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How do we know or cognise? Is statistics enough? Will we ever learn? Can we unlearn?
This is an overview and examination of some major trends in epistemology. The first part deals with the classic definition of knowledge as justified true belief. After efforts that span millennia, little progress seems to have been made to address the ancient skeptics' infinite regress argument regarding justifications for knowledge claims. The approach taken here deals with the notion of justification itself and how it is used in actual defenses of knowledge claims. The need for a more robust discussion of the concept of the burden of proof is suggested and offered as a research objective in epistemology. Finally, a distinction is made between the philosopher's definition of 'knowledge' and the meaning of 'knowing' that is understood in ordinary conversations. This leads into a critical analysis of the Lakoff-Johnson claim that knowing-is-seeing is an unconscious metaphor that caused many philosophers to be confused about epistemology. Knowing Has Many Parts The great virtue of our language is its flexibility, its utter practicality. The ability to create common nouns helps us to break up into manageable parts what is otherwise the vast continuum of reality. These break points are based on perceived similarities of various kinds. If we had to come up with a new word for every little difference, language would be too difficult to learn and share with others. That is why our language is inherently vague. This is especially true when it comes to words referring to mental phenomena, phenomena we now know are somehow related to activity in the most complicated entity in our known universe, the human brain. The words we use to refer rather casually to its processes and products, words like 'knowledge', are fundamentally vague. Philosophers have done their best to
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Knowledge attributions of the form "knowledge-how to" (or "know-how" for short) seem to relate agents to action types, in contrast to "knowledge-that" attributions, which relate them to true propositions. Given the connection of know-how with representation and truth is not evident, many have assumed that it is not an object of genuine epistemic concern. There are two ways of overcoming this impasse and envisage an epistemology of know-how. The first one is intellectualism, and it holds that know-how is propositional knowledge after all. The second one is anti-intellectualism, and it holds that knowledge, as such, is not always oriented towards forming true representations. The topic of know-how is associated with Gilbert Ryle (1945, 1949), champion of anti-intellectualism, but what sparked the contemporary debate on the topic was Jason Stanley and Timothy Williamson (2001) intellectualists account. Highly contested for methodological and exegetical reasons, that proposal was followed by a number of theoretical alternatives on both the intellectualist and the anti-intellectualist side. Besides this debate, the issue of know-how challenges us with two distinct and hardly conciliable desiderata: one related to skill and the other one to rationality.
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