Zeit ist Macht. Wer macht Zeit? Time is power. Who makes time? 13. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag 2020 Herausgeber Harald Meller, Alfred Reichenberger, Roberto Risch 24 2021 TAGUNGEN DES L ANDESMUSEUMS FÜR VORGESCHICHTE HALLE Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle Band 24 | 2021 Zeit ist Macht. Wer macht Zeit? Time is power. Who makes time? 13. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany as,jldjsvksjrvkrsk Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle Band 24 | 2021 Zeit ist Macht. Wer macht Zeit? Time is power. Who makes time? 13. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag 13th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany herausgegeben von Harald Meller, Alfred Reichenberger und Roberto Risch Halle (Saale) 2021  Die Beiträge dieses Bandes wurden einem Peer-Review-Verfahren unterzogen. Die Gutachtertätigkeit übernahmen folgende Fachkollegen: Prof. Dr. Oliver Auge, Dr. JanHeinrich Bunnefeld, Dr. Wolfgang David, Prof. Dr. Timothy Darvill, Prof. Dr. Pedro Diaz del Rio, Prof. Dr. Hans-Werner Fischer-Elfert, Prof. Dr. Andreas Furtwängler, Mag. Dr. Walter Gauß, PD Dr. Rita Gautschy, Dr. Michael Geschwinde, Dr. Dr. Susanne M. Hoffmann, Prof. Dr. Hermann Hunger, PD Dr. Marc Kalinowski, Dr. Franziska Knoll, Dipl. Museologe Sven Koch, Prof. Dr. Claus Priesner, Dr. Knut Rassmann, Prof. Dr. Jörg Rüpke, Prof. Dr. Maria Shinoto, Prof. Dr. Rudolf Simek, Prof. Dr. Ulrich Sinn, Dr. Vera Tiesler, Mag. Dr. Gerald Unterberger, Dr. Gabriele Weichart, Dr. Sibylle Wolf, Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Georg Zotti Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://portal.dnb.de abrufbar. isbn 978-3-948618-22-3 issn 1867-440 2 Redaktion Florian Michel, Manuela Schwarz, Anna Swieder • LDA Halle (Saale), David Tucker • Halle (Saale) Redaktion und Übersetzung der englischen Texte Sandy Hämmerle • Galway (Irland), Isabel Aitken • Peebles (Großbritannien), David Tucker • Halle (Saale) Organisation und Korrespondenz Claudia Gärtner, Manuela Schwarz Technische Bearbeitung Anna Engel, Birte Janzen, Brigitte Parsche • LDA Halle (Saale), Thomas Blankenburg • Halle (Saale) Vor- und Nachsatz Schmuckseiten 1–2, Schmutztitel Sektionstrenner  estaltung Birte Janzen; nach Ausschnitten aus: Andreas Cellarius, Harmonia MacrocosG mica, Amsterdam 1708, Blatt 19. Sign. 2” Kart. A 180 Berlin, Staatsbibliothek Preußischer Kulturbesitz © akg-images, Entstehung der Mondphasen/Cellarius; Mond © channarongsds - stock.adobe.com  ie Entstehung der Mondphasen. Geozentrisches Weltsystem des Ptolemäus, um 150 n. Chr. D Kupferstich, koloriert, aus: Andreas Cellarius, Harmonia Macrocosmica, Amsterdam 1708, Blatt 19. Sign. 2” Kart. A 180 Berlin, Staatsbibliothek Preußischer Kulturbesitz © akg-images, Entstehung der Mondphasen/Cellarius; Heliozentrisches Planetensystem des Kopernikus, 1510. Kupferstich, koloriert. Aus: Andreas Cellarius, Harmonia Macrocosmica, 1660 © akg-images, Weltsystem des Kopernikus/Cellarius G estaltung Birte Janzen; Bildnachweise siehe jeweilige Rückseite Umschlag Gestaltung Birte Janzen • LDA Halle (Saale); Motiv: Brigitte Parsche • LDA Halle (Saale); grafische Umsetzung basierend auf einem Foto der astronomischen Uhr am Altstädter Rathaus in Prag (© shutterstock/Curioso.Photography) und der Himmelsscheibe von Nebra (LDA) Für den Inhalt der Arbeiten sind die Autoren eigenverantwortlich. Alle Bilder und Rechte wurden nach bestem Wissen sorgfältig recherchiert. Sollte ein bestehendes Urheberrecht nicht berücksichtigt worden sein, bitten wir Kontakt zur Redaktion aufzunehmen. © 2021 by Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt – Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt unzulässig. Dies gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfil­­mun­ gen sowie die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Papier Satzschrift Konzept und Gestaltung Layout, Satz und Produktion Druck und Bindung alterungsbeständig nach din/iso 9706 FF Celeste Pro, News Gothic Carolyn Steinbeck • Berlin Anna Engel, Birte Janzen, Brigitte Parsche Löhnert Druck • Markranstädt Inhalt/Contents Band I 11 Vorwort der Herausgeber/Preface of the editors 13 Harald Meller, Alfred Reichenberger und Roberto Risch Die Mächtigen und die Zeit – Annäherung an eine komplexe politische Beziehung/ Time and the powerful – an approach to a complex political relationship 1. Astronomische Darstellungen und gebaute Astronomie Astronomical depictions and built astronomy 31 Susanne Friederich, Jörg Orschiedt und Thomas Weber Steinzeit-Kalender? Mit Zählmarken versehene Knochen aus Mitteldeutschland 49 Wolfram Schier Inszenierte Zeit: Architektonische Konzeption, astronomisches Wissen und soziale Praxis in Kreisgrabenanlagen des 5. Jahrtausends cal BC 63 Norma Henkel Symbolismus, Mythen und Kosmografie – Die Architektur der mittelneolithischen Kreisgrabenanlagen am Beispiel von Goseck 79 Joshua Pollard Cosmological power and celestial referents in Neolithic Wessex 89 Alison Sheridan Marking time in prehistoric Scotland: the social and ideological significance of astronomical alignments 107 Frank Prendergast The alignment of passage tombs in Ireland – horizons, skyscape, and domains of power 125 Primitiva Bueno-Ramírez and Jorge Soler Díaz Constructing powerful symbols: solar images on Iberian figurines between the 4th and 3rd millennia BC 149 Harald Meller Die Himmelsscheibe von Nebra – Astronomie und Zeitbestimmung als Quelle der Macht 165 Flemming Kaul The eternal voyage of the sun and the perpetual, cyclical advance of time, seen from a Nordic Bronze Age perspective. Movement is time – time is movement 181 Artemis Karnava Celestial bodies in the sky and on the earth in the Aegaen Bronze Age 2. Zeit und Macht in frühen Staaten und Hochkulturen Time and power in early states and advanced civilisations 199 Alexandra von Lieven Astronomie und Zeit im Alten Ägypten 217 José Lull Beyond heaven and earth. The worldview of Egyptian priests and stargazers 227 Victoria Altmann-Wendling Der Mond als Mittel zur Macht – Lunare Konzepte und Königtum im alten Ägypten 243 Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum Zeit als gesellschaftliche Ressource im frühen Staat 251 Susanne M. Hoffmann Das Babylonische Kompendium MUL.APIN: Messung von Zeit und Raum 277 Christian Prager Zeit und Macht: Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft als Herrschaftsmittel der Maya-Gottkönige 293 Rubén Mendoza The War of Heaven. A reappraisal of the Aztec Sun Stone in light of Nahua cosmogenesis and the New Fire Ceremony of 1507 AD 327 Jean-Marc Bonnet-Bidaud China: Empire of time and celestial mapping 3. Kalender und Zeitmesser in der Antike Calendar and time-keeping devices in Antiquity 341 Ernst Künzl Die Sternsagen der Griechen 357 Wolfgang Hameter Der römische Kalender 365 Eva Winter Zeit unter den Wolken – Zur antiken Zeitmessung nördlich der Alpen 375 Alfred Reichenberger »Nach dem Wechsel der Früchte, nicht der Konsuln zählt er das Jahr…« – Bäuerliches Zeitmaß in der Antike 409 Yanis Bitsakis and Alexander Jones The Antikythera Mechanism and astronomical knowledge: users and benefits 4. Zeit ohne Uhr – kosmogonische Zeitkonzepte Time without a clock – cosmogonic concepts of time 423 Hans-Peter Hahn Zur Kosmogonie der Dogon. Primordiale Zeit und Alltag in Westafrika 437 Corinna Erckenbrecht Traumzeit – Zeit und (Welt)Raum im Indigenen Australien 5. Aspekte von Zeit und Macht in Mittelalter und Neuzeit Aspects of time and power in the Middle Ages and the modern era 449 Donat Wehner Wem die Stunde schlägt. Uhren und die Macht der Zeit im Mittelalter 465 Ulf Dräger  ört doch Wunder, im Jahr 1700 wussten die Leute nicht, wie alt sie waren – H Medaillen auf die gregorianische Kalenderreform 473 Constantin Rauer Essay über die Anti-Zeit Constructing powerful symbols: solar images on Iberian figurines between the 4th and 3rd millennia BC Primitiva Bueno Ramírez and Jorge A. Soler Díaz Zusammenfassung Summary Die Entstehung von kraftvollen Symbolen: Sonnendarstellungen auf iberischen Figurinen aus dem 4. und 3. Jt. v. Chr. Solar images offer a very important inventory from the late prehistory of Iberia, its most singular expression being the figurines traditionally known as ›idols‹ in our historiography. Following the research work carried out for the exhibition Ídolos. Miradas milenarias (Mobile Images of Ancestral Bodies: a millennium-long perspective from Iberia to Europe)2, we have now been able to update the quantification of these pieces, the characterisation of the most notable groups, and the identification of some of their contexts, and to define a period encompassing 3900 to 2200 BC as representing the highest point of their production and use. In this article, we shall focus on proposing ideas about the development of solar symbols in Iberia within the framework of the social contexts in which these figurines played a central role. From the discourse associated with the first farmers in the 6th millennium cal BC to the emergence of figurines with personal traits midway through the 3 rd millennium cal BC, we can follow an evolution from predominantly female images in older phases to the more abundant male formulae later on. The Iberian figurines are unique in Europe for the compactness of their symbolism, the variety of their material supports, and their diachronic evolution. Sonnendarstellungen bilden einen äußerst wichtigen Bestand­ teil der späten Vorgeschichte der Iberischen Halbinsel. Die wichtigsten Vertreter dieser Gattung sind Figurinen, die in der Forschung traditionellerweise als ›Idole‹ bezeichnet werden. Im Anschluss an die Forschungsarbeiten im Zusammenhang mit der Ausstellung Ídolos. Miradas milenarias (Bewegliche Darstellungen der Körper unserer Vorfahren: ein Überblick über ein Jahrtausend von der Iberischen Halbinsel bis Europa)1, konnte dieses Inventar nun aktualisiert, die wichtigsten Gruppierungen umschrieben und ihre Zusammenhänge teilweise aufgearbeitet werden. Als eine der wichtigsten aus dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse kann nun die Zeitspanne zwischen 3900 und 2200 v. Chr. als Höhepunkt ihrer Herstellung und Verwendung bezeichnet werden. In diesem Beitrag möchten wir diverse Vorstellungen zur Entwicklung der Sonnensymbolik auf der Iberischen Halbinsel präsentieren und in den sozialen Kontexten verorten, in denen diese Figurinen eine zentrale Rolle spielten. Ausgehend von der Diskussion rund um die ersten bäuerlichen Gesellschaften im 6. Jt. v. Chr. bis zum Auftreten der Figurinen mit persönlichen Merkmalen in der Mitte des 3. Jts. v. Chr. lässt sich eine Entwicklung von mehrheitlich weiblichen Darstellungen in der Frühzeit zu einer eher männlich dominierten Formel in späteren Phasen nachzeichnen: eine Abfolge, die innerhalb Europas ihresgleichen sucht bezüglich ihrer Kompaktheit, der unterschiedlichen verwendeten Trägermaterialien und ihrer zeitlichen Entwicklung. 1 G ezeigt im MARQ, dem Archäologischen Museum der Provinz Alicante (Januar–Juli 2020) und im MAR, dem Archäologischen Regionalmuseum Madrid (Juli 2020–Januar 2021). Inzwischen sind die Ausstellungsvorbereitungen im Nationalmuseum Lissabon beinahe abgeschlossen (März–Oktober 2021). Die Ausstellung dient als Forschungs- und Publikationsplattform für verschiedene Bände durch die Autoren: Ídolos. Miradas milenarias, ein im Jahre 2020 publizierter Katalog der Stiftung C.V. MARQ; Idolos. Miradas Milenarias, ein im Jahre 2020 publizierter Katalog und Führer des Archäologischen Regionalmuseums Madrid; Mobile Images of Ancestral Bodies: a MillenniumLong Perspective. Zona Arqueológica, publi- ziert im Jahre 2021 vom Archäologischen Regionalmuseum Madrid; Idolos. Olhares milenares ein im Jahre 2021 publizierter monografischer Katalog zur Ausstellung im Archäologischen Nationalmuseum Lissabon, Portugal. 2 Shown at the MARQ Provincial Archaeological Museum of Alicante (January–July 2020) and the MAR. Regional Archaeological Museum of Madrid (July 2020–January 2021). At the time of writing, preparations are being finalised to present the exhibition at the National Archaeology Museum of Lisbon (March–October 2021). This exhibition has served as a research platform for publishing various volumes coordinated by the present authors: Ídolos. Miradas mile- TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 narias, a catalogue published in 2020 by the C.V. MARQ Foundation; Idolos. Miradas Milenarias, a catalogue guide published in 2020 by the Regional Archaeological Museum of Madrid; Mobile Images of Ancestral Bodies: a Millennium-Long Perspective. Zona Arqueológica, published in 2021 by the Regional Archaeological Museum of Madrid; Idolos. Olhares milenares. Portugal Estado da Arte a catalogue and monograph published in 2021 for the Exhibition at the National Archaeology Museum of Lisbon, Portugal. 