”Enterprise Theory and Practice” Doctoral School
UNIVERSITY OF MISKOLC
Faculty of Economics
Zsolt Pál
Analysis of the Hungarian clearing system’s operation
in the light of the settlement modernization
Thesis statements of the dissertation
Academic supervisor: Levente Kovács, PhD
Head of the Doctoral school: Prof. Klára Szita Tóth
Miskolc, 2014
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CONTENTS
1. JUSTIFICATION OF THE TOPIC .................................................................. 4
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY..... HIBA! A KÖNYVJELZŐ
NEM LÉTEZIK.
3. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES.............. HIBA! A KÖNYVJELZŐ NEM LÉTEZIK.
4. NEW FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH ............. HIBA! A KÖNYVJELZŐ NEM
LÉTEZIK.
5. SUMMARY EVALUATION .......................................................................... 22
6. FURTHER RESEARCH DIRECTIONS ........................................................ 22
7. PUBLICATIONS OF THE AUTHOR RELEVANT TO THE TOPIC.............. 24
REFERENCES................................................................................................. 25
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1. Justification of the topic
Interbank clearing is one of the most important server systems of the economy, major
element of every countries’ – having two-trier banking system – financial infrastructure.
The clearing between the participants comes from the business operations, processes.
Analysing it can demonstrate the “circulation” of the economy.
Hungary, thanks to continous development in the past 20 years and the main milestones
in the recent past, performs well in this area, corresponding to the expectations of the
European Union.
Knowing the clearing system may help to examine the economic processes enabling the
planning of the turnover or other infrastructure. Beyond the reach and maintenance of
the desirable banking service for clients the clearing system may provide useful
information for the macroeconomic forecasts.
I have been dealing with the financial aspects of the European integration since I have
started my doctoral studies. Earlier I made examinations concerning the eurozone, and I
used the results in conference precentations and publications as well as in the education.
During the 5-year education I took part in educating European financial markets and EU
policies, I currently educate International finances and International financial
management for BSc full-time and part-time students. These two courses’ curriculum is
related to the field of my researches.
A few years ago I started to show interest in the European payment systems, and the
next step was the analysis of the Hungarian clearing systems. It was complemented with
my interest in the networks and the opportunities of their analysis. At the beginning I
was working on the network theory independently of my economic researches therefore
the books I have read were related to other disciplines (physics, mathematics). Later I
realised, that the network theory can be a relevant tool of examining the interbank
turnover, thus this methodology appears in my dissertation – as well as other
mathematical statistical analysis.
The subject of my research is the Hungarian interbank clearing system (BKR), that is,
during my analyses I examined the different types of internal transactions of the
Hungarian credit institutions. Hereby the segment in the payment system was
determined as well as the geographical framework, which is Hungary (though in some
cases I also use other European countries’ data).
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Figure 1: Time horizon of the research
Source: author’s own work
The period of the automated clearing means the time horizon of the research. The more
extended time horizon of the research includes the whole years of the automated
clearing, that is, between 1 st January 1995 and 31st December 2012. In a narrow sense
the interval is between 1st January 2004 and 31st December 2012. (Figure 1)
2. Research objective and methodology
The main aim of my researches is to examine the development of the interbank clearing
system by analysing the payment system. In order to achieve this goal I aspired to learn
the characteristics of the Hungarian clearing turnover and to explore the global and local
characteristics of the network between settlements.
Before and during the dissertation the following major research problems were
identified:
1) Which factors affect the most the turnover of the GIRO? What are the reasons
for recessions and stagnation? What can be concluded from these tendencies
concerning the economic conditions?
2) How do the single clearing events (e.g. payment of wages, pension payments,
payment of taxes etc.) influence the seasonality of the interbank clearing?
3) What are the characteristics of the transaction’s weekly distribution? Can we say
that clients don’t prefer to submit payment orders on the last day of the week?
4) What kinds of factors affect the intraday settlement of the interbank clearing
transactions? What are the main effects of the realisation of InterGIRO2 project?
5) What kind of network do the bank relations between settlements define? What
are the main characteristics of the network?
