Environmental Science and Pollution Research https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05461-y RESEARCH ARTICLE Growth, accumulation and uptake of Eichhornia crassipes exposed to high cadmium concentrations Eliana Melignani 1,2 & Ana María Faggi 3 & Laura Isabel de Cabo 2 Received: 26 November 2018 / Accepted: 14 May 2019 # Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2019 Abstract A greenhouse experiment was performed to evaluate the growth, accumulation, and uptake rate of Eichhornia crassipes subject to high cadmium concentrations. Three doses of Cd were added to polluted river water (1, 5, and 10 mg Cd/L), and polluted water with basal Cd concentration (0.070 mg/L) was used as a control. The experiment lasted for 7 days. Signs of stress and toxicity were visible in all treatments from day 3 of the experiment. The growth of the water hyacinth was slightly stimulated in the presence of low Cd concentration (1 mg/L), but this could also be due to the chloride and other nutrients present in the polluted water. Cd was accumulated mainly in roots, showing a maximum concentration of 1742.1 mg Cd/kg dw (10 mg Cd/L). The translocation from roots to leaves was low, with a maximum accumulation of 147.4 mg Cd/kg dw (10 mg Cd/L). The uptake rate for roots reached a maximum of 248.7 mg Cd/kg·day while the uptake rate for leaves did not saturate in the range of the studied concentrations (max. 20.8 mg Cd/kg·day). The water hyacinth showed promising results for the application in the treatment of Cd-polluted waters given its ability to tolerate high Cd concentrations in the media (up to 10 mg Cd/L) and its capacity for uptake and accumulation. Keywords Aquatic plants . Trace elements . Water hyacinth Introduction Environmental pollution caused by trace elements has become a serious issue worldwide. In nature, the mobilization of metals, such as Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, Cr, Cu, or Ag, in the biogeochemical cycles is minimum. These elements are mainly Responsible editor: Elena Maestri * Eliana Melignani [email protected] 1 Present address: Instituto de Micología y Botánica – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Av. Int. Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Universitaria, C1428EGA Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina 2 Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales BBernardino Rivadavia^ – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Av. Ángel Gallardo 470, C1405DJR Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina 3 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Flores, Pedernera 275, C1406EEF Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina found in reservoirs, but mining extraction and its subsequent processing for different applications release them to the environment (Ali et al. 2013). Urbanization, industrialization, and transportation, among other human activities, favor the dispersion of trace elements in the water and the atmosphere (Nagajyoti et al. 2010). Cadmium (Cd) is considered a non-essential element that negatively affects all types of organisms. It is highly soluble in water and it has been classified as an element of intermediate toxicity (Sanità di Toppi and Gabbrielli 1999; Benavides et al. 2005). It is frequently used in the industry of electroplating, pigments, plastic stabilizers, and batteries, and it is a by-product of phosphate fertilizers (Lux et al. 2011; Gallego et al. 2012; Tran and Popova 2013). Cadmium alters plant growth and development by interference in the uptake, transport, and use of various elements (Ca, Mg, P, and K) (Benavides et al. 2005). It reduces the absorption of nitrates and its transport from root to shoot, affecting the water balance in the plant, and it also has negative effects on membrane phospholipids and photosynthesis metabolism (Sanità di Toppi and Gabbrielli 1999; Benavides et al. 2005; RodríguezSerrano et al. 2008; Tran and Popova 2013). Environ Sci Pollut Res Among the most industrialized and crowded areas in the world, there is a river located in Argentina that is considered one of the ten most polluted sites in the world (ECYT-AR 2011; Bernhardt and Gysi 2013). In the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires, the Matanza-Riachuelo river (MR river), a typical plain river, is subject to strong anthropogenic disturbances (Gómez 1998), in particular the lower part of the basin, called BRiachuelo.