126 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z N Solar symbols & eye idols Caves and shelters 0 Megalithic sites Pottery and loom weights 200 km Fig. 1 Distribution map of decorated pottery, rock-shelters and megaliths with paintings and engravings of oculi and suns. Abb. 1 Karte der Fundorte von verzierter Keramik, Abris und Megalithbauten mit gemalten und eingeritzten Darstellungen von Augen- und Sonnensymbolen. 1. The Iberian Peninsula: an exceptional record of solar representation and human figures with sun-eyes In late European prehistory, taken as a whole, solar representations have been associated with the first agricultural communities of Mediterranean origin. The so-called ›schematic art‹ (significantly, paintings in rock shelters) of the south of the continent, especially its Mediterranean facade, reveals the influence of solar themes on the construction of mythographies, whose evolution can be followed throughout the Neolithic, Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Iberia is a key geographic area in this discussion, as it contains the highest number in Europe of contexts and objects decorated with solar images: painted rock-shelters and caves, menhirs, stelae, megaliths, vessels, and figurines. Two parameters reinforce their relevance. On the one hand, we have an increasingly more solid chronology that traces postglacial art themes and techniques to the late Upper Palaeolithic, while on the other hand, the first human representations of Iberian schematic art can now be dated to around the 10th millennium cal BC (Bueno/Balbín 2016). During late Iberian prehistory, the ubiquity of the codes of schematic art reveals their polyfunctionality: they are found in painted rock-shelters and caves in mountain chains, in areas close to water, and on decorated menhirs or dolmens in agricultural plains or grassland plateaus. In the same places we also find portable objects, especially decorated pottery and figurines, whose development between 5660 and 2200 cal BC coincides with the well-known panorama of these expressions all over Europe (Insoll 2017; Bueno/Soler 2020a) (Fig. 1). Dating open air schematic art raises problems we shall not go into in detail in this article, although projects with this aim are being promoted in Iberia with good results (Ruiz et al. 2012; Morgado et al. 2018), including a programme for the detection of paint and the dating of organic components of megalith decorations (Carrera/Fábregas 2002; Bueno et al. 2007). This programme is also being applied to megaliths in the rest of Europe, where paint had not been recognised until recently (Bueno et al. 2019; Armitage et al. 2020). The dating of Iberian decorated artefacts is based on contexts and stratigraphies. Figurines and pottery decorated with sun motifs, whose earliest confirmed appearance dates from the 6th millennium, became more visible at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. Images from a previous Neo­­­lithic repertoire that had been present in dwellings, activity areas (mining, food storage), and funeral sites, became increasingly numerous, appearing on portable pieces representing highly codified human bodies. We are referring to the figurines, known as ›idols‹ in traditional Iberian historiography (Soler 2020a). Their peak between 3900/3600 and 2200 cal BC is associated with the development of megaliths, when they were included among the grave goods that accompanied human remains. The broad distribution, the dynamism and the diachronic evolution of these figurines in Iberia confirm the strength of a codification that was comprehensible over wide areas TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C (Bueno 2020a; Lancharro/Bueno 2020). If we compare the examples of schematic art decorating funerary and everyday settings in Neolithic Europe with the personality of their portable versions, the figurines may be read as objects related to the social organisation and the symbolic roots of each individual territory3. Until recently, the study of Iberian figurines lacked an updated comparative approach. Discussion of their developmental trajectory, social and personal value, role in funeral and everyday rituals, raw materials, and associations was confined to debates focusing on their diffusion in eastern Iberia. The 19th century theories in the field of symbology represented by L. Siret (for a general overview, see Soler 2020a) conditioned theoretical perspectives on late Iberian prehistory until a few years ago. These perspectives centred almost exclusively on the religious value of all these manifestations. Even basic aspects such as size, a key consideration for determining the use of the figurines, had not been tackled. Other differences in terms of their raw materials, technical treatments, and contexts are important for assessing multiple aspects of their meaning, which may have changed over time, even with respect to the monuments themselves, as suggested by their different placement on the megaliths (Bueno 2020a, 35). Although there are clay specimens among the Iberian figurines, these are not typical (Martínez et al. 2020). The most abundant materials are bone, different types of stone, ivory, and even gold (García Pérez et al. 2020; Martínez/López 2020). Their specialised production can be easily traced, particularly in territories such as the south of Iberia, where workshops with a distribution capacity have been found (Bueno 1992; Bueno 2010; Maicas 2020; Soler 2020b). The aspect that best defines their symbolism is the syncretism of solar and human features by means of the so-called ›suneyes‹, a symbol found with greater frequency and ubiquity in Iberia than anywhere else in Europe (Fig. 2). The figurines range in size from small (< 10 cm), to medium-sized (10–20 cm) and large (> 20 cm). The small ones are generally made of bone, clay (triangular, bi-triangular) and stone (cylindrical). The medium and large sizes display a greater diversity of shapes (plaques, cylinders, baetyls, long bones, spatulas) and raw materials (bone, clay, stone, ivory, and even gold). The small figurines may have been worn as pendants or have belonged to some larger object in which they were embedded or supported (clay altars or wooden bases). In the case of some of the larger plaques, flattened or cruciform cylinders, etc., the idea that they were separate elements or fixed within larger installations is convincing. As for the baetyls and cylinders, their bases confirm that they stood vertically; long bones, decorated spatulas, anthropomorphic idols, and a few phalanxes may also sometimes have been vertically mounted (Maicas 2020, 295). Cylinders, baetyls, phalanxes, long bones, bone spatulas, some of the plaques and a few of the anthropomorphic idols are sculptural in concept, while the large majority of the plaques and N Figurines, little sculptures, and plaques on the Iberian Peninsula Ivory / bone anthropomorphus Anthropomorphus Triangular forms 0 150 km Spatua Idols Little sculpturs Phalanxes Long Bones Pebbles Plaques Cylinder / Baetyls Others Fig. 2 Distribution and typology of figurines on the Iberian Peninsula (refer to the respective settlements). Abb. 2 Verteilung und typologische Einordnung der Figurinen der Iberischen Halbinsel (die Fundpunkte beziehen sich auf die jeweiligen Siedlungen). 3 The aim is to point out that among all the graphic versions in different contexts, funer- ary and habitational, figurines are the objects most closely related to the social symbolism in TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 each territory. In short, figurines are the most identitary symbolic object in each territory. 127 128 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 1 Anthropomorphous 9 Pebble 4 3 Anchoriform 2 Cruciform 10 Bitriangular 5 Bitriangular/ cruciform 14 11 Spatula Baetyls 13 7 Biconical 6 Tritriangular 15 Plaques 8 16 Sculptural plaque 12 17 Wooden plaque 18 19 20 Long bones 26 27 Bitriangular Bone plaque or flattened cylinder ebony plaque 28 Symbolic pottery 21 Phalanxes 29 Clay figure 22 23 24 25 Cylinders 30 31 32 Loom weight Aureate Ivory/bone lamellae anthropomorphous TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C cruciform and triangular / bi-triangular pieces have a single worked face and were presumably intended to be viewed only from the front (Fig. 3). Taking all these facts into account, it is clear that the Iberian figurines represented the human body for personal or collective purposes in highly differentiated contexts, both in tombs and elsewhere. They played different roles in these diverse contexts, but in all of them, their presence managed and materialised social codes that focused on human images. Some of these codes were interwoven with the sun. Their application to decorated objects gave singularity to the presumably symbolic contexts of these images, in a way that is reminiscent of the anthropomorphisation of tools, weapons and pottery, a type of symbiosis documented throughout the European Neolithic. Traces of paint, including cinnabar (Bueno et al. 2016a; Bueno et al. 2019a; Soler 2020b) and coloured clay applications coexist with what may have been clothing – for instance, the remains of cloth on a phalanx from house 21 at Almizaraque (Maicas 2020, Fig. 10) – suggesting an interaction in which the external appearance of the figurines may have been changed in terms of colour, clothing, or ornaments. At any rate, the figurines were all made for close observation, and their use must have been relatively common and widespread, to judge from the numbers found in megaliths as well as in the villages. The study of the everyday manufacturing of these small objects is a rewarding way of approaching the lengthy biographies that trace their changing relationship with the people who endowed them. The meaning of the figurines lay within the framework of social relations (status, gender, family, lineage, etc.) and can be traced through the origin of the raw materials from which they were made, the work systems or chaînes opératoire required to produce them, the techniques of production and the way these were passed on, and the persistence of the pieces – taken up more than once to be imbued with a new value, and finally integrated in funerary sites with much longer chronologies than the human remains they housed (Bueno 2020a, 34; Villalobos et al. 2020). Relics, family images, ancestors, mythologies, dolls, etc. – whatever their probably polyvalent meanings, they could not have been unconnected with two unquestionable truths: the quantitatively predominant representation of female figures and the emphasis on identity of the most codified sets. 2. The first astral images of the Iberian Neolithic. The sun as an object of worship Solar representations consisting of circles with rays all around their perimeter are a recurrent motif of Iberian schematic art. They also appear printed or engraved on the walls of pottery vessels from the Early Neolithic onwards. The representational function, sharpness of definition, and sheer numbers of the solar images found among Iberian postglacial graphic expressions are undeniable. Their role in the origin of the mythographies that constitute the ideological basis of the visual narratives, present in various European iconographical contexts, which have the sun as the main feature, is reflected in two consistent features of the archaeological record: the generalised solar orientation of burial- and inhabited caves and funerary monuments, and the profusion of painted, engraved and sculpted images featuring the sun’s image at their centre. Numerous studies have highlighted the solar orientation of megaliths. An analysis of the incidence of beams of sunlight and the position of decoration on the walls or at central points of megalithic tombs firmly establishes the close relationship between time and sunlight4. Yet tombs were also oriented towards other astral phenomena (Montelirio, Sevilla). This not only illustrates the empirical knowledge of the builders, but also their funerary discourse, as the most elaborately decorated area was that which directly received the sunlight (Burl 1980; Bueno et al. 2015; Bueno et al. 2016a). The orientation of outdoor decorations has been similarly assessed (Bradley 2020, 58). The relation between beams of sunlight and monuments allowed a temporal fixing of oral narratives (because they are visible in differents moments at the day). Fig. 3 (left page) Typology of mobile symbolic and eye figurines and expressions in the Iberian Peninsula. 