6) How can the role of the network nodes be quantified? What kind of role does the
capital city have in the clearing network?
5
7) What kind of relationship exists between the network characteristics of the
clearing system and the geographical aspects of the clearings?
In order to solve the research problems I divided the dissertation into three larger
sections:
Formation and antecedents of the Hungarian clearing system
-
Historical overview: presenting the Hungarian payment system through the
formation and development of the clearing services in Hungary (Chapter 3)
-
The greatest milestone of the Hungarian automated clearing system’s
development is the recently introduced intraday clearing. The detailed
presentation of the InterGIRO2 project helps to understand the current
operation of the interbank clearing. (Chapter 4)
Examining the temporal distribution of the turnover: During the analysis the
different transaction types, the order submitting habits of the credit institution
clients and the government’s role in the temporal concentration of the BKR
items are being presented. (Chapter 5)
Network analysis of the clearing turnover: The clearing system is being
presented from a different point of view, by analysing the clearing transactions
between Hungarian settlements with network theory methods. This way we can
learn more about the topology of the system and the payment role of the
settlements.(Chapter 6)
6
The necessary databases for the analyses are set-up according to the information
from the European Central Bank, European Payments Council, European
Banking Federation, Central Statistical Office, Hungarian SEPA Association
and the data services of the GIRO Zrt and Hungarian Central Bank.
In order to solve the research questions mathematical statistical and network
theory analysis methods were applied. The related theories, definitions and the
methods used during the examination are presented partly in Chapter 2 and in
the following chapters, parallel to my analyses.
For setting up the hypothesis I used scientific basis as well as the practical
experience of the banking sector.
3. Research hypotheses
In line with the questions previously set, the following hypotheses were
formulated (Table 1).
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Table 1: Research hypotheses
Hypotheses
Testing methods, procedures
H1 The uneven temporal distribution of the
interbank clearing system is mainly
because of the treasury items.
Examination of seasonal
variations based on specific
indicators. Creating „calendarmap” data visualizations showing
the clearing turnover.
H2 The clients of the credit institutions in the
system that doesn’t use intraday
settlement usually attempt to avoid
transactions on the banking day before
bank holidays. This phenomenon does not
occur or occurs less in the intraday
settlement system.
Analysis of variance
(Two Sample t-Test
and testing the conditions).
H3 The network of the Hungarian interbank
transactions between settlements is a
complex, dynamic system which creates a
complete, scale-free graph.
Degree distribution, (power
function) fit testing.
H4 In the Hungarian interbank clearing
system Budapest predominates.
The
capital is an outstanding key element of
the whole turnover system. Removing this
element from the graph may cause the
loss of the network’s complexity and its
decomposition into components.
Calculation of the general
network indicators, motif
statistics, clique identification
H5 Learning the characteristics of the
interbank clearing graph’s nodes may
reveal new, relevant information about
the role of the settlement in its network
and geographical environment and in the
national clearing system. An indicator
from the network theory’s toolbar can be
used to characterize the positions of the
settlements in the clearing graph.
Quantification of central
indicators, setting up rankings
(network nodes).
H6 The operation of the clearing system does
not fit into the territorial administration’s
county and region rankings.
Examining the modularity,
clustering based on the ClausetNewman-Moore algorithm.
Source: author’s own work
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4. New findings of the research
The change in annual turnover of the clearing transactions was easily recognised from
the databases (Figure 3). However, during my researches I also payed much attention to
the characteristics and seasonality of the clearing within a calendar year.
Transaction number (million)
Transaction value (thousand billion Ft)
Figure 3: Trends of the clearing transaction turnover (1995-2012)
Source: author’s own work based on GIRO Zrt. data
For testing the first hyposthesis (H1) it was expedient to examine the behaviour of each
transaction by types. During the analyses my objective was a parametrization for
showing the node days of the interbank clearing system by traffic – the darker cells
stand for them. The effect of the bank holidays is eliminated by taking the averages of
the days from the examined 9 years. Thus the only days we don’t have data are the fixed
national and religious holidays, like 15th March, 20th August, 23rd October and
Christmas (since these days were never banking days during the examined period).