^ Trace elements are among the most conspicuous contaminants in water, soil, and sediments in the basin, and phytoremediation has been proposed as a likely strategy to decrease this burden (Basílico et al. 2016). Phytoremediation involves the use of plants to reduce the concentration or toxic effect of different kind of pollutants (trace elements, organic compounds, and other xenobiotics) in the environment. Plants can modify contaminants in a variety of processes (removal, reduction, transformation, mineralization, degradation, etc.). This technology poses many benefits since it is efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly (Ali et al. 2013). Among the plants that have been tested for phytoremediation purposes, many floating macrophytes have shown great capacity of tolerance and absorption of heavy metals. Salvinia (Phetsombat et al. 2006; Dhir and Srivastava 2011), Lemna (Khellaf and Zerdaoui 2010), Pistia (Sukumaran 2013), Eichhornia (Rezania et al. 2015), and Azolla (Sood et al. 2012) are among the most studied genera (Ali et al. 2013; Dixit et al. 2015; Rezania et al. 2016). Various species of floating macrophytes have been able to tolerate and absorb high Cd concentrations (> 1000 mg Cd/kg). Some examples are Limnocharis flava (Abhilash et al. 2009) and Salvinia cucullata (Phetsombat et al. 2006). In particular, the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms has been extensively studied for its application in phytoremediation and has shown an interesting capacity for the accumulation and biosorption of heavy metals (Rezania et al. 2015). Metals, such as mercury, induce responses of oxidative stress and DNA damage in E. crassipes (Malar et al. 2015). Also, the water hyacinth has efficient molecular mechanisms (antioxidative enzymes) to tolerate lead accumulation in their tissues, indicating that it is a feasible plant for phytoremediation of polluted water containing lead (Malar et al. 2014). There are several studies on the effect of cadmium on water hyacinth, but few of them explore the addition of this metal in high concentrations in polluted waters (e.g., Soltan and Rashed 2003; Hasan et al. 2007). We have previously evaluated the accumulation and tolerance of this species to copper, an essential element, under stressful conditions (Melignani et al. 2015). Since we obtained promising results, we were also interested in testing similar conditions for a nonessential element, cadmium. Both the cadmium and the water hyacinth are present in polluted water bodies with industrial and domestic effluent discharge. The tolerance described for this species under this stressful circumstance, could be applied in the treatment of industrial effluents. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the growth of water hyacinth exposed to high Cd concentrations added to polluted river water (Riachuelo water), as well as its accumulation and uptake rate in a short-term exposure experiment. Materials and methods Plant and water collection Plant material (water hyacinth, E. crassipes) and the surficial water for the experiment were sampled from the Riachuelo section of the MR river (34° 38′ 12″ S, 58° 21′ 05″ W), Buenos Aires, Argentina, on February 2012. The plants were cleaned with tap water and acclimatized in a hydroponic system (diluted Hoagland solution in a greenhouse with natural photoperiod) for 2 months. After propagation, individuals of the second generation were selected for the experiment (April 2012). Experimental set-up Cadmium (as CdCl2·2 ½ H2O, analytical-grade reagent) was added to the river water in three concentrations: 1, 5, and 10 mg/L (treatments Cd1, Cd5, and Cd10, respectively). The river water without Cd supplement (basal concentration: 0.07 mg/L) was used as a control (Cd0). One or two individuals of water hyacinth (200 g fresh weight) were placed in plastic reactors with 4 L of the water (3 replicates per treatment and control). The plants were exposed to the metal for 7 days under greenhouse conditions (natural photoperiod, controlled temperature 22.0 ± 1.9 °C, and pH 7.55 ± 0.24). The water volume of the reactors was kept constant by adding deionized water. Sampling and analysis At the beginning of the experiment, three individuals of water hyacinth were separated from the hydroponic system and three water samples were taken from each treatment in order to measure initial Cd concentrations (in plant tissue and water) and initial dry biomass of E. crassipes. At the end of the experiment, plants and water samples were collected from each reactor. Plants were washed, separated into roots and leaves, and oven-dried at 70 °C for 