy and Chirik, sit es w hich give clear indicat ion of having been suddenly abandoned in t he middle of t he second cent ury BC.” 22 2. Craig G.R. Benjamin point s out : “ By 128/ 7 BC t hen, t he Yuezhi w ere w ell est ablished at ‘t he seat of t he (king’s) government ’ at Jianshi (Khalchayan?), and in t heir m ost comfort able posit ion for decades…t hey had est ablished t hemselves in a st rongly-fort ified posit ion in t he Surkhan Darya valley, and had subdued t he ext ensive, w ealt hy and organised st at e of Bact ria t o t he sout h, w here t he land w as ‘rich and fert ile and seldom t roubled by invaders. They w ere also prot ect ed by an import ant buffer st at e in Kangju/ Sogdia, w hich already acknow ledged nom inal sovereignt y’ t o t he Yuezhi Thus, Jianshi, t he seat of t he royal court of t he Yuezhi at t he t ime of early conquest , might be locat ed at t he middle sect ion of t he Oxus River w hich w as bordering Anxi. There is low probabilit y t hat t he royal seat w as at t he Bokhara oasis. Therefore it m ight be possible t hat Jianshi, t he royal court of t he Yuezhi nort h of t he Amu Darya, w as locat ed in t he Kashka Darya region. Near modern Karshi, t he capit al of t he Kashka Darya region, t he impressive (1.5x1.5km2) nomadic cit y of Kala-i Zakhoki M aron has been found w hich due t o t he archaeological cont ext w as built in t he second t o first cent ury BC.28 This sit e might have been Jianshi, t he early Yuezhi capit al nort h of t he Oxus river. First Yuezhi-Perthian W ar Around 124 BC, t he Yuezhi became involved in a w ar w it h t he Part hians t o t he West . King of Pert hians w as Artabanus II ( ruled t he Part hian Em pire from c. 128 t o 124 BC. The son of Phriapat ius, he succeeded his nephew Phraat es II). In Bat t le, Pert hian king Dead. " During t he w ar against t he Tokharians, he w as w ounded in t he arm and died immediat ely" Just in, Epit omes, XLII,2,2. His successor M it hridat es II pushed t he Yuezhi back int o present -day Afghanist an, w here t he final blow against t he Graeco-Bact rian Kingdom t ook place. Strabo (t he lat e 1st c. BC–early 1st c. AD Greek hist orian) recorded t he fall of t he Graeco-Bact rians at t he hands of t he Yuezhi, w hich he referred t o as Scyt hians, Tochari and Tokharians: " M ost of t he Scyt hians ... are are called Dahae Scyt hae ... but each t ribe has it s peculiar name. All, or t he great est part of t hem , are nomads. The best know n t ribes are t hose w ho deprived t he Greeks of Bact riana, t he Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, w ho came from t he count ry on t he ot her side of t he Jaxart es, opposit e t he Sacae and Sogdiani meaning t he Tarim Basim in Cent ral Asia and ext reme w est ern China." — St rabo, Geography Rat her t han be annihilat ed by t he Yuezhi advance, t he last Graeco-Bact rian king Heliocles I - t he final successor t o Eucrat ides t he Great - ret reat ed and move his capit al sout h t o t he Kabul Valley. As t he Yuezhi set t led in Bact ria, circa 125 BC, t his gave t hem cont rol of t he main, and increasingly busy, overland t rade rout es bet w een China, India and t he West . Now t hey leaved nomadic w ays and adopt ed Hellenized w ay of life, living in populat ed set t lement s, preserving t he Greeks' agricult ural and t rading syst ems, adopt ing t he Greek alphabet and mint ing GraecoBact rian-st yle coins. This not only quickly made them rich and pow erful, but t heir exposure t o Persian, Hellenic and Indian cult ures helped t urn t hem int o a more sophist icat ed and effect ive force. It is t hought t hat before t hey ent ered Bact ria t hey w ere not lit erat e. The area of Bact ria t hey sett led came t o be know n as Tokharist an, since t he Yuezhi w ere called Tókharoi by t he Greeks. Yuezhi became very pow erful in t his region. The biography of t he Chinese General Ban Chao in t he Hou Hanshu says in 94 CE t hat t he Yuezhi w ere arranging a marriage of t heir king w it h a Kangju princess. The Chinese t hen sent " considerable present s of silks" t o t he Yuezhi successfully gaining t heir help in pressuring t he Kangju t o st op support ing