1 Almizaraque, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 2 Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria); 3 Blanquizáres de Lebor, Totana (Murcia); 4 Cueva de la Pileta, Benaoján (Malaga); 5 Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria); 6 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 7 Rambla de las Pocicas (Almeria); 8 Los Millares (Tomb 57), Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 9 El Garcel, Antas (Almeria); 10 El Miradero, Villanueva de los Caballeros (Valladolid); 11 Bédar (Almeria); 12 Lisbon; 13 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 14 Granja de Céspedes (Badajoz); 15 Anta do Curral da Antinha, Arraiolos (Évora); 16 Dolmen of Garrovillas (Cáceres); 17 Cueva Sagrada, Lorca (Murcia); 18 Almizaraque, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 19 Cova de Bolumini, Alfafara (Alicante); 20 Ereta del Pedregal, Navarrés (Valencia); 21 Los Millares (Tomb 8), Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 22 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 23 Tholos do Barro, Torres Vedras (Lisbon); 24 Cabezo del Conquero (Huelva); 25 Orden Seminario (Huelva); 26 La Pijotilla (Badajoz); 27 Los Millares, Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 28 La Encantada, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 29 La Pijotilla (Badajoz); 30 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 31 Valencina de la Concepción, Castilleja de Guzmán (Seville) and 32 Llerena (Badajoz). Abb. 3 (linke Seite) Typologische Einordnung der beweglichen Figurinen mit Symbolen und solchen mit Augen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel. 1 Almizaraque, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 2 Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria); 3 Blanquizáres de Lebor, Totana (Murcia); 4 Cueva de la Pileta, Benaoján (Malaga); 5 Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria); 6 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 7 Rambla de las Pocicas (Almería); 8 Los Millares (Grab 57), Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 9 El Garcel, Antas (Almeria); 10 El Miradero, Villanueva de los Caballeros (Valladolid); 11 Bédar (Almería); 12 Lissabon; 13 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 14 Granja de Céspedes (Badajoz); 15 Anta do Curral da Antinha, Arraiolos (Évora); 16 Megalithgrab von Garrovillas (Cáceres); 17 Cueva Sagrada, Lorca (Murcia); 18 Almizaraque, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 19 Cova de Bolumini, Alfafara (Alicante); 20 Ereta del Pedregal, Navarrés (Valencia); 21 Los Millares (Grab 8), Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 22 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 23 Tholos do Barro, Torres Vedras (Lissabon); 24 Cabezo del Conquero (Huelva); 25 Orden Seminario (Huelva); 26 La Pijotilla (Badajoz); 27 Los Millares, Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria); 28 La Encantada, Cuevas del Almanzora (Almeria); 29 La Pijotilla (Badajoz); 30 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); 31 Valencina de la Concepción, Castilleja de Guzmán (Sevilla) und 32 Llerena (Badajoz). 4 At dawn the sun illuminates the main figure and as the light moves across the monument it marks the time for the story inscribed on the walls. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 129 130 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 1 2 3 5 cm 4 5 5 cm 6 7 8 9 9 5 cm Fig. 4 Anthropomorphic vessels and vessels with anthropomorphic or symbolic decoration. 1 and 3 Cova de l’Or (Beniarrés, Alicante); 2 Cueva de la Murcielaguina; 4–5 Sima del Conejo and Sima del Carburero (Alhama de Granada, Granada); 6–7 Cueva del Muerto and Cueva de los Murciélagos; 8 ›Venus de Gavá‹; 9 Torre la Sal (Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón). Abb. 4 Anthropomorphe Gefäße und Gefäße mit anthropomorphen oder symbolischen Verzierungen. 1 und 3 Cova de l’Or (Beniarrés, Alicante); 2 Cueva de la Murcielaguina; 4–5 Sima del Conejo und Sima del Carburero (Alhama de Granada, Granada); 6–7 Cueva del Muerto und Cueva de los Murciélagos; 8 ›Venus de Gavá‹; 9 Torre la Sal (Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón). TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C Several authors have relativised the Neolithic originality of some of the symbols associated with the first ritual manifestations of agricultural communities. The hypothesis has now gained renewed validity, however, due to the increase in records of these images from the late Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic, and the survival of some of their most characteristic features, such as the pubic triangle (Bueno 2020a, 30; Hofmann 2020, 116; Paglietti 2020, 344). Other elements among Upper Palaeolithic themes may have prefigured schematic formulae. These are the large circles found in some caves such as El Castillo and Tito Bustillo in the north of Spain (known as discs in the typology of Palaeolithic art), which have been interpreted as suns. A similar interpretation has been applied to the discs in Sungir, Russia (D’Errico/Vanhaeren 2015). Their circular shapes with ordered rays may have had different meanings from similar symbols dating from the Neolithic, but their elements of symmetry, like the construction of geometric figures and handicrafts, may be considered part of the technical and thematic background of postglacial art. Archaeological material from Iberia includes the oldest dated examples of the extensive representation of solar decorations on Neolithic vessels. Although most of them are concentrated in Andalusia and eastern Spain (Fig. 4), suns and sun-eyes constituted a shared symbolism across the whole southern half of the Iberian Peninsula from the beginning of the 6th millennium cal BC onwards (Martínez et al. 2020, 140–142), with some prominent cases also found outside this area, including Gavá (Barcelona) in the north-east and Casa Montero (Madrid) in the centre of the Peninsula. This symbolism is related to the expansion of the Cardial Neolithic or other early Neolithic contexts. The appearance of vessels with suns and sun-eyes is well documented in food-storage, funerary, and mining contexts (Consuegra et al. 2018; Bosch 2020). Their links with other materials from the same timespan and region allow us to understand the relationship between these locations and the uses and meanings of the symbols (Barciela 2020). In eastern Spain and in Andalusia, the sun is represented both with and without rays (Carrasco et al. 2006; Martí 2006). The pottery complex from the caves Cova de l’Or (Beniarrés, Alicante) and Sarsa (Bocairent, Alicante) (Martí et al. 2018) is unique in the eastern peninsula in evoking the sun in the sky, without actually depicting it, through representations of incised figures with raised hands (Fig. 4,1). This pottery decoration finds its best parallel in the cave paintings of ›prayers‹ in the macro-schematic art of Pla de Petracos (Castell de Castells, Alicante) and La Sarga (Alcoy, Alicante). The relationship between Cova de l’Or and Pla de Petracos has recently been re-interpreted on the basis of the richness of the decorated ceramics of Cova de l’Or and the orientation of the caves towards the large painted site of Pla de Petracos. Cova de l'Or appears to have been a ritual cave, sanctuary or aggregation site (Hernández 2020) from which the sunset was observed during the winter solstice, when the sun disappeared close to the peak of the Sierra del Benicadell which dominates the horizon. Another recent study suggests a similar scenario: on the evening of 21 December, the sun sets directly in front of the painted prayer of Pla de Petracos, which raises the possibility that this sunset was TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 experienced in a special way, not only in relation to what the solstice meant in the agricultural cycle, but also as a remembrance of a whole mythography: the sunsets seen at sea during the journeys of the first agricultural settlers who, bearing knowledge and beliefs, moved from east to west along the north coast of the Mediterranean (Soler/Ferrer 2020). In the case of symbolic pottery from the Iberian east, some Andalusian Neolithic examples (6th millennium cal BC) from the upper basin of the Guadalquivir River have also been reinterpreted. Anthropomorphic motifs can be observed in the decoration, holding or reaching out to touch the sun. The latter is represented either with rays, as in examples from Sima del Conejo and Sima del Carburero (Alhama de Granada) (Fig. 4,4–5), or without rays, according to the new interpretation of a fragment from the mouth of the Cueva de los Murciélagos (Zuheros, Córdoba) (Carrasco et al. 2015, 18, Fig. 6). In this case and in another from the Cueva del Muerto (Carcabuey, Córdoba) (Fig. 4,6–7), the stelliforms are positioned at the same level, suggesting they may in fact represent a face, such as those seen on other anthropomorphic vessels with a neck and ›sun-eyes‹, dating from the beginning of the 5th and the 4th millennium BC. The appearance of suns in pairs, located in the upper part of a face and sometimes associated with eyebrows or noses, materialises the fluid relationship between solar images and human images. Prominent examples of this are a vase with incised decoration from Torre de la Sal (Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón) (Fig. 4,9) and the ›Dama de Gavá‹ (Fig. 4,8), a female representation found in the variscite mine of Can Tintoré (Gavá, Barcelona) (Bosch 2020), which combines the techniques of embossing (sculptural) and incision after firing (sgraffito) (Martínez et al. 2020, 142). The radiated eyes that may be suggested on the above-mentioned pottery from Murciélagos and Carcabuey appear to have an older reference from another mining context, in this case the flint mine of Casa Montero (Madrid). In mine shaft no. 1109, a pottery fragment with a sun-eye was found, which can be dated to between 5350 and 5320 cal BC (Consuegra et al. 2018; Consuegra/Díaz del Río 2020). Fig. 4 illustrates some vessels whose anthropomorphic decoration is characteristic of Iberia. In the Mediterranean, such decorated vessels are very scarce and of later manufacture (Gasco/Gernigon 2002). Regarding the incisions and impressions representing suns, C. Züchner (2005) some time ago proposed a relationship between Cardial and Linear Band ceramics, a connection which might explain some of the images present on central European ceramics. This hypothesis encompasses some cases of ›Cardial style‹ suns imprinted on central European vessels (Houbre 2013). Nearer to the Atlantic, vessels and objects feature comparable sun-eye images, which have also been seen as evidence of an Iberian connectivity (Scarre 2020,170). This connectivity is confirmed by evidence of the movement of raw materials during the 4th and 3rd millennia for ostentation purposes in the funerary context (ivory, gold, amber, variscite), which explains the spread of solar themes, schematic anthropomorphs, and even bi-triangular motifs to the British Isles and French Brittany (Bueno et al. 2019). The continuity of symbolic pottery might stretch chronologically as far as the Bell-Beaker versions. As in the case of 131 132 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 cm Fig. 5 Pottery vessels with eye or symbolic decoration. 1 Monte de Outeiro, (Aljustrel, Beja), development of decoration; 2 Vase No. 15 from Los Millares (Santa Fé de Mondújar, Almeria), development of decoration; 3 Las Carolinas (Madrid); 4 La Calderona (Valdemoro, Madrid); 5 Svinø, Sjælland, Denmark; 6 Stone object, Folkton, North Yorkshire. Abb. 5 Keramikgefäße mit Augen- und anderen symbolischen Darstellungen. 1 Monte de Outeiro, (Aljustrel, Beja), Abrollung der Verzierung; 2 Gefäß Nr. 15 aus Los Millares (Santa Fé de Mondújar, Almeria), Abrollung der Verzierung; 3 Las Carolinas (Madrid); 4 La Calderona (Valdemoro, Madrid); 5 Svinø, Sjælland, Dänemark; 6 Steinobjekt, Folkton, North Yorkshire. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C the early Neolithic examples, ›sun-eye‹ vessels are the only types with themes or elements of narratives that include zoomorphs, especially deer, and human figures, bi-triangular forms being especially prominent (Martín/Cámalich 1982) (Fig. 5,2). The latter are true anthropomorphic vessels, some of them quite spectacular, such as the one from Monte de Outeiro (Alentejo) (Fig. 5,1). The figurative coexistence of a diversity of human images and personified suns as human images can be applied to the whole set of graphic expressions of later Iberian prehistory, indicating that different narratives being contemporaneous brought together in these expressions. The same applies to the variety of figurines, in which images both with and without sun-eyes occur along with codified versions of personified suns. This confluence of different versions of human figures makes a strong argument for underlining the mythographic value of solar expressions. A long tradition of narratives featuring the sun, as if it were a human character, spread all over Iberia from the 6th millennium BC onwards (Bueno 2010, 40 f.). In sum, the widespread prominence of human-sun hybrid figures was a characteristic feature of early Neolithic Iberia. The sun and its personification in human images not only presided over and protected caves used as aggregation sites with various social roles, but also daily activities (including mining), and funeral sites, adopting positions in oral accounts of considerable continuity. These contexts confirm that from the beginning of the 6th millennium BC, all over the Iberian peninsula, though more markedly – to judge from the sites so far excavated – in the south and east, suneye images were part of the repertoire of expressions that characterised the way in which the first agricultural farmers (whether belonging to the Cardial sphere or not) projected their way of recognising themselves. Their representations in rock shelters are equally widespread, revealing shared codes, whose protagonists were human and solar figures, zoomorphic figures and geometric forms dominated by angles and lines, along with circular themes. 