72 h. Then, they were digested with a mixture of concentrated nitric, perchloric, and clorhydric acids (10:2:5) (Soltan and Rashed 2003; Mishra and Tripathi 2008; Melignani et al. 2015). In water samples, Cd was measured without digestion. The metal was determined by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry (flame-AAS) (detection limit for Cd 0.028 mg/L). Water physicochemical parameters were determined as described by APHA (1999). The NH4+ concentration was measured in Environ Sci Pollut Res water samples and the N-NH3 concentration was estimated from this measure (NH4+) according to Körner et al. (2001). Initial concentrations of Cd in water were 100 ± 10% of nominal concentrations. The initial dry weight of E. crassipes plants was 1.38 ± 0.12 g (mean ± standard error) for roots and 1.74 ± 0.13 g for leaves. Initial Cd content in roots was 1.32 ± 0.03 mg/kg and 1.71 ± 0.16 mg/kg in leaves. These concentrations of Cd in tissue were below the toxic limit for this metal (5–10 mg/kg) (White and Brown 2010). Growth estimation, cadmium translocation and uptake rate The parameters for growth estimation and metal translocation in tissue were calculated as described earlier (Melignani et al. 2015). The relative growth rate (RGR, day−1) was calculated as: RGR = (ln DWf − ln DWi)/t, where DWf = dry weight at the end of the experiment (g); DWi = initial dry weight (g); and t = duration of the experiment (days). The growth stimulation percentage (GS, %) (modified from the growth inhibition percentage equation; Park et al. 2011) was estimated as GS = (RGRt/RGRc − 1) × 100, where RGRt = relative growth rate for treatment x and RGRc = relative growth rate for respective control. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) was calculated as BCF = Cr/Cw, where Cr = Cd concentration in roots (mg/kg dw) and Cw = Cd concentration in water (mg/kg). The translocation factor (TF) was estimated as TF = Cl/Cr, where Cl = Cd concentration in leaves (mg/kg dw). The capacity of E. crassipes for Cd uptake was estimated as the metal uptake rate for roots or leaves (UR, mg/kg day) according to Singh and Agrawal (2007): UR = (Cf − Ci)/t, where Cf = final Cd concentration in biomass (roots or leaves) (mg/kg dw) and Ci = initial Cd concentration in biomass (roots or leaves) (mg/kg dw). A functional relation was investigated between the uptake rate and the Cd concentration in water and a linear regression analysis was performed. Data were tested for normal distribution (Shapiro–Wilks’ test) and for homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test). Metal concentrations were scaled when the relation between both variables was not linear. The test was compared at a level of p < 0.05. Statistical analysis Data were statistically analyzed with the ANOVA test. Normality and homogeneity of variance were checked with Shapiro–Wilks’ test and Levene’s test, respectively. When the assumptions were not satisfied, a natural-log transformation of the data was applied. Tukey’s test was performed to differentiate between treatments. The significance level of comparison for all tests was p < 0.05. Results The physicochemical characteristics of the river water used in the experiment are shown in Table 1. The level of ammonium and trace elements (Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) exceed the national water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life (National Law No. 24051 on Hazardous Waste) (Argentina 1991). Also, the level of Cd exceeds the international water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life (μg Cd/L: 0.15–0.40, DWAFF 1996; 0.06–0.80, ANZECC and ARMCANZ 2000; 0.09–1.0, CCME 2014; 0.25–2.0, USEPA 2016). Thus, the water used for this experiment is considered as polluted. From the third day of the experiment, leaves and petioles in all treatments showed loss of turgor. Leaves showed invaginations in their lamina. Chlorosis and dry leaves were also evident from the third day, but only in treatment Cd10. Table 1 Initial physicochemical characteristics of Riachuelo water and reference value (designated use: protection of aquatic life, as stated in the Argentinian National Law No. 24051 on Hazardous Waste) Value1 (mg/L) Reference value2 (mg/L) 55.95 – 13.33 26.78 14.03 0.014 0.18 – – 1.37 0.06 – SRP (as orthophosphate) SO4−2 Micronutrients 1.70 72.30 – – Cl Cu Fe Na Zn Non-essential heavy metals Cd Cr Ni Pb Other physicochemical parameters Alkalinity (as CO3−2) TOC (total organic carbon) DOC (dissolved organic carbon) pH 255.85 0.033 0.62 150.00 