t he king of Kashgar against t hem. The Yuezhi cont inued expansion sout h int o t he Hindu-Kush mount ains is presumed, given t hat t he last Indo-Greek king in Hindu Kush — Hermaeus (ruled c. 90–70 BC) — had no successor. As before, t he Yuezhi emulat ed t he coins of Hermeaus. Time from BC 70 t o AD 1 w as very crucial for Yuezhi. At t his t ime, t hey gained pow er and M oney from Indo-Greek Kingdom .In AD 1, Heraios / Heraus / M iaos become chief of Kushan Clan of Yuezhi. Act ually, Heraios is t he first recognisable Kushan ruler, gaining mast ery w it hin t he Yuezhi confederat ion and m int ing his ow n coins. How ever, it is his successor w ho really unifies t he confederat ion and leads it t o conquest . In BC 80, Head of Kushan St at e, Heraios dead and Prince Kujula Kadphesis become King. In BC 65-45, Kujula Kadphesis at t acked on ot her four st at es and all regions come under Kushana Kingdom. " ...t he prince [xihou] of Kushan, named Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises], at t acked and ext erminat ed t he four ot her xihou. He est ablished himself as king, and his dynast y w as called t hat of t he Kushan [Kushan] King. He invaded Anxi [Indo-Part hia], and t ook t he Gaofu [Kabul] region. He also defeat ed t he w hole of t he kingdoms of Puda [Pakt iya] and Jibin [Kapisha and Gandhara]. Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises] w as more t han eight y years old w hen he died." —Hou Hanshu In the Hou Hanshu 後漢書, ch. 88 (Memoir on the Western Regions), the origin and rise of the Guishuang 貴霜 are recorded as follows: Formerly, when the Yuezhi 月氏 had been destroyed by the Xiongnu 匈奴, they moved to Daxia 大夏 and divided the country into the five Xihou 翖侯 of Xiumi 休密, Shuangmi 雙靡, Guishuang 貴霜, Xidun 肹頓, and Dumi 都密. More than a hundred years later, the Xihou 翖侯 of Guishuang 貴霜 [named] Qiujiuque 丘 就卻 attacked and destroyed the [other] four Xihou 翖侯 and established himself as king; the state was named Guishuang 貴霜. [This] king invaded Anxi 安息, took the country of Gaofu 高附, and, moreover, destroyed Puda 濮達 and Jibin 罽 賓 and completely possessed their territory. Qiujiuque 丘就卻 died at the age of more than eighty years, and his son Yangaozhen 閻膏珍 succeeded him as king. He in his turn destroyed Tianzhu 天竺 and placed there a general to control it. Since then the Yuezhi 月氏 have been extremely rich and strong. In the various states [their ruler] is always referred to as “the King of Guishuang 貴霜,” but the Han 漢, basing themselves upon the old appellation, speak about “the Da Yuezhi 大月氏.” It is generally accepted that Qiujiuque 丘就卻, the founder of the Guishuang 貴霜 Dynasty, is identical with the Kujula Kadphises shown on the coins and inscriptions of the Kushans. Therefore, the predecessor of the Kushan Dynasty is undoubtedly the Xihou 翖侯 of Guishuang 貴霜, one of the five Xihou 翖侯 of the Da Yuezhi 大月氏. Since the memoir claims that the Da Yuezhi “divided the country into the five Xihou 翖 侯 of Xiumi 休密, Shuangmi 雙靡, Guishuang 貴霜, Xidun 肹頓 and Dumi 都密” after they had moved to the land of Daxia 大夏, it appears that the five Xihou 翖侯 (including the Xihou 翖侯 of Guishuang 貴霜) were the Da Yuezhi 大月氏 people. Moreover, this point seems to be confirmed by the assertion that “the Han 漢, basing themselves upon the old appellation, speak about ‘the Da Yuezhi 大月氏’” after Qiujiuque 丘就卻 had unified the other four Xihou 翖侯 and established the Kushan Dynasty. Kujula issued an ext ensive series of coins and fat hered at least t w o sons, Sadaṣkaṇa (w ho is know n from only t w o inscript ions, especially t he Rabat ak inscript ion, and apparent ly never have ruled), and seemingly Vima Takt o. Kujula Kadphises w as t he great grandfat her of Kanishka. References:  Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1400829941.   Falk, Harry. 1995–1996. Silk Road Art and Archaeology IV.  Falk, Harry. 2001. "The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the Kuṣāṇas." Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII, pp. 121–136.     Falk, Harry. 2004. "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta records." Harry Falk. 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