3. The ›appropriated‹ sun. Schematic art as a visual reading of societies in transit in the 4th to 3rd millennium BC As noted above, dating parietal supports is difficult, but recently obtained documentations of rock shelters and painted megaliths from Iberia support the 4th to 3rd millennium cal BC as the period of greatest expansion of these syncretic formulas combining human and solar images. Although the most indicative sectors of these records were traditionally located in the south-east, it is the south-west that currently offers the most substantial evidence of these images (Soler 2020b). This circumstance must be seen in the context of the significant increase in interventions in ditched enclosures in this area, which has multiplied the inventory of figurines (Bueno 2020a). This sequence of figurines, unique in Europe, makes it possible to date the symbiosis between 5 Bueno et al. 2003; Bueno et al. 2007; Fábregas et al. 2020; Scarre 2020. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 the real and the imaginary as a tool for the construction and perpetuation of oral stories relevant to the daily and funerary rituals of the megalithic builders. The various supports on which this process took place offer a range of data revealing the different ways in which social aggregation became a vehicle for the dissemination of these oral records. The profusion of painted rock-shelters in Iberia adds more precision to the scenarios in which the portable figurines were embedded, associating them with specific people or lineages both in daily life and in death (Bueno 2010, 58). So far, this simultaneity in the appearance of the same narratives in figurines and in painted rock art has not been found anywhere else in Europe. Clearly, the figurines had their roots in ancient symbolic codes, while the outdoor panels reveal aggregation activities related to dances or other types of collective performance. Schematic rock art confirms that the figurines represented condensations and specifications of the narratives of human groups into portable forms that allowed them to be handled as personal or collective resources. In other words, the protagonists of these stories were materialised in portable and personal objects. One of the most controversial questions surrounding the figurines is the alleged difference in symbolic expression between the north and the south of Iberia. This argument centred around the lack of any known painted rock-shelters in the north and on the Atlantic coast, a much-debated issue that has been settled with the documentation of paintings in rock shelters in the north-west of the Peninsula (Bueno/ Balbín 2013; Bueno et al. 2012). These rock shelters contain images with raised arms, similar to those seen on Neolithic pottery (Rodriguez Rellán et al. 2019). Such images also appear, associated with the sun, in northern megaliths (Bueno et al. 2021), along with spectacular eye images (Sanches 2016; Santos et al. 2020). The growing inventory of painted rock-shelters in the north-west confirms the knowledge of these graphic codes throughout. Iberia, giving weight to the hypothesis of possible representations in wood that have not survived, a possibility that has been pointed out in other European contexts5. The different representations of human figures show a strong spatial identity, certain formulae being grouped into territorially well-defined areas. Plaques and bi-triangular forms are the most frequently recurring portable records at the painted rock-shelter sites, a fact which becomes all the more relevant when one takes into account that these typologies are the most frequent among the figurines of the Iberian south-west (Bueno 2020b, 207). The plaques appear almost invariably individually on the outdoor panels – or, in some cases, grouped in pairs. The idea that the bi-triangular and tri-triangular figures may represent people, as opposed to gods (as argued in the traditional literature on the social reading of schematic art panels in the west and east of the Peninsula (Soler 2017, Fig. 7,13) becomes all the more tenable when the images show a variety of characteristics. Rock-shelter panels depict men, women, and children. In the panel of Las Viñas, Alange (Badajoz), the noticeable distinctions (Martínez 2002, 73; 133 134 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 10 cm 2 1b A B 1a 20 cm 3a 3b 5 cm 4b 5 cm 4a 4c 4d Fig. 6 Anthropomorphic schematic art found in cave: 1 Cueva de los Letreros, Vélez Blanco (Almeria); 2 Abrigo del Gabar, Vélez Blanco (Almeria); 3 Abrigo de la Penya del Vicari, Altea (Alicante); 4 Abrigo de Justo, Yéchar (Murcia). Abb. 6 Anthropomorphe schematische Kunst aus Höhlen: 1 Cueva de los Letreros, Vélez Blanco (Almeria); 2 Abrigo del Gabar, Vélez Blanco (Almeria); 3 Abrigo de la Penya del Vicari, Altea (Alicante); 4 Abrigo de Justo, Yéchar (Murcia). TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C Fig. 2,2) suggest the depiction of different social segments or groups. Like figurines and figures on the larger stelae, the scenes in some painted rock-shelters also clearly show that the protagonists are varied in gender and age, encouraging readings bearing on family representations6. There are examples of bi-triangular anthropomorphs at work, for example, the figures referring to agricultural work at Moriscas II, Helechal (Badajoz) (Martínez Perelló 1995). Leaders are identified by certain suggestive details which do not accompany other figures, such as head ornaments; for example, at Puerto Palacios de Cádiz (Acosta 1968, Fig. 23,1). It has even been suggested that a lineage is represented in the Cueva de los Letreros, Vélez Blanco (Almería), in view of the vertical arrangement of the figures (Fig. 6,1) and the unions observed between different anthropomorphs (Martínez 2002, 80–82). These are social narratives, some of them, like the one dealing with the relationship with the sun, about empowerment. There are some highly suggestive images on the eastern side of the Iberian Peninsula. At the Penya del Vicari de Altea (Barciela 2015), there is a vertical arrangement in which eye images (sun-eyes), aligned stelliforms, and (bi-triangular) human figures with arms are represented (Barciela 2020, 59). In the lower half, the anthropomorphic figures (Fig. 6,3b) are located under stelliforms, aligned either to represent the firmament or of to represent a single moving star. Above (Fig. 6,3a), two sun-eyes and their corresponding ›facial tattoo‹ lines crown the panel and indicate a special anthropomorphic mode. That this is an image of empowerment is clearer in the tri-triangular figures observed in the shelter at Justo de Yéchar, where pairs of ›sun-eyes‹ can be seen on the shoulders of bi-triangular-bodied anthropomorphs with heads, arms, and legs (Fernández/Lucas 2016, 13) (Fig. 6,4). This example also gives us a better understanding of the figurations of El Gabar, Vélez Blanco (Almeria), where the sun is shown in isolation and not all the bi-triangulars represented have a pair of linked sun-eyes (Fig. 6,2). The link with the sun can be observed in other anthropomorphic typologies which the literature never classifies as ›idols‹ but as simple human representations (Acosta 1968). Items classified as ›anthropomorphic eyes‹ (García Atiénzar 2006, 225) or ›anthropomorphic idols‹ (Barciela 2020) are found in locations far from the floruit of portable representations, such as the Abrigo de los Oculados, Henarejos (Cuenca) (Ruiz et al. 2012) (Fig. 7,11) and Shelter 11 of Regato das Bouças, Mirandela (Sanches et al. 2016) (Fig. 7,9). Mention should be made of the motif of the face with the sun-eyes, equipped with eyebrows and tattoo lines, which occurs in isolation in other, more classical settlements, such as those at Segura de la Sierra, Collado Guijarral and the Cueva de la Diosa Madre, in Jaén (González 1967) (Fig. 7,7), where it is represented in a manner that is extremely close to the sun-eyes representation found on cylinder idols (Fig. 7,8), the symbolic tableware of Los Millares (Fig. 5,2), pottery specimens from western Iberia, for example, from Olival da Pêga and Monte de Outeiro (Fig. 5,1), and the eyed idols on long bones of the 6 Harrison/Heyd 2007; Bueno et al. 2017, 218; Barciela 2020; Barroso 2020; Bueno 2020b; Vella Gregory 2020. Pastora variant, like the one from the Peña Escrita in Tárbena (Alicante) (Fig. 7,10). Painted Iberian schematic art confirms that the sun-eyes were a coded symbol that could represent, without further accompaniment, gods and ancestors emerging from the stones (Bueno et al. 2008a), controlling and sharing the natural world. On other occasions, sun-eyes appeared as ›masks‹ worn by human characters, for instance, in the Oculados de Henarejos, Cuenca (Fig. 7,11) and the Los Órganos and Arroyo Hellín shelters, both in Segura de la Sierra, Jaén (Fig. 7,1–2). The latter variant is highly relevant for a possible reinterpretation of the figurines. If the ›sun-eyes‹ are seen as masks, one can understand why, in three-dimensional pieces (of which cylinders are a good example), the ›braids‹ of the hairstyles, represented on the reverse, leave room for a continuation of the ›tattoos‹, whose lines seem to pass below the hair (cf. Fig. 10,3). In other words, tattoos are applied to the back of the head and the ›closures‹ are covered by the hairstyle or by the upper part of the cloak that some characters seem to wear7. The last versions of the Iberian figurines, with a cloak and perhaps a hood over the head, is clearer in some versions of the decorated plaques that also appear with sun-eyes and tattoos. The oldest way of representing human images was disguise. Palaeolithic human figures appeared disguised as various animals that were, over and above other meanings, part of their means of survival. The solar disguise was undoubtedly also linked to the ideological value of economic resources, since the sun is the star on which agricultural activities depend. In the painted shelters, some of the characters depicted are dressed up as suns in order to join in what appear to be dances or various communal acts, establishing oral accounts through public expressions of heritage and lineages. 4. Figurines in Iberia. Men and women dressed up as the sun Sharing the same chronology as the schematic art images in shelters and megaliths and on outdoor rocks, the various types of portable item representing the dressed human body pick up the communal stories expressed in the graphic markers of the territories of the first agricultural farmers and introduce them to the family realm (Bueno et al. 2016a; Bueno 2020b; Soler 2020b). While they may have evoked cults or beliefs, the new interpretations tend to bring them closer to the human sphere. A wide range of functions and meanings seems plausible. In some cases they may be connected with evocations of ancestors, an interpretation supported by the rock art discussed above8. A few known examples of anthropomorphs with limbs exist in clay, but such representations were less common on bone or lithic supports than on the walls of rock shelters, where they were expressed in more detail with brushes impregnated with pigment. The most characteristic forms of Iberian schematic rock art are not abundant in the figurines 7 In this case it refers to a possible mask made of organic material that would be tied at the back with laces or something of that kind. How the mask would be kept tight to the head is the ›closure‹. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 8 Bueno 1992; Bueno 2010; Soler 2017; Bueno 2020a, 214; Palaguta 2020. 