0.073 – 0.002 – – – 0.070 0.073 0.17 0.073 0.0002 0.002 0.025 0.001 543.76 15.22 9.52 7.14 – – – – Parameter Macronutrients Ca K Mg N-NH4+ NO2− NO3− 1 2 Mean of three replicates Argentinian National Law No. 24051 on Hazardous Waste, Regulatory Decree No. 831/93, Annex II, Table 2 Environ Sci Pollut Res Table 2 Dry weight of E. crassipes roots and leaves, relative growth rate (RGR) and growth stimulation percentage (GS) of plants after 7 days of Cd exposure Treatments Roots (g) Leaves (g) RGR (day−1) GS (%) Cd0 (control) Cd1 3.34 ± 1.09 a 3.70 ± 0.63 a 3.50 ± 0.99 a 4.07 ± 0.96 a 0.100 ± 0.009 a 0.121 ± 0.007 b – 22 ± 4 a Cd5 1.72 ± 0.36 b 3.54 ± 0.33 a 0.102 ± 0.019 ab 3 ± 12 b Cd10 1.42 ± 0.67 b 3.52 ± 0.33 a 0.102 ± 0.018 ab 2 ± 12 b Values expressed as mean (n = 3) ± std. error. Different letters under the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among treatments Cd0 control (no metal addition), Cd1 supplemented with 1 mg Cd/L, Cd5 supplemented with 5 mg Cd/L, Cd10 supplemented with 10 mg Cd/L Growth estimation Cadmium uptake rate Final dry weight of root and leaf biomass, relative growth rates (RGR) and growth stimulation percentage (GS) are shown in Table 2. Root biomass was reduced by half in treatments Cd5 and Cd10 (F = 20.65, df = 3, p = 0.0004). In contrast, leaf biomass did not show significant differences from the control in any treatment (F = 1.20, df = 3, p = 0.3685). The RGR showed a slight increase in treatment Cd1 (F = 4.44, df = 3, p = 0.0407), consistent with growth stimulation (22%) (F = 10.34, df = 2, p < 0.0114). The Cd uptake rate for roots and leaves of the water hyacinth showed different functional relations. The relation between the uptake rate for roots and the metal concentration in water adjusted to a logarithmic function, reaching an uptake rate of 248.7 mg Cd/kg·day (Fig. 1) in the concentration range studied. Given that the relation between the variables was logarithmic, the Cd concentrations in water were scaled using a logarithmic transformation to run the linear regression analysis (functional relation: p < 0.01; lack of adjustment: p = 0.15; R2 = 0.95). As for leaves, the relation between the uptake rate and the Cd concentration in water adjusted to a linear function (Fig. 2). The metal concentrations in leaves adjusted to an increasing linear function and reached an uptake rate of 20.8 mg Cd/kg·day in the range of the assayed concentrations (0–10 mg Cd/L). Cadmium accumulation Table 3 shows the Cd concentration in roots and leaves, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) and the translocation factor (TF). Cd accumulated principally in roots, increasing with metal concentration in the medium. It seemed to stabilize at the highest Cd dose (10 mg/L). The maximum concentration in roots was 1000x that of the control (1742.1 mg Cd/kg dw; F = 86.83, df = 3, p < 0.0001). Cd accumulation in leaves also increased with metal concentration in water, although not as much as in roots. The maximum concentration in leaves was 100× that of the control (147.1 mg Cd/kg dw; F = 108.09, df = 3, p < 0.0001). BCF were higher in treatments than in control (max. 1233.9; F = 557.35, df = 3, p < 0.0001), while TF were lower than unity (TF < 1) (F = 101.40, df = 3, p < 0.0001) (Table 3). Table 3 Cd concentration in roots and leaves, bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) in E. crassipes after 7 days of metal exposure Discussion Contrary to expected, the growth of the water hyacinth was not severely affected by Cd exposure in the concentration range studied. Despite the observed toxicity symptoms and the decrease in root biomass, there was no unfavorable impact on the RGR. In fact, there was growth stimulation in one of the treatments (1 mg Cd/L). This growth could also be due to the presence of chloride (added as CdCl2·2 ½ H2O) and other nutrients present in the polluted water from Riachuelo river. Treatments Cd in roots (mg/kg dw) Cd in leaves (mg/kg dw) BCF Cd0 (control) Cd1 Cd5 Cd10 1.77 748.4 1580.2 1742.1 1.48 9.73 51.1 147.4 25.2 1233.9 846.3 774.8 ± ± ± ± 0.49 a 136.8 b 358.6 c 327.7 c ± ± ± ± 0.83 a 3.02 b 29.2 c 95.5 d TF ± ± ± ± 7.0 a 333.0 b 149.7 c 82.5 c 0.826 0.013 0.033 0.084 ± ± ± ± 0.287 a 0.003 b 0.026 c 0.049 d Values expressed as mean (n = 3) ± std. error. Different letters under the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among treatments Cd0 control (no metal addition), Cd1 supplemented with 1 mg Cd/L, Cd5 supplemented with 5 mg Cd/L, Cd10 supplemented with 10 mg Cd/L Environ Sci Pollut Res 300 250 . 