Figures demonstrating the clearing data of the years’ transaction types are included in
the dissertation and its second annex. Figure 4 shows all of the transactions in one
visualisation.
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Value of all clearig transactions (Ft)
Number of all clearig transactions (piece)
Figure 4: Distribution of every interbank transaction on calendar days
(átlagos daily awerage number and volume of transactions, in 2004-2012)
Source: author’s own work based on GIRO Zrt. data using Tableau 8.0 software
The individual transfer is the most frequently used payment method thus mainly its
effect predominated in the analysis of the transactions.
The impact of the taxing deadlines in the case of individual transfers is significant.
Group transactions include the payment of pensions (deadline: the 12th day of the
month) and the payment of wages by the larger companies and institutions (on the first
10 days of the month). The group collecting stands for the retail clients’ payments (fees
of utility and other services). Debiting the client account of the client is concentrated on
the period after the payment of wages, to the middle of the month. Thesis 1 (T1) was
formulated based on these results.
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T1: The outstanding turnover periods of the interbank clearing system can be
explained by the high temporal concentration of treasury related transactions.
Aware of the taxing deadlines, payment habits and bank calendar the turnover
peak days can be predicted. That makes the planning of the clearing infrastructure
more efficient.
The next step of the temporal analysis of transactions is to examine the numbers and
values of the transactions on each day of the weeks. For the analysis I chose individual
transfer transaction type, because of the payment anomalies that were learnt previously.
Since examining this type makes the – external force-free - preferences of the clients to
understand easier.
In the examined period between 1 st January 2004 and 1 st July 2012 transactions were
accounted on the very next banking day of the order. Between 2nd July 2012 and 31st
December 2012 the vast majority of the transactions were realised in the intraday
clearing system. The first step to compare the two periods was the examination of
transactions’ distribution between the days of a week (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Daily awerage number and volume of the BKR transactions
Source: author’s own work based on GIRO Zrt. data
The conclusions drawn from the figure proved the H2 hypothesis. However, comparing
Fridays and Mondays is not sufficient comparison of the banking days before and after
bank holidays has become necessary. It means the examination of the data on the day
before bank holiday (BE), the first day after bank holiday (BU1) and the second day
after bank holiday (BU2). The analysis made from the period of the intraday clearing
system (second half-year of 2012) and the same period of the previous year (second
half-year of 2011).
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For comparing the simple transfer data before bank holidays and after bank holidays I
applied the Two Sample t-Test. The t-Test’s result revealed that there’s no significant
difference (sig=0,090) between the BE and BU1 days’ average of the simple transfer
value in the second half-year of 2012. Analysing the volume of the individual transfers
the t-Test shows significant deviation (sig = 0,003) between the mean values of BE and
BU1 days.
In the case of the examination for the same period of the year 2011 the results of the tTest show that there’s a significant difference between the averages of the BU1 and
BU2 days’ transfer values on the second part of 2011.
Based on the results of the calculations the following thesis (T2a, T2b) were formulated.
T2a: In the InterGIRO1 clearing system the clients – due to the lost interest as a
result of the increased lead-time – used to avoid transactions on the banking days
before bank holidays.
T2b: The introduction of the intraday clearing system made the weekly
distribution of the transactions more consistent. The main reason of this tendency
is the rational reaction of the business clients.
In Chapter 5 the monthly seasonal deviations of the clearing and the distribution of the
bank transactions are being examined before and after the introduction of the intraday
settlement.
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In the following the examination of the interbank clearing is accomplished with network
theory methods (Chapter 6). In the examined two months (September and October
2008) the clearing house – an average of one month – transacted more than 22 million
transactions in the value of around 6000 billion. The distribution of this turnover
according to the geographical “attachment” can be seen on Figure 6.
Turnover
independent from
Budapest
Intra
settlement
turnover
Intra
settlement
turnover
(outside
Bp.)