135 136 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 1a 1b 3 5 cm 5 5 cm 5 cm 2 4 5 6 5 cm 7 8 5 cm 5 cm 9 5 cm 5 cm 10 11a 11b TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C record: there are few cruciform representations, and the ›double y‹ or ramiform figures are unknown. The tri-triangular ›idols‹ were a popular variant within the typology of cruciform items (Almagro 1973), but the truly ›cruciform‹ variant was so scarce that it barely spread at all. The same is true of the anchor form, so named from the shape of a flat, fragmented bone pendant found in the 1920s in the Cova de la Barcella (Fig. 7.5), although years later a similar object from Blanquizáres de Lébor (Fig. 7,6) made clear that the shape was, in fact, a vertical anthropomorph with its limbs bent upwards (Bueno/Soler 2020b, 65 Fig. 4–5). Such items, still defined typologically as ›ancoriforms‹, have also been discovered in megaliths in southern Iberia (Viera, Málaga and El Pozuelo 2, Huelva) (Bueno et al. 2013). These forms have been linked to the schematic figures with legs spread out in an M-shape, which are interpreted as representing women giving birth. Small stone plaques are the most recurring images in the western Iberian megaliths. In their genesis, development, and shape they are related to the orthostats that support the megalithic constructions (Bueno 2020b, 212–213). Present also in residential and ritual contexts, they are found in particular concentrations in funerary monuments, such as Anta 1 do Paço (Évora), where 324 pieces were found, and Anta Grande de Zambujeiro (Évora), the Anta Grande de Comenda da Igreja (Montemor-o-Novo), and the Anta de Olival da Pêga (Reguengos de Monsaraz), all of which contained around one hundred plaques. The other typologies listed in the traditional literature as ›idols‹ appear in far lower quantities in various contexts. The approximate number of figurines in Iberia (about 6000) includes some 4000 decorated plaques (Lillios 2008), which is enough to claim that they represent the most frequently occurring type of all the Iberian figurines (Bueno 2020a, 34). Their preferential distribution in the south-west and their link to the megaliths of the Alentejo tells us about the identity-conferring nature of these objects. Their geometric engravings may contain a code linked to lineage (Lillios 2008; Lillios 2020) or social affiliation (García/O'Brien 2014), in which case they could have referred to the origins or family relationships of those who carried them and deposited them in their burials (Bueno 1992; Bueno 2010; Bueno 2020b, 209). These anthropomorphic artefacts had a manifest association with polished tools, as shown by deposits located at the entrance of megalithic monuments or in the passages leading to their chambers, for instance, in the tombs at Trincones I (Alcántara) and Anta da Horta (Alter do Chão) (Fig. 8), revealing that they were not only designed to be carried but also to be deposited on altars or in ritual enclosures. Such contexts could collect pieces from different sources, which may explain the high number of pieces in some megaliths. The movement of these objects can also be deduced from their reuse (Oliveira 1995; Gonçalves et al. 2003; Lillios 2010), a phenomenon linked to a social significance that makes megaliths true identity-conferring sanctuaries (Bueno et al. 2008b; Bueno 2020b, 213). In the south-west, bi-triangular typologies are sometimes seen in conjunction with plaques decorated with other types of figurines (Bueno 2020b, 209). Examples are the case of the Anta da Horta deposit, where sculptural plaques were associated with a bi-triangular stoneware piece (Oliveira 2010, 362, Fig. 9) (Fig. 8,8), and the images of tri-triangular anthropomorphic silhouettes included or framed between the geometric motifs of certain plaques, such as those discovered in Mértola, Lapa do Bugio, Anta 1 do Paço de Aragão and Anta 2 da Mitra (Gonçalves 2006) (Fig. 9,1.3.7). Bi-triangular figures are likewise traceable in the geometric decorations of the megaliths, whose orthostats reiterate compositions detected on the plaques. A figure of this type is even represented in the Antelas dolmen, which has been dated directly (Cruz 1995; Bueno 2010, 39), and bi-triangulars are integrated in the geometric registers that characterise the surfaces of the decorated plaques. The bi-triangular figures allude to the body or the body and the head. Simply fashioned in clay, the bi-triangular design has resulted in beautiful gynomorphic pieces, discovered in the south of the Peninsula, such as the Venus of Benaoján (Málaga) with breasts and a pubic triangle (Fig. 3,4) and the example uncovered in Ditch V of Marroquíes Bajos (Jaén), with a face and breasts (Fig. 9,5). The reference to the body is more evident in the tri-triangular variant, with the head standing out on a body which is composed of two parts that tend towards triangularity or rectangularity, in which the waist is emphasised. The bi-triangular typology includes the marble figurines associated with the Rundgräber-type tombs of what has been recognised as the ›Culture of Almeria‹ (Martínez/López 2020, 267 f.) (Fig. 3,5; 9,6) and the flattened bone or lithic tri-triangular pieces (Fig. 3,6; 7,3; 9,2; 9,4), referred to as flat idols with lateral notches (Pascual 1998), which, found over a more extensive area (Martínez/ López 2020, 269), are identified in the Portuguese literature as ›Almeria idols‹ (Valera 2012), possibly because they have less of a presence in the west (Soler 2020b, 312–315). Characteristic of the multiple burial caves of eastern Iberia (Soler 2002), in the west, tri-triangular figures are notable for their representation in the estuary of the River Tagus. The mouth of the Tagus is at the same latitude as the area that culminates, in eastern Iberia, in Cabo de la Nao , where bone and lithic garment and ornament elements with ribbed deco- Fig. 7 (left page) Anthropomorphic cave paintings with masks: 1 Los Órganos, Santa Elena (Jaén); 2 Arroyo Hellín, Chiclana de Segura (Jaén); 4 Shelter I Cabeçó d’Or, Relleu (Alicante); 9 Shelter 11 Regato das Bouças, Mirandela (Bragança); 11 Abrigo de los Oculados, Henarejos (Cuenca). Cave painting faces: 7 Cueva de la Diosa Madre, Segura de la Sierra (Jaén); 10 Peña Escrita, Tárbena (Alicante). Portable anthropomorphic art (all at the same scale): 3 Tritriangulars, Cova d’En Pardo, Planes (Alicante), bone; 5–6 Ancoriforms, bone (5) Cova de la Barcella, Torremanzanas (Alicante) and (6) Cueva de los Blanquizáres de Lébor, Totana (Murcia); 8 Stone cylinder with a face, Moncarapacho, Olhão (Faro). Abb. 7 (linke Seite) Anthropomorphe Höhlenmalereien mit Maskendarstellungen: 1 Los Órganos, Santa Elena (Jaén); 2 Arroyo Hellín, Chiclana de Segura (Jaén); 4 Felsdach I Cabeçó d’Or, Relleu (Alicante); 9 Felsdach 11 Regato das Bouças, Mirandela (Bragança); 11 Abrigo de los Oculados, Henarejos (Cuenca). Höhlenmalereien mit Gesichtsdarstellungen: 7 Cueva de la Diosa Madre, Segura de la Sierra (Jaén); 10 Peña Escrita, Tárbena (Alicante). Bewegliche anthropomorphe Kunst (alle im selben Maßstab): 3 Dreifache Dreiecksfigurinen, Cova d’En Pardo, Planes (Alicante), Knochen; 5–6 Ankerförmige Figurinen, Knochen (5) Cova de la Barcella, Torremanzanas (Alicante) und (6) Cueva de los Blanquizáres de Lébor, Totana (Murcia); 8 Zylindrische Steinfigur mit Gesicht, Moncarapacho, Olhão (Faro). TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 137 138 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z 3 2 5 cm 1 10 cm 4 7 10 cm 5 6 8 9 1m Fig. 8 1–8 Dolmen of Trincones, Alcántara, Cáceres. 1–2 sculptural plaques; 3 general view; 4 deposit of polished artefacts. Anta da Horta, Alter do Chão, Alto Alentejo. 5–6 sculptural plaques; 7 general view; 8 deposit of polished artefacts. 9 Dolmen of Montelirio. Graphic reading of the engravings and paintings. Abb. 8 1–8 Megalithgrab von Trincones, Alcántara, Cáceres. 1–2 plastisch verzierten Platten; 3 Gesamtansicht; 4 Depot von polierten Artefakten. Anta da Horta, Alter do Chão, Alto Alentejo. 5–6 plastisch verzierten Platten; 7 Gesamtansicht; 8 Depot von polierten Artefakten. 9 Megalithgrab von Montelirio. Grafische Umsetzung der Ritzzeichnungen und Malereien. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C 2 5 cm 1 5 3 4 7 8 6 9 5 cm Fig. 9 Relationship between plaques with anthropomorphic representations and anthropomorphs made up of triangles. Lithic plaques with anthropomorphic decoration: 1 Lapa do Bugio, Azóia (Leiria); 3 Mértola (Beja); 7 Anta 1 do Paço de Aragão, Montemor-o-Novo (Évora). Lithic plaques with prominent triangular heads: 8 Marvão (Portalegre); 9 Anta 1 dos Cavaleiros, Ponte de Sor (Portalegre). Tri-triangulars, on bone plaque: 2 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); on stone: 4 El Pozuelo Megalithic Site. 5 Bi-triangular in clay with face and breasts, Marroquíes Bajos (Jaén). 6 Bi-triangular in stone with raised arms, Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria). Abb. 9 Vergleich zwischen Platten mit anthropomorphen Darstellungen und anthropomorphen Dreiecksfiguren. Steinplatten mit anthropomorphen Verzierungen: 1 Lapa do Bugio, Azóia (Leiria); 3 Mértola (Beja); 7 Anta 1 do Paço de Aragão, Montemor-o-Novo (Évora). Steinplatten mit markanten Dreiecksköpfen: 8 Marvão (Portalegre); 9 Anta 1 dos Cavaleiros, Ponte de Sor (Portalegre). Dreifache Dreiecksfigurinen aus Knochen: 2 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora); aus Stein: 4 El Pozuelo Megalithfundstelle. 5 Doppelte Dreiecksfigurine aus Ton mit Gesicht und Brüsten, Marroquíes Bajos (Jaén). 6 Doppelte Dreiecksfigurine aus Stein mit erhobenen Armen, Loma de la Torre, Cantoria (Almeria). TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 139 140 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z ration are common. Although there are not many dated sites with such finds, a possible chronology between c. 3300 BC, at the earliest, and the first centuries of the 3rd millennium BC seems confirmed in both the west and the east (Soler 2020b, 304 f.). This is the time frame in which the spacious burial cave of En Pardo (Planes, Alicante) was in use, which houses tri-triangular bone pieces (Fig. 7,3), possibly representing different sexes (Soler/Barciela 2018,198) and in which the founding deposit with similar pieces, carefully arranged under a bed of ceramic fragments, was placed at the base of Ditch 12 of Perdigões (Valera 2012) (Fig. 9,2). Perdigões is a ditched enclosure with one of the best preserved wooden-pole circles in Europe, encompassing an extraordinary ritual area with entrances oriented towards the solstices and equinoxes. The site as a whole has yielded the most extensive evidence of human figurines in Iberia. This applies, specifically, to the tri-triangulars, the earliest of which date from the end of the Neolithic, inaugurating the fruitful development of figurines that characterises the Chalcolithic in this extensive ceremonial area. Five tri-triangular bone figurines were found in the foundation deposits of its ditches (Valera 2020). Signifi­cantly, one more figurine of the same typology was found at the base of the sedimentation of a large artificial cave or hypogeum which was contemporary with the enclosure, thus confirming the different social roles of these figurines (Valera 2020, 237). When it comes to identifying the six bone figures of Perdigões (Fig. 9,2), we believe that they probably represented human beings rather than deities, people who gained importance and appreciation for being the bearers of a story that translated into the foundation of what became a large ceremonial space. Other possible stories linked to similar figurines are suggested by the representation of several figures arranged in the row on the Mértola plaque (Alentejo), and the relationship of individuals with the sky or the sun at the Penya del Vicari de Altea (Fig. 6,3b), as discussed above. The de-fragmentation of motifs evident in the Penya del Vicari panel at Altea (Alicante), where ›sun-eyes‹ and facial tattoos are superimposed on anthropomorphs, one of them being of particular importance (Barciela 2020), suggests a narrative about an individual’s empowerment on the basis of his symbiosis with a solar image (Fig. 6,3). Assuming a similar code, the same meaning can be deduced from the Mértola plaque from western Iberia, whose decoration shows a face with sun-eyes and facial tattoo lines, while other individuals are arranged below, in this case with apparently completely equal and aligned in a strictly tri-triangular format (Fig. 9,3). We are certainly dealing with a complex symbolism associated with the representation of the sun, a highly successful formula that persisted in the megalithic circles of the southwest. The spectacular cylindrical or frustoconical stone constructions in the south-west and the superb decorations that characterise the long bones of Almizaraque exemplify the technical achievement of these productions, as well as the wide impact of these codes throughout the Iberian Peninsula. This symbolism corresponds to the codification of the expression of a communal rite that established oral narratives, one relevant aspect being the aggregation of individuals around human beings disguised as the sun by wearing masks, as shown by parietal art (cf. Fig. 7). These masks could refer to performances by characters bearing tattoos, paints or scarifications, similar to those thought to have been worn by the women buried in Montelirio (Bueno et al. 2016a). 