200 150 100 50 0 -50 0 2 4 6 Cd concentration (mg/L) 8 10 Fig. 1 Cd uptake rate for roots of E. crassipes in function of Cd treatments after 7 days of metal exposure. References: error bars = standard error (mean of three replicates); dash line = functional relation These results agree with observations for this species in assays under similar conditions (El-Leboudi et al. 2008; Lu et al. 2004; Hasan et al. 2007) (a summary of the references is presented in Table 4). A few cases registered growth decrease at 1 mg Cd/L (Delgado et al. 1993; Smolyakov 2012). Cd accumulation in the water hyacinth was considerably high, especially in roots. Cd concentrations in treated roots in this assay (740–1750 mg Cd/kg dw) exceeded several values reported for this species under similar conditions (Mazen and El Maghraby 1997; Soltan and Rashed 2003; El-Leboudi et al. 2008; Aisien et al. 2010). Similar or larger Cd concentrations in roots were also reported (Muramoto and Oki 1983; Kay et al. 1984; Lu et al. 2004; Hasan et al. 2007). The bioconcentration factors obtained in this experiment (774.8– 1233.9) are higher (Lu et al. 2004; Eid et al. 2019) or in the order (Hasan et al. 2007; Aisien et al. 2010) of the ones reported in bibliography. 25 20 . 15 10 5 0 -5 0 2 4 6 Cd concentration (mg/L) 8 10 Fig. 2 Cd uptake rate for leaves of E. crassipes in function of Cd treatments after 7 days of metal exposure. References: error bars = standard error (mean of three replicates); dash line = functional relation Cd accumulation in leaves was not as high as in roots, although it showed considerable levels (9.5–150 mg Cd/kg dw). Many reports indicate higher values of Cd accumulation in E. crassipes leaves (Muramoto and Oki 1983; Mazen and El Maghraby 1997; Soltan and Rashed 2003; Hasan et al. 2007). Some authors reported similar values for this species (Soltan and Rashed 2003; Lu et al. 2004; Hasan et al. 2007; Aisien et al. 2010). It is possible that the water hyacinth was not able to translocate large amounts of toxic metals to the leaves as an exclusion strategy for the protection of the photosynthetic apparatus (Benavides et al. 2005; Kirkham 2006; Gallego et al. 2012; Tran and Popova 2013). Consistently with Cd accumulation in leaves, the translocation factor was low in all treatments (less than one), meaning that Cd remained mostly in roots. This result is consistent with the reported in bibliography for Cd in water hyacinth (Kamari et al. 2017; Eid et al. 2019). The pattern of Cd uptake rate for roots obtained in this experiment was different from that of leaves. The uptake rate for roots seemed to reach its maximum capacity when Cd concentration in the medium was 5 mg Cd/L, suggesting that Cd uptake for E. crassipes roots saturates at this level of Cd in the medium, under the conditions of this experiment. On the other hand, the uptake rate for leaves showed an increasing trend, indicating that Cd concentrations in leaves do not saturate in the concentration range studied and the uptake rate for leaves has not reached its threshold, under the conditions of this experiment. Wolverton and McDonald (1978) reported a similar uptake rate for roots of E. crassipes after 24 h of Cd exposure (281 mg Cd/kg) and a lower uptake rate for leaves (6.1 mg Cd/kg) at 0.1 mg Cd/L. The toxicity effects observed in this experiment (symptoms of chlorosis, dehydration, and brown color in leaves and petioles) are among the frequent toxicity symptoms in plants due to Cd exposure. They include inhibition and abnormalities in general growth, reduction of elongation of shoots and roots, leaf curling, and chlorosis (Tran and Popova 2013). Consistently with the results of this experiment, other authors reported symptoms of chlorosis after 2–4 days (Soltan and Rashed 2003; Hasan et al. 2007) under similar Cd concentrations. Damage in leaves and petioles was also observed (O’Keeffe et al. 1984), as well as necrosis (Delgado et al. 1993) and red-brown patches on leaves and stunted stems (Davis et al. 1978). Some authors reported reaching the threshold of symptom toxicity for E. crassipes in the culture medium at 1 mg Cd/L (Hasan et al. 2007). White and Brown (2010) informed an accumulation of 5–10 mg Cd/kg dw as the critical leaf concentration of Cd in crop plants, that is, above which yield decreases 10%. Although the phytotoxic signs were visible in all treatments, the Cd concentrations bioaccumulated during this experiment, both in roots and leaves, exceeded these limits (9–1750 mg Cd/kg dw). Table 4 Results obtained in this study