Budapest
related
turnover
Transactions
inside the
capital
Number
(thousand)
Number
(thousand)
Value
(billion Ft)
Value
(billion Ft)
Figure 6: Geographic distribution of the interbank clearing transaction turnover
Source: author’s own work
For testing the H3 hypothesis it must be examined whether the clearing graph between
the settlements can be considered as a random or scale-free network. First I had to
determine if the degree distribution of the graph’s nodes can be described with a power
function. I carried out calculations for the probability of the clearing network’s
settlements for particular degrees. These probabilities can be seen on the following chart
(Figure 7).
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Figure 7: Fitting the power function to the degree distribution
Source: author’s own work
The result of the examination was that the function
fits to the values of the degree probability of the clearing network’s settlements with
87,69% accuracy. Therefore the degree distribution of the network’s settlements can be
described by a power function with 88% accuracy.
Analysing the database with the software showed that the network is single component
and dynamic, thus the following thesis was formulated:
T3: The interbank clearing transactions of the clients maintaining their accounts in
Hungary create a complex, dynamic network. This payments graph – partly due to
the high degree of Budapest – is a complete, single component, scale-free network.
Because of the H4 hypothesis it was reasonable to analyse the network’s other
characteristics as well as the existence of the small world feature. In addition, further
analyses, focused on the nodes (clique identification, cluster analysis) were
accomplished for the network. For examining the position of Budapest and the other
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settlements I attempt to choose a network indicator that is capable to demonstrate the
financial centrality of the settlements (H5 hypothesis).
Most commonly in the network theory the roles of the nodes in the graph is
demonstrated by using the centrality indicators. In the Chapter 6 (6.5.1) of the
dissertation the most important centrality indicators are defined (Figure 8). The
indicators are being quantified for the examined network and the 25 best performed
settlements according to the given indicator are shown in a table.
High
centrality
Degree centrality
Eigenvector centrality
Low
centrality
Closeness centrality
Betweenness centrality
Figure 8: Meaning of the different centrality indicators
Source: author’s own work using Claudio Rocchini’s network-visualization
During the examinations I have come to the conclusion that the eigenvector centrality
can be used to indicate a settlement’s clearing activity.
The following treemap shows the settlement’s payment centrality (based on the
eigenvector centrality) compared to the settlement’s population (Figure 9).
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Figure 9 (next page): Financial centrality and population of the settlements in the
network
Source: author’s own work using IBM Many Eyes
Abbreviations of the regions:
KM:
ÉA:
ÉMO:
KD:
DA:
NYD:
DD:
Central Hungary
Northern Great Plain
Northern Hungary
Central Transdanubia
Southern Great Plain
Western Transdanubia
Southern Transdanubia
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Size: Population
Color: Eigenvector centrality
17
To test the indispensability of the capital in the binary network topology I removed
Budapest as a network node and I observed the change of the graph. The same was done
with the cities of the previously identified 55-clique. (The clique-identification revealed
that there are 55 Hungarian settlements that are related to each other regarding to the
clearing. This settlement group – included Budapest – considered as a significantly
determinant of the network’s topology.)
According to the software analyses removing the settlements of the subgaph does not
cause the fragmentation of the network. The intra-group transactions of the 55-clique’s
settlements form a bridge between the certain clusterings of the network. Therefore the
H4 hypothesis is only partly proved.
The research experiences were summarised in Thesis 4 and 5 (T4a, T4b and T5).
T4a: The structure of the Hungarian clearing network is dominated by a group
with 55 cities in between there is cash flow to all of the possible directions that
creates a complete subgraph.
T4b: Budapest is a dominant junction of the binary clearing network but its role in
the network is not extremal. Mainly due to the scale-free characteristics and the
small-world graph the network outlasts the theoretical cessation of the nude
without changes in its topology and complexity.
T5: The eigenvector centrality is a network index, which can be used to indicate a
settlement and its economic environment’s role in the cash flow system.
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At the end of Chapter 6 the testing of the hypothesis 6 (H6) is accomplished. For the
testing a modularity index is required that is related to the topology of the network.
Modularity demonstrates the quality of the clustering.
The assumption from the hypothesis is confirmed by the low modularity in the case of
the counties and regions:
Modularity of the counties : 0,0977;
Modularity of the regions: 0,1423
Cluster algorithm was used to determine clusters of the graph’s nodes where the
modularity is the highest. The clustering is based on the Clauset-Newman-Moore
algorithm. The locations of the created groups can be seen on Figure 10.
Groups:
Figure 10: Geographical location of the settlement groups based on ClausetNewman-Moore algorithm
Source: author’s own work using NodeXL software
Clustering using the algorithm created three clusters according to which the modularity
value is 0,2778. Comparing this value with the ones in case of the counties or regions it
demonstrates significantly better quality of clustering. The defined units – in particular
cluster G2 and G3 – are overlapped with each other with regard to spatial expansion.
According to the figure in this case of clustering there aren’t separations concerning the
counties and regions. The conclusion is that the network topology of the turnover (and
the economy) does not fit to the spatial administrative units.
Thesis 6 (T6) gives a short summary of the findings of clustering network analysis.
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T6: In Hungary the interbank clearing between settlements isn’t carried out
according to regional statistical or administrative units.
In a lot of cases the attempts of the graph’s representation also proved the results in the
dissertation. However the high density, intense clustering, the 55-clique and the huge
size of the network make the spectacular visualisation of the whole graph nearly
impossible. The following network visualisation (Figure 11) is an example for the
representation of a part of the graph which shows the most important turnover relations
of each settlement. The outgoing arrow demonstrates the settlement’s largest amount of
outflowing cash and points to the receiving settlement. The capital is not included in the
analysis.
Additional remarks to Figure 11:
the size of the circles (nodes) and the size of the settlement (on the basis of the
population) are proportional (shows only the settlements with more than 10000
inhabitants)
the thickness of arrows (edges) is proportional to the transaction value (Ft)
the colour of the circles demonstrates the counties
the county seats are demonstrated by a blank circle
the locations of the county seats are more or less right but the other settlements’
locations may differ from the reality
20
Figure 11: The most important partners of the settlements
Source: author’s own work using NodeXL software
21
5. Summary evaluation
In the beginning of my researches the main goal was to find answers for the major
questions concerning the operation and development of the Hungarian interbank
clearing system and to learn the characteristics of the clearing turnover and the payment
habits of the Hungarian bank clients. 6 hypotheses were formulated from the research
problems, which problems were identified during the initial phase of my work and came
up during the process.
The historical background of the current Hungarian clearing system is included in the
dissertation’s Chapter 3, demonstrating the institutions, participants and characteristics
of the national payment systems. It was the base of the next Chapter, which includes the
detailed review of the intraday clearing system what was introduced in the recent past.
After forming the theoretical background I examined my hypotheses. This process
appears in the fifth and sixth chapter of the dissertation. I formulated my research theses
based on the analysis of the temporal and network distribution of the clearing turnover. I
hope these will mean significant and practicable outcomes for the players of bank sector
and for other decision makers in the economy.
The past fifteen years have been decisive in the history of clearing services in Hungary,
in the emergence and development of automatic clearing. The most remarkable
development was the introduction of the intra day clearing and the SEPA standards.
We obtained most of the statistical data (e.g. KSH) related to the economy with a delay
of several months. The clearinghouse’s data concerning the transactions are partically
immediately available, so the analyses – that are not only based on single data services made from them would place the GIRO in an important economic forecasting position.
The following research plans are, at the same time, my suggestions for the examined
areas.
6. Further research directions
Additional questions and problems formulated during my work mark out several new
potential research directions:
In order to keep track of the conformity of clients the effect of the intraday
clearing system should be examined again in possession of new data.
The new (SEPA) standard provides an opportunity to structured data
transmission, more detailed than the transactions. The demand on this service
by the companies should be assessed.
I am planning to conduct network analyses in the case if international
transactions. (e.g. CLS system)
I would like to examine the national clearing system in such a way that instead
of the settlements the bank branches are considered to be the nodes. This
examination would demonstrate competitive position of the clearing participants
and would help to explore the economic prossesses within the settlements.
22
The network analyses focusing on geographical units or transaction types may
provide a solution to local economic problems. GIS supported spatial analyses
may complement the network theory’s toolbar during these examinations.
In addition, I consider it important to note that the publication of my research results –
primarily in English – is among my short-term plans.
It would be reasonable to publish a book which demonstrates the national payment
systems and their international relations, because of the lack of research on clearing
turnover, and thereby the lack of Hungarian literature in the topic. Publishing a book
would be a great help in educating some part of the topic.
In the case of some of the intended researches we may face difficulties in the
availability and secrecy of data. However, during the consultations the experts of the
MNB and GIRO Zrt. were seemed to be co-operating in connection with solving these
problems, thus there is good chance of the examinations being realised.
I hope that with my current dissertation and intended further works I can contribute to
the widespread popularisation of the awareness of clearing system’s importance.
Furthermore, I also hope that the scientific explanation of the research problems, the
formulated theses and my suggestions may be useful for other researchers.
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7. Publications of the author relevant to the topic
[2007] „Euro or Dollar? – Effects of the euro zone enlargment” microCAD 2007
International Scientific Conference 22-23 March 2007, University of Miskolc, ISBN
978-963-661-756-1
[2011] „A napközbeni elszámolás bevezetésének hazai és nemzetközi előzményei”
InterGIRO2 – Napon belüli elszámolás tanulmánykötet, pp. 20-30. Magyar
Közgazdasági Társaság Pénzügyi Szakosztály, 2011. TAS Kiadó Bp. ISBN: 978-96386705-7-1)
[2011] „Hungarian Clearing Turnover in the Context of the Past Fifteen Years”
szakcikk (társszerző: Dr. Kovács Levente), Theory Methodology Practice , December
2011, Vol.7./No.1., pp. 41-50, Kiadó: Miskolci Egyetem, ISSN: 1589-3413
[2011] „A napon belüli elszámolás előzményei, megvalósítása és gazdasági hatásai”
előadás a Miskolci Egyetem Gazdaságtudományi Kar „Tudásalapú társadalom –
Tudásteremtés – Tudástranszfer – Értékrendváltás” VIII. Nemzetközi Tudományos
Konferenciáján, 2011. (társszerző: Dr. Kovács Levente, megjelent elektronikusan a
konferencia előadás kötetében) ISBN 978-963-661-951-0
[2012] „A pénzügyi infrastruktúra fejlesztése és várható hatásai Magyarországon”
szakcikk (társszerző: Dr. Kovács Levente), Hitelintézeti Szemle 14. évfolyam 1. szám,
Magyar Bankszövetség, Budapest, ISSN 1588-6883
[2012] „A hazai elszámolásforgalom az elmúlt másfél évtized tükrében” szakcikk
(társszerző: Dr. Kovács Levente), Észak-magyarországi Stratégiai Füzetek 2011. VIII.
évf. 2. sz., pp. 15-29., Kiadó: Miskolci Egyetem Világ- és Regionális Gazdaságtan
Intézet, ISSN 1786-1594
[2012] „A magyar elszámolásforgalmi rendszer jövője” előadás, Zöld gazdaság és
versenyképesség – Károly Róbert Főiskola XIII. Nemzetközi Tudományos Napok,
Gyöngyös 2012. március 29. (Megjelent elektronikusan a konferencia előadás
kötetében) ISBN 978-963-9941-53-3
[2013] „A bankközi klíringforgalom időbeli megoszlása” szakcikk, Hitelintézeti Szemle
12. évfolyam 6. szám, Magyar Bankszövetség, Budapest, ISSN 1588-6883
[2013] „Egyszerű átutalások naptári héten belüli karakterisztikája” szakcikk,
Napközbeni átutalás projekt 2010-2012 (tanulmánykötet), GIRO Elszámolásforgalmi
Zrt., Budapest, ISBN 978-963-86819-5-9
[2014] „A magyarországi települések közötti bankközi pénzforgalom földrajzi és
globális hálózati jellemzőinek vizsgálata” szakcikk, Területi Statisztika /megjelenés
alatt/
24
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