5. ›Sun-eyes‹ as elements of social manipulation The presented figurations justified leadership in identity-based and territorialised Chalcolithic societies with varying traditions, surplus production, and no lack of competition and violence. Most plaques do not have sun-eyes; when they do appear, they point to the portable object with a singular feature that, expressed on different supports and forms, reaches a geography beyond the Iberian south-west. Open eyes of leaders, of social models, of ancestors ... which are apparently empowered by the sun but base their strength and prestige on the claim of a kinship line. This lineage is expressed in the selective and successive burials in megaliths and caves and the regional specificity of the different figurative motives. As a three-dimensional support, the bi-triangular (Fig. 3,4) figure acquired a biconical volume (Fig. 3,7–8) in the so-called ›tolva‹ or ›gola‹ idols, sometimes made from the phalanxes of large mammals (Fig. 3,21–22), types which appear in significant numbers and without any apparent decoration in the necropolis of Los Millares (Leisner/Leisner 1943). Few phalanxes display the ocular motif (Fig. 10,9), while it always appears on the long bones (Fig. 3,18–19; 10,1–2), a form similar to the bi-triangular because it is wide at the epiphyses and narrow on the diaphyseal shaft. The bi-triangular shape is strikingly expressed in lithic pieces from the middle Guadiana Basin with a decora- Fig. 10 (right page) Figurines with facial expressions. 1–2 Long bones from the cova de la Pastora, Alcoy (Alicante), with simple (1) or compound (2) decorative scheme (Soler 2017, Fig. 7.37: 1 and 5); 3, 4, 8 Eyebrow expressions on pottery and stone: stone cylinder, Valencina de la Concepción (Seville) (8), pottery vase (3) and baetyl from the area of Lisbon (4); 5–7 compound eye symbols (two pairs of eyes): 5 golden plate, Valencina de la Concepción, Castilleja de Guzmán (Seville); 6 rib, Terrera Ventura (Tabernas, Valencia); 7 shaft, Ereta del Pedregal, Navarrés, Valencia; 9–12 Simple eye symbols (one pair of eyes): 9 phalanx, Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Évora; 10 bi-triangular, La Pijotilla, Badajoz; bone plaques: 11 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Évora; 12 Los Millares, Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria). Anthropomorphic figurines in bone (13–14, 16), stone (15) and ivory (17): Cerro de la Cabeza, Valencina de la Concepción Seville (13–14); La Pijotilla (Badajoz) (15); Marroquíes Bajos (Jaén) (16) and Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora) (17). Abb. 10 (rechte Seite) Figurinen mit Gesichtsdarstellungen. 1–2 Langknochen aus der Cova de la Pastora, Alcoy (Alicante). Mit einfachem (1) oder zusammengesetztem (2) Verzierungsschema (Soler, 2017, Abb. 7.37: 1 und 5); 3, 4, 8 Augenbrauendarstellungen auf Keramik und Stein: Steinzylinder aus Valencina de la Concepción (Seville) (8), Keramikgefäß (3) und Baetylus (4) aus der Gegend um Lissabon; 5–7 zusammengesetzte Augensymbole (zwei Augenpaare): 5 Goldblech, Valencina de la Concepción, Castilleja de Guzmán (Sevilla); 6 Rippe, Terrera Ventura (Tabernas, Valencia); 7 Schaft, Ereta del Pedregal, Navarrés, Valencia; 9–12 Einfache Augensymbole (ein Augenpaar): 9 Phalanx, Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Évora; 10 doppelte Dreiecksfigurine, La Pijotilla, Badajoz; Knochenplatten: 11 Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Évora; 12 Los Millares, Santa Fe de Mondújar (Almeria). Anthropomorphe Knochenfigurinen (13–14, 16), Stein (15) und Elfenbein (17): Cerro de la Cabeza, Valencina de la Concepción Sevilla (13–14); La Pijotilla (Badajoz) (15); Marroquíes Bajos (Jaén) (16) und Perdigões, Reguengos de Monsaraz (Évora) (17). TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C SIMPLE COMPOUND a a b 3 b c a2 c b2 c2 1 2 b Face c Limbs/ a Eyebrown/ Head ornament Sex/Symbol 8 6 5 13 14 7 15 16 5 cm TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 10 9 4 11 12 17 141 142 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z tion similar to that of the cylindrical idols characteristic of the south-west (Hurtado 2008, 4–6) (Fig. 3,26). Characteristic of the eastern area, the long bones refer to a figurative horizon in the east with a first presence subsequent to that of the tri-triangular pieces, although there is nothing to rule out their coexistence, given that there are contexts within the distribution of the latter that could date from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (Martínez/López 2020, 269). Everything points to the eye motifs on long bones as a fact that characterises the first half of the 3rd millennium BC (Soler 2017, 334). Some of these elongated bone pieces also appear as part of deposits. In the case of Almizaraque, a workshop area has been proposed (Maicas 2007, 241–246). The excavation is too old for definitive statements to be made, but it may have been a deposit containing pieces of the two decorative variants, one variegated – Almizaraque – and the other with simpler decoration – Pastora – in two sets (Soler 2017, 326 f.). The same could also have been the case with the stone cylinders documented in a couple of pits at the site of Orden Seminario in Huelva (Vera et al. 2010). In any case, it is clear that eye motifs occur on long bones grouped in funerary contexts on both sides of the Iberian Peninsula, other examples are the 14-piece set from El Fontanal de Onil (Soler 2017, 338), located by an amateur in a rock shelter in Alicante, and the set of 11 pieces, mostly grouped next to the entrance of Tomb 3 of Pijotilla (Badajoz), a false dome construction inside which phalanxes and anthropomorphic figures were found (Hurtado et al. 2000). It is thought that the highest concentration of long bones (25 units) known from the east of the Peninsula, uncovered in the funerary chamber of the Cova de la Pastora de Alcoy, Alicante (Soler 2017, 336), could have been a single deposit. The similarity in motifs and style make it feasible that the pieces were deposited simultaneously in this context, although a battery of human bone datings reveals a funerary use over several centuries, starting in the middle of the 4th millennium and lasting until after the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The gesture of a deposit of coded anthropomorphic images (Fig. 10,1–2) could be interpreted as the basis of a social empowerment narrative, by which whoever made the deposit, centuries after the original burials, demonstrated knowledge of the deceased by using their images and claimed descent from them. The images contain sun-eyes as well as unique codes identified at the bottom of the decorative friezes that allude to one or more equal individuals supporting the oral memory of the kinship (Soler 2017, Fig. 8,38). The same idea is also clearly expressed in the two pairs of sun-eyes on the golden plate of Valencina de la Concepción, Castilleja de Guzman (Seville) (Fig. 10,5), the specimen on the pole of La Ereta del Pedregal, Navarrés (Valencia) and the example engraved on the rib from Terrera Ventura, Tabernas (Almeria) (Fig. 10,6–8). The figurines thus constituted the basis of one or several narratives that invariably benefitted emerging leaderships. As eyes on bone plaques only appear in the forts of Los Millares (Fig. 10,12), it has been suggested that these pieces might have justified the transmission of a status in restricted-access areas where salt was processed or specialised objects, such as flint arrowheads and metal objects, were handled and made (Martínez/López 2020, 276). However, other authors have seen in the multiplicity of motifs, their wide circulation across Iberia, and their discovery in a diversity of every-day, funerary and ritual contexts an expression of the fluidity of the Chalcolithic social relations and the lack of centralisation and control over the ceremonial and ideological instruments of these communities (Risch 2018). The succession of sun-eyes offers collective history readings that might link successive or different lineages. The long bones present complex sun-eye devices, comparable to those seen on sumptuous objects, especially the golden plates discovered in the megalithic graves of Valencina de la Con­ cepción, Seville (Murillo 2016) and in some other major south-western megaliths (Anta Grande de Zambujeiro, Pijo­ tilla). Inasmuch as some of these sumptuous objects may be associated with sacrificial knives and are found in places with evidence of considerable ritual display, one may convincingly connect a notable increase in funerary exhibitions with ideological structures for controlling social conflicts that may have generated changes in communal and individual organisations. The ancestral past as an argument for power transmission became one of the most ubiquitous tools in the early metallurgical cultures in Europe (Bueno et al. 2005a, 639; Soler 2017). A study of the decoration and symbolic items of the tomb at Montelirio (cf. Fig. 8) in the megalithic complex of Castilleja de Guzmán-Valencina de la Concepción (Seville) gives substance to some of these hypotheses, thanks to their good state of preservation. On the walls, the eye images are arranged next to each other in pairs, casting doubt on the widespread idea that they only reflect female images, since these associations repeat those seen in the shelter paintings discussed above. The sun-eyes are framed by geometric decorations that extend to the base of the orthostats, reiterating the clothing seen on the oldest images on the megalithic supports, reasonably identifiable with that worn by the figures on decorated plaques and other portable figurine images (Bueno et al. 2007; Bueno 2010; Bueno 2020b). A clay stele – painted white, black, and red, and with suneyes – occupies a central spot, which the sunlight would have reached, since the monument is oriented towards the east. This stele repeats well-documented stone forms in south-western megaliths (Bueno et al. 2005a). At its feet were found various offerings on a cinnabar red ›tablecloth‹, including objects from foreign sources (Murillo et al. 2015). The buried women, more than 20 in number, wore mantles down to their feet with horizontally and vertically arranged bead embroidery, like those of the figurines. Did they die from cinnabar poisoning because they wore tattoos made of this substance? Although the causation of these cinnabar poisonings may have been more complex, there is no doubt that the Montelirio monument, built and occupied during the first half of the 3rd millennium BC (Bayliss et al. 2016), offers a picture of the level of complexity of funeral rituals inherited from the first builders of megaliths (Bueno et al. 2005b; Bueno et al. 2016b; Bueno et al. 2019) TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C 6. Anthropomorphic idols and ditched enclosures as aggregation sites The relatively new discovery of figurines related to Iberian ditched enclosures and the great richness and variety of their support types and contexts give rise to new reflections on the panorama of Iberian and European figurines. Most of the pieces known as ›anthropomorphic idols‹ appear in these contexts (Fig. 10,13–17). These are vertical figurines, their legs ending in points, their faces with empty-socket eyes­tattoos, their hair gathered behind in a braid, their arms crossed at waist level. Most are clearly male, although there are also female figures (Fig. 10,16). Made of rich materials, particularly ivory and sometimes gold, and dating back to the 3rd millennium BC, they reflect a true floruit of portable anthropomorphic figures: phalanxes, baetyls and plaques are found in the same contexts (Valera 2020, 237), some of them with facial representations indicated only by eyebrows (Fig. 10,4–5). These anthropomorphic idols are unique in both the European and Iberian records, although their codification is clearly rooted in all known Iberian typologies. The difference is that these forms are clearly personalised. They have been documented in large south-western ditched enclosures: Pijotilla (Badajoz), Perdigões (Évora), Marroquíes Altos (Jaén), El Malagón (Granada) and Valencina (Seville). Some of them represent concrete Mediterranean reminiscences, for instance, the female example from El Malagón (Arribas 1977), and one of those found at La Pijotilla (Bueno/ Soler 2020b, 141,4). They both recall Cycladic forms found in Sardinia in advanced, Late Neolithic contexts (Paglietti 2020, Fig. 10,2). A certain Mediterranean character is common to the whole set, although they are also Iberian in their codification, supporting the hypothesis that connectivities were materialised in the images of leaders, ancestors, and lineages. Although most figurines appear in collective funerary contexts, their association with specific buried persons is confirmed in Perdigôes by the association of a cremated bone with the lower part of the legs of one of these figurines (Valera 2020, 232), a co-occurrence also documented in Mediterranean contexts of the Late Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age (Sotirakopoulou 2020, 337). If identity groupings in tombs tend to be single or binary, in ditched enclosures the variety of typologies and raw materials is overwhelming, increasing as more and more areas are excavated at these sites. The La Pijotilla site in Badajoz was the first to reveal this wealth of figurines (Hurtado 2008), while the excavations at Perdigões (Alentejo) contributed to establishing not only the variety and contemporaneity of the different typologies, but also their antiquity, proved by the dating of the foundational deposit of the site to the 4th millennium cal BC (Valera 2020). The huge significance of these finds entails the need to redouble our efforts to generate convincing hypotheses about the social role of these items9. As we have pointed out, their variety is greater than that found anywhere in central Europe 9 Bueno 2020a; García Pérez et al. 2020; Maicas 2020; Martínez et al. 2020; Martínez/ López 2020; Soler 2020b; Valera 2020. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 or in the Mediterranean region, where the origins of Iberian figurines have so often been posited. If we turn to the long trajectory of solar and anthropomorphic representations, starting from the basis that the painted, engraved, and sculpted symbols are one element, among others, of the materiality of human expressions, it is plausible to relate this richness in the number and variety of the figurines with the background forged in the expressions of early Iberian farmers. This background reflects the high connectivity of Iberia, its favourable climate and important wealth of resources: good agricultural lands, cattle operations, flint, gold, copper, and silver. None of these factors was decisive in itself, but taken as a whole, they contributed to the maintenance of surpluses that made it possible to exchange objects and raw materials that were amortised in funerary exhibitions as social compensation systems (Risch 2018). Within this context of wide connectivity, Iberian symbologies, embodied in exotic products celebrating the floruit of megalithism, had an impact on the Atlantic facade, central Europe, and the Mediterranean, contributing to the development of individualised human images, dressed in long, geo­ metrically decorated mantles associated with solar repre­sen­ tations (Bueno 2010; Bueno 2020a). The case of the stelae in the Alps is an excellent example (Bocksberger et al. 1976; Mezzena 1981). Assuming that these characteristics in turn represent mixtures with other symbolic elements of diverse origins, Iberia’s role is crucial for establishing the chronology of symbols related to the representation of power based on a symbiosis with the sun. Collective, communal, and individualised power was justified on the basis of the ancestral past, linking the image of exceptional persons and groups with the sun as a star that sees everything and rules the cycles of life, the main character in the mythologies of the first farmers. Oral narratives, perpetuated in collective performances and their reflections in schematic art, were assumed by lineages, families, or individuals, perhaps in a political process of appro­­pria­­tion of collective models to support the social position of a few (Bueno et al. 2005a, 639; Barroso 2020). Undoubtedly, these ideological premises were the basis for the development of the social tools that constituted the establishment of power in later cultures. Acknowledgements We would like to thank our colleagues Harald Meller, Alfred Reichenberger, and Roberto Risch for inviting us to participate in this volume. We would especially like to thank Roberto Risch for all the support he has given us with the English translation and his excellent advice for improving the text. The renewal of knowledge on the study of Iberian figurines has resulted in the publication of scientific volumes in which almost 70 researchers have participated. The images included in this text come mostly from the participating museums, which have been generous enough to allow us to use them. Part of the research for this work has been carried out under Research Project PGC2018-099405-B-I00. 143 144 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z Bibliography Acosta 1968 P. Acosta Martínez, La pintura rupestre esquemática en España (Salamanca 1968). Almagro 1973 M. J. Almagro Gorbea, Los ídolos del Bronce I hispano. Bibl. Praehist. Hispana 12 (Madrid 1973). Armitage et al. 2020 R. A. Armitage/P. Bueno-Ramírez/R. de BalbínBehrmann/R. Martineau/F. Carrera-Ramírez/ T. Fairchild/J. Southon, Charcoal-painted images from the French Neolithic Villevenard hypogea: an experimental protocol for radiocarbon dating of conserved and in situ carbon with consolidant contamination. Arch. and Anthr. Scien. 12, 2020, 1–16. Arribas 1977 A. Arribas Palau, El ídolo de ›El Malagón‹ (Cullar-Baza), Granada. Cuad. Prehist. Univ. Granada 2, 1977, 63–86. Barciela 2015 V. Barciela González, Nuevos métodos, nuevas lecturas. In: V. Barciela González (ed.), La Penya de l’Ermita del Vicari (Altea, Alicante) (Altea 2015) 63–74. Barciela 2020 V. Barciela González, Ídolos del Neolítico Final/Calcolítico en las paredes rocosas de la Península Ibérica. Una mirada desde el sureste peninsular. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos miradas milenarias (Alicante 2020) 54–68. Barroso 2020 R. Barroso Bermejo, Imágenes antropomorfas de la Edad del Bronce y Hierro en la Península Ibérica. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición] MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 368–378. Bayliss et al. 2016 A. Bayliss/N. Beavan/C. Bronk Ramsey/ A. Delgado-Huertas/M. Díaz-Zorita-Bonilla/ E. Dunbar/Á. Fernández-Flores/L. García Sanjuán/D. Hamilton/A. Mora-González/ A. Whittle, La cronología radiocarbónica del tholos de Montelirio. In: A. FernándezFlores/L. Garcia Sanjuán/M. Díaz-Zorita Bonilla (eds.), Montelirio: un gran monumento megalítico de la Edad del Cobre (Sevilla 2016) 485–502. Bocksberger et al. 1976 O. J. Bocksberger/S. Aeschlimann/D. Baudais/ I. Bauer/L. Chaix/P. Corboud/K. Farjon/ S. Favre/C. Favre-Bochung/F. Gautier/ G. Graeser/C. De Haller/T. Homewood/ D. Lépine/R. Loewer/R. Menk/M. C. Nierle/ D. Ohlhorst/P. Pétrequin/B. De Peyer/ Y. G. Reymond/G. Schwitzgebel/R. Senggen/ J. P. Urlacher/D. Wyss-Hutin/D. Weidmann, Le site préhistorique du Petit-Chasseur (Sion, Valais). 1, Le dolmen MVI. Cahiers d'Arch. Romande de la Bibl. Hist. Vaudoise 6 (Lausanne 1976). Bosch 2020 J. Bosch Argilagós, Venus de Gavá. Señora de la callais. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos. Miradas milenarias. Guía Catálogo (Madrid 2020) 56–57. Bradley 2020 R. Bradley, A Comparative Study of Rock Art in Later Prehistoric Europe (Cambridge 2020). Bueno 1992 P. Bueno Ramírez, Les plaques décorées alentéjaines: approche de leur étude et analyse. L’Anthropologie 96,2–3, 1992, 573–604. Bueno 2010 P. Bueno Ramírez, Ancestros e imágenes antropomorfas muebles en el ámbito del megalitismo occidental: las placas decoradas. In: C. Cacho/R. Maicas/E. Galán/J. A. Martos (eds.), Ojos que nunca se cierran. Ídolos en las primeras sociedades campesinas (Madrid 2010) 39–77. Bueno 2020a P. Bueno Ramírez, Cuerpos e identidades desde el Paleolítico al Neolítico en Europa. Las figuritas ibéricas. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición] MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo– octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 28–39. Bueno 2020b P. Bueno Ramírez, Placas decoradas en la Península Ibérica. Imágenes humanas entre la vida y la muerte. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición] MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo– octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 203–216. Bueno/Balbín 2013 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann, Marcadores gráficos y territorios tradicionales en la Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica. Cuad. Prehist. Arqu. Univ. Granada 19, 2009 (2013) 65–100. Bueno/Balbín 2016 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann, De cazadores a productores. Transiciones y tradiciones. In: Del Neolític a l'Edat del Bronze en el Mediterrani Occidental: Estudis en Homenatge a Bernat Martí Oliver. Ser. Trab. Varios 119 (València 2016) 465–480. Bueno/Soler 2020a P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos: miradas milenarias. Fundación C.V. MARQ (Alicante 2020). Bueno/Soler 2020b P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos. Miradas milenarias. Guía Catálogo. MAR Museo Arqueológico Regional Comunidad de Madrid (Madrid 2020). Bueno et al. 2003 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. Fábregas Valcarce/ P. Barciela Garrido, Placas, estatuas, ídolos. Representaciones Antropomorfas megalíticas en Galicia: A Carballeira (Pontevedra). Brigantium: Bol. Mus. Arqu. Hist. Coruña 14, 2003, 47–61. Bueno et al. 2005a P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Hiérarchisation et métallurgie: statues armées dans la Péninsule Ibérique. L’ Anthropologie 109,4, 2005, 577–640. Bueno et al. 2005b P. Bueno-Ramírez/R. Barroso Bermejo/R. de Balbín-Behrmann, Ritual campaniforme, ritual colectivo: la necrópolis de cuevas artificiales del Valle de las Higueras, Huecas, Toledo. Trab. Prehist. 62,2, 2005, 67–90. Bueno et al. 2007 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Chronologie de l’art Mégalithique ibérique: C14 et contextes archéologiques. L'Anthropologie 111,4, 2007, 590–654. Bueno et al. 2008a P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. M. Barroso Bermejo, Dioses y antepasados que salen de las piedras. Revista PH Bol. Inst. Andaluz Patrimonio Hist. 67, 2008, 46–61. Bueno et al. 2008b P. Bueno Ramírez/R. Barroso Bermejo/R. de Balbín Behrmann, The necropolis of Era de la Laguna, Santiago de Alcántara, Cáceres, in the context of the megalithism of the central region of the International Tagus. In: P. BuenoRamírez/R. Barroso-Bermejo/R. de BalbínBehrmann (eds.), Graphical Markers and Megalith Builders in the International Tagus, Iberian Peninsula. BAR Internat. Ser. 1765 (Oxford 2008) 41–59. Bueno et al. 2012 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. BalbínBehrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, La frontera ideológica: grafías postglaciares ibéricas. In: M. De Jesus Sanches (ed.), I.a Mesa Redonda Artes Rupestres da Pré-História e da Proto-História: paradigmas e metodologías de registo. Trab. Arqu. 54 (Lisboa 2012) 139–160. Bueno et al. 2013 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Símbolos para los muertos, símbolos para los vivos. Arte megalítico en Andalucía. In: J. Martínez Garcia/ M. S. Hernández Pérez (eds.), Actas del II Congreso de Arte Rupestre Esquemático en la Península Ibérica, Comarca de Los Vélez, 5–8 de Mayo 2010 (Vélez Blanco 2013) 25–47. Bueno et al. 2015 P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Graphic programmes as ideological construction of the megaliths: the south of the Iberian Peninsula as case study. In: L. Rocha/P. Bueno-Ramírez/G. Branco, Death as Archaeology of Transition: thoughts and materials. Papers from the II International Conference of Transition Archaeology: Death Archaeology, 29 th April–1st May 2013. BAR Internat. Ser. 2708 (Oxford 2015) 52–69. Bueno et al. 2016a P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo/F. Carrera Ramírez/ M. A. Hunt Ortiz, El arte y la plástica en el tholos de Montelirio. In: Á. Fernández Flores/ L. García Sanjuán/M. Díaz-Zorita Bonilla (eds.), Montelirio: un gran monumento Megalítico de la Edad del Cobre (Sevilla 2016) 365–405. Bueno et al. 2016b P. Bueno Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Megalithic art in the Iberian Peninsula. Thinking about graphic discourses in the European Megaliths. In: G. Robin/A. D’Anna/A. Schmitt/M. Bailly (eds.), Fonctions, utilisations et représentations de l’espace dans les sépultures monumentales du Néolithique européen (Functions, uses and representations of space in the monumental graves of Neolithic Europe) (Aix-en-Provence 2016) 185–203. Bueno et al. 2017 P. Bueno-Ramírez/R. de Balbín Behrmann/ R. Barroso Bermejo, Steles, time and ancestors in the megaliths of Antequera, Málaga (Spain). Menga. Revista de Prehist. Andalucía 8, 2017, 193–219. Bueno et al. 2019a P. Bueno-Ramírez/R. de Balbín-Behrmann/ R. Barroso-Bermejo/L. Laporte/P. Gouézin/ F. Cousseau/L. Salanova/N. Card/G. Benetau/ E. Mens /A. Sheridan/F. Carrera-Ramírez/ A. Hernanz/M. Iriarte/K. Steelman, From pigment to symbol: the role of paintings in the ideological construction of European megaliths. In: J. Müller/M. Hinz/M. Wunderlich (eds.), Megaliths–Societies–Landscapes. Early Monumentality and Social Differentiation in TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C Neolithic Europe. Vol.3. Proceedings of the international conference ›Megaliths–Societies–Landscapes. Early Monumentality and Social Differentiation in Neolithic Europe‹ (16th–20th June 2015) in Kiel (Bonn 2019) 845– 865. Bueno et al. 2021 (in press) P. Bueno-Ramírez/R. Barroso-Bermejo/R. de Balbín-Behrmann, Breaking the borders of the Mediterranean Neolithic. Schematic art in Iberian megaliths. CITCEM – Centro de Investigação Transdisciplinar ›Cultura, Espaço e Memória‹ 2021 (in press). Burl 1980 A. Burl, Science or symbolism: problems of archaeo-astronomy. Antiquity 54,212,1980, 191–200. Carrasco et al. 2006 J. L. Carrasco Rus/M. S. Navarrete Enciso/ J. A. Pachón Romero, Las manifestaciones rupestres esquemáticas y los soportes muebles en Andalucía. In: J. Martínez/M. S. Hernández (eds.), Actas del Congreso de Arte Rupestre Esquemático en la Península Ibérica. Comarca de los Vélez, 5–7 de Mayo 2004 (Almería 2006) 85–118. Carrasco et al. 2015 J. Carrasco Rus/F. Martínez Sevilla/J. A. Pachón Romero/J. Gámiz Jiménez, Nuevas aportaciones para el conocimiento del arte rupestre esquemático y los soportes muebles en la cuenca alta del Guadalquivir. Las pinturas del Cerro Jabalcón (Zújar, Granada) y sus relaciones con las de Tajos de Lillo (Loja, Granada). Antiquitas 27, 2015, 7–29. Carrera/Fábregas 2002 F. Carrera Ramírez/R. Fábregas Valcarce, Datación radiocarbónica de pinturas megalíticas del Noroeste Peninsular. Trab Prehist. 