in contrast with similar assays reported in bibliography for E. crassipes (unless stated otherwise). References: * = approximate value (taken from figure); DW = dry weight; FW = fresh weight; m = metal mixture; i = 1/TF Location Duration Cd in roots Cd in aerial UR roots Studied (days) (mg/kg) tissue (mg/kg) (mg/ metal kg·day) dose (mg Cd/L) RGR BCF TF Reference Loss of turgor and invaginations in leaves (3 d) Loss of turgor and invaginations in leaves (3 d) Loss of turgor, invaginations in leaves and chlorosis (3 d) Red-brown patches on leaves and stunted stems 0.102 774.8 0.084 Present study 0.102 846.3 0.033 Present study 0.121 1233.9 0.013 Present study - 550–700* - - Productivity drastically reduced DW increase - - Aisien et al. 2010 Davis et al. 1978 (Hordeum vulgare) Delgado et al. 1993 3.06–5.66 - El-Leboudi et al. 2008 650–675 (16 d) 662 (16 d) - - Hasan et al. 2007 - Hasan et al. 2007 Kay et al. 1984 - Kay et al. 1984 - Lu et al. 2004 - Lu et al. 2004 - Mazen & El Maghraby 1997 Muramoto & Oki 1983 Muramoto & Oki 1983 O’Keeffe et al. 1984 Argentina 10 7 1742.1 147.4 248.7 20.8 Argentina 5 7 1580.2 51.1 225.6 7.05 Argentina 1 7 748.4 9.73 106.7 1.15 Nigeria UK 1 0.5 7 23 470–540* 60–90* 15 - - Spain 5 24 - - - Necrosis Egypt 1.25 5–10 5.66–7.08 4.04–4.82 - - Yellowish coloration and relatively sluggish leaf growth India 4-6 6–8 1590–2117 700–940 - - Leaf chlorosis (4 d) - India USA 1 5 6–8 21–42 401–491 103.6–148.6 5776–6507 229–431 - - USA 1 21–42 1258–1311 57–94 - - Thailand 4 8 2044 113.2 - - Poor root development and leaf chlorosis (10 d) Poor root development and leaf chlorosis (10 d) - Thailand 1 8 450* 18* - - - Egypt 15 10 700* 350* - - - 80% growth reduction and RGR decrease (21 d) > 60% growth reduction and 80% RGR reduction (21 d) Growth decrease 540* (whole plant) 410* (whole plant) - Japan 4 8 2380 632 - - - FW decrease - - Japan 1 8 1190 157 - - - FW increase - - USA Russia 1–100 0.05 3 8 56–260 18–70 - - Leaf and stem damage Root shedding Growth decrease Egypt 10m 7 635 485 - - 1000*-5200 3-4*i (= Smolyakov 2012 0.25-0.33) 60* - - Environ Sci Pollut Res UR leaves Visual symptoms (mg/kg·day) 125* 600* - - - Soltan & Rashed, 2003 Soltan & Rashed, 2003 Soltan & Rashed, 2003 Wolverton & McDonald 1978 1.5*i (= 0.66) 6.5*i (= 0.15) 20.5*i (= 0.048) 6.1 1 39.1–281 6.1 281 0.01–0.1 USA 615 30 10 1m Egypt 95 8 5m Egypt 630 The water hyacinth E. crassipes showed interesting results regarding its capacity to accumulate and tolerate Cd, a nonessential element, in tissues beyond the toxicity limit estimated for this element, without major impact on growth parameters. The results suggest that the water hyacinth is able to tolerate the metal in its roots, while it excludes Cd from the leaves. Thus, E. crassipes showed a very satisfactory performance regarding Cd incorporation from polluted stream water supplemented with Cd in doses above the threshold toxicity for plants in the culture medium. Several rivers in the Pampean region (Castañé et al. 1998; Magdaleno et al. 2001; Magdaleno et al. 2014) receive industrial effluents containing Cd concentrations above the legal discharge limits (0.1 mg/L) (ACUMAR 2017). Therefore, these are promising results for the application of the water hyacinth in treatments of industrial effluents and leaching of open air dump where batteries and electronic devices are discarded. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Cristian Weigandt for the determinations of heavy metals and Carlos Hernández for the assistance in the greenhouse. Compliance with ethical standards Duration Cd in roots Cd in aerial UR roots Studied (days) (mg/kg) tissue (mg/kg) (mg/ metal kg·day) dose (mg Cd/L) - Yellow leaves (2 d); partial wilting (10 d) Yellow leaves (4 d) - Reference BCF Conclusions Funding This study was funded by the Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica, Argentina (PICT 00-356) and Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Argentina (PIP 0323). Location Table 4 (continued) UR leaves Visual symptoms (mg/kg·day) RGR TF Environ Sci Pollut Res Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. References Abhilash PC, Pandey VC, Srivastava P, Rakesh PS, Chandran S, Singh N, Thomas AP (2009) Phytofiltration of cadmium from water by Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau grown in free-floating culture system. J Hazard Mater 170:791–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jhazmat.2009.05.035 ACUMAR (2017) Resolution No. 46/2017. Annex I. 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