59,1, 2002, 157–166. Consuegra/Diaz-del-Río 2020 S. Consuegra Rodríguez/P. Diaz-del-Río, Casa Montero, Vicálvaro, Madrid. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos. Miradas milenarias. Guía Catálogo (Madrid 2020) 52–53. Consuegra et al. 2018 S. Consuegra Rodríguez/N. Castañeda/ E. Capdevila/M. Capote/C. Criado/C. Casas/ A. Nieto/P. Diaz-del-Rio, The Early Neolithic flint mine of Casa Montero (Madrid, Spain), 5350–5220 cal BC. Trab Prehist. 75,1, 2018, 52–66. Cruz 1995 D. J. da Cruz, Cronología dos monumentos com tumulus do Noroeste Peninsular e da Beira Alta. Estud. Pré-Hist. 3, 1995, 81–119. D’Errico/Vanhaeren 2015 F. d ’Errico/M. Vanhaeren, Upper Palaeolithic mortuary practices: Reflection of ethnic affiliation, social complexity, and cultural turnover. In: C. Renfrew/, M. J. Boyd/I. Morley, Death rituals, social order and the archaeology of immortality in the ancient world: ›Death shall have no dominion‹ (Cambridge 2015, 45–62. Fábregas et al. 2020 R. Fábregas Valcarce /C. Rodríguez Rellán/ A. Paz Camaño, ¿Ecos del sur? Figuras de piedra en los megalitos del noroeste ibérico. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 177–191. Fernández/Lucas 2016 T. Fernández Azorín/P. Lucas Salcedo, Descubrimiento de Arte Rupestre en el Abrigo de Justo Yéchar (Mula). Orígenes y Raíces. Revista Soc. Estud. Hist. Etnogr. Tierras Altas del Argos, Quípar y Alárabe 9, 2016, 9–14. Flors 2020 E. Flors Ureña, Contexto arqueológico del Cántaro de Costamar, Cabanes, Castellón. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos. Miradas milenarias. Guía Catálogo (Madrid 2020) 50–51. García Atiénzar 2006 G. García Atiénzar, Ojos que nos miran. Los ídolos oculados entre las cuencas de los ríos Júcar y Segura. In: J. Martínez García/ M. S. Hernández Pérez (eds.), Actas del Congreso de Arte Rupestre Esquemático en la Península Ibérica. Comarca de los Vélez, 5–7 de Mayo 2004 (Almería 2006), 223–234. García/O’Brien 2014 D. García Rivero/M. L. O’Brien, Phylogenetic analysis shows that Neolithic slate plaques from the southwestern Iberian Peninsula are not genealogical recording systems. PLoS One 9,2, 2014, e88296. García Pérez et al. 2020 S. García Pérez/V. Hurtado Pérez/ L. García-Sanjuán/M. Cintas-Peña. Las múltiples formas de lo sagrado: las imágenes portables del Neolítico final y la Edad del Cobre en el sur de España. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre (Alicante 2020) 245–264. Garrido/Muñoz 2000 R. Garrido Pena/K. Muñoz López-Astilleros, Visiones para los líderes. Cerámicas campaniformes con decoración simbólica en la Península Ibérica. Complutum 11, 2000, 285–300. Gasco/Gernigon 2002 J. Gasco/K. Gernigon, Découverte d’une ou deux statuettes anthropomorphes en céramique dans le Chasséen de la doline de Roucadour (Thémines, Lot). Bull. Soc. Préhist. Française 99,2, 2002, 307–312. Gavilán/Vera 1993 B. Gavilán Ceballos/J. C. Vera Rodríguez, Cerámicas con decoración simbólica y cordón interior perforado procedentes de varias cuevas situadas en la subbética cordobesa. SPAL. Revista Prehist. Arqu. Univ. Sevilla 2, 1993, 81–108. Gonçalves 2006 V. S. Gonçalves. Manifestações do Sagrado na Pré-História do Ocidente Peninsular 8. Sete Placas de xisto gravadas (e algumas outras a propósito). O Arqu. Português, Sér. 4, 24, 2006, 167–231. Gonçalves et al. 2003 V. S. Gonçalves/A. Pereira/M. Andrade, A propósito do reaproveitamento de algumas placas de xisto gravadas da regiâo de Évora. O Arqu. Portugués, Ser. 4, 21, 2003, 209–244. González 1967 J. González Navarrete, Más pinturas rupestres en Jaén: La cueva de la Diosa madre. Bol. Inst. Estud. Giennenses 52, 1967, 7–25. Harrison/Heyd 2007 R. Harrison/V. Heyd, The Transformation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: the example of ›Le Petit Chasseur I + III‹ (Sion, Valais, Switzerland). Praehist. Zeitschr. 82,2, 2007, 129–214. Hernández 2020 M. S. Hernández Pérez, Cova de l’Or, Santuario neolítico. In: J. A. Soler/R. Pérez (eds.), Cova de l’Or. Beniarrés. Museo de sitio. Investigación, protección y apertura de un santuario del VI milenio a.C. (Alicante 2020) 60–67. Hofmann 2020 D. Hofmann, Del barro a la piedra: contraste entre las representaciones antropomorfas en la Europa centro meridional. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo– octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 114–129. Houbre 2013 A. Houbre, La grammaire des décors céramiques du Néolithique ancien danubien des bassins du Rhin, de la Meuse et de la Seine: entre norme et transgression. Bull Soc. préhist. française 110,1, 2013, 77–103. Hurtado 2008 V. Hurtado Pérez, Ídolos, estilos y territorios de los primeros campesinos en el sur peninsular. In: C. Cacho Quesada/R. Maicas Ramos/ J. A. Martos/M. I. Martínez Navarrete (eds.), Acercándonos al pasado: Prehistoria en 4 actos (Madrid 2008) 1–11. Hurtado et al. 2000 V. Hurtado Pérez/P. Mondéjar Fernández de Quincoces/J. C. Pecero Espín, Excavaciones en la Tumba 3 de La Pijotilla. El Megalitismo en Extremadura. Homenaje a Elías Diéguez Luengo. Extremadura Arqu., 8, 2000, 249–266. Insoll 2017 T. Insoll, The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines (Oxford 2017). Lancharro/Bueno 2020 M. Á. Lancharro Gutiérrez/P. Bueno Ramírez, Cartografiando el arte mueble ibérico de la Prehistoria reciente. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo– octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 379–389. Leisner/Leisner 1943 G. Leisner/V. Leisner, Die Megalithgräber der Iberischen Halbinsel. Der Süden. Röm.-Germ. Forsch. 17 (Berlin 1943). Leisner/Leisner 1956 G. Leisner/V. Leisner, Die Megalithgräber der Iberischen Halbinsel. Der Westen. Madrider Forsch. 1 (Berlin 1956). Lillios 2008 K. T. Lillios, Heraldry for the Dead. Memory, identity and the engraved stone plaques of Neolithic Iberia (Austin TX 2008). Lillios 2010 K. T. Lillios, Mnemonic practices of the Iberian Neolithic. The production and use of the engraved slate plaque relics. In: K. T. Lillios/ V. Tsamis (eds.), Material Mnemonics. Everyday Memory in Prehistoric Europe (Oxford 2010) 40–72. Lillios 2020 K. T. Lillios, Los ídolos placa del suroeste ibérico: historias, contextos y prácticas. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 192–202. Linares 2020 J. A. Linares Catela, El Pozuelo, Zalamea La Real, Huelva. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz, Idolos. Miradas Milenarias. Guía Catálogo (Madrid 2020) 114–115. Lucas/Fernández 2021 P. Lucas Salcedo/T. Fernández Azorín, El Abrigo de Justo de Yéchar: una mirada al arte prehistórico. Soc. Estud. Hist. Etnogr. (Caravaca 2021). Maicas 2007 R. Maicas Ramos, Industria ósea y funcionalidad: Neolítico y Calcolítico en la Cuenca de Vera (Almería). Bibl. Praehist. Hisp. 24 (Madrid 2007). Maicas 2020 R. Maicas Ramos, Unos son más iguales que otros. Los ídolos en la colección Siret. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], 145 146 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 289–302. Martí 2006 B. Martí Oliver, Cultura material y arte rupestre esquemático en el País Valenciano, Aragón y Cataluña. In: J. Martínez García/ M. S. Hernández Pérez (eds.), Actas del Congreso de Arte Esquemático en la Península Ibérica. Comarca de los Vélez, 5–7 de Mayo 2004 (Almería 2006) 119–147. Martí/Hernández 1988 B. Martí Oliver/M. S. Hernández Pérez, El Neolític Valencià. Art rupestre i cultura material (Valencia 1988). Martí et al. 2018 B. Martí Oliver/J. Juan Cabanilles/P. García Borja, Las decoraciones figurativas y simbólicas de las cerámicas del Neolítico Antiguo en las comarcas meridionales valencianas. In: J. A. Soler Díaz/R. Pérez Jiménez/V. Barciela González (eds.), Rupestre. Los primeros santuarios. Catálogo de la exposición Fundación C.V. MARQ, julio 2018–enero 2019 (Alicante 2018) 108–125. Martín/Cámalich 1982 D. Martín Socas/M. D. Cámalich Massieu, La ›cerámica simbólica‹ y su problemática (aproximación a través de los materiales de la colección L. Siret). Cuad. Prehist. Arqu. Univ. Granada 7, 1982, 267–306. Martínez 2002 J. Martínez García, Pintura rupestre esquemática: el panel, espacio social. Trab. Prehist. 59,1, 2002, 65–87. Martínez/Blanco 2014 J. Martínez García/M. A. Blanco de la Rubia, Paisajes y abrigos con pinturas rupestres en la Comarca de Los Vélez es Almería (Almería 2014). Martínez/López 2020 G. Martínez Fernández/V. López Reyes, Representaciones simbólicas, desigualdades sociales e ideología de las sociedades del Neolítico reciente y del Calcolítico de Andalucía oriental. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias:[Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 265–288. Martínez Perelló 1995 I. Martínez Perelló, Los abrigos pintados de Helechal: un nuevo conjunto de arte rupestre esquemático en Badajoz. Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Ser. 1, Prehist. Arqu. 8, 1995, 191–233. Martínez et al. 2020 R. Martínez Sanchez/P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Linares Catela, Figurillas de arcilla en el Neolítico y Edad del Cobre del sur de Iberia. In: P. Bueno/J. A. Soler (eds.), Ídolos miradas milenarias (Alicante 2020) 140–153. Mezzena 1981 F. Mezzena, La Valle d’Aosta nella preistoria e protostoria. In: F. Mezzena et al., Archeologia in Valle d’Aosta. Dal Neolitico alla caduta dell’impero romano 3500 a. C.–V sec. d. C. (Aosta 1981) 15–60. Morgado et al. 2018 A. Morgado/E. García-Alfonso/L. F. del Moral/ J. A. Benavides/F. J. Rodríguez-Tovar/ J. A. Esquivel, Embarcaciones prehistóricas y representaciones rupestres. Nuevos datos del abrigo de Laja Alta (Jimena de la Frontera, Cádiz). Complutum 29,2, 2018, 239–265. Murillo 2016 M. Murillo-Barroso, El oro del tholos de Montelirio en el contexto de la tecnología áurea de Valencina. In: A. Fernández Flores/L. García Sanjuán/M. Díaz-Zorita Bonilla (eds.), Montelirio: un gran monumento funerario de la Edad del Cobre (Sevilla 2016) 285–309. Murillo et al. 2015 M. Murillo-Barroso/M. E. Costa Caramé/ M. Díaz-Guardamino Uribe/L. García Sanjuán/ C. Mora Molina, A reappraisal of Iberian Copper Age goldwork: craftmanship, symbolism and art in a non-funerary gold sheet from Valencina de la Concepción. Cambridge Arch. Journal 25,3, 2015, 565–596. Oliveira 1995 J. Oliveira, Reutilizaçôess e reaproveitamentos de materiais em sepulturas megalíticas do Nordeste Alentejano. Trab. Antr. Etn. 33,1–2, 1995, 131–144. Oliveira 2010 J. de Oliveira, Neolítico e megalitismo na Coudelaria de Alter. In: V. S. Gonçalves/A. C. Sousa (eds.), Transformação e Mudança no Centro e Sul de Portugal: no 3º e 4º milénios a.n.e. Actas do Colóquio Internacional, Cascais, 4–7 Outubro 2005 (Lisboa 2010) 357–397. Paglietti 2020 G. Paglietti, Diosas de la Cerdeña neolítica (V–IV milenio a.C.). In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.) Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero– abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 343–352. Palaguta 2020 I. Palaguta, La plástica de pequeño formato del Neolítico y Edad del Bronce en los Balcanes y Cárpatos: formas, contextos e interpretaciones. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 93–113. Pascual 1998 J. L. Pascual Benito, Utillaje óseo, adornos e ídolos neolíticos valencianos. Servicio de Investigación Prehistórica, Ser. Trab. Varios 95 (Valencia 1998). Risch 2018 R. Risch, Affluent societies of later prehistory. In: H. Meller/D. Gronenborn/R. Risch (eds.), Überschuss ohne Staat – Politische Formen in der Vorgeschichte Surplus without the State. Political Forms in Prehistory. 10. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 19. bis 21. Oktober 2017 in Halle (Saale)/10th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany October 19–21, 2017 in Halle (Saale). Tagungen Landesmus. Vorgesch. Halle 18 (Halle [Saale] 2018) 45–65. Rodriguez Rellán et al. 2019 C. Rodriguez Rellán/R. Fábregas Valcarce/ F. Carrera Ramírez, Intervención arqueológica en el abrigo de Cova dos Mouros (Baleira, Lugo). Un primer ejemplo de pintura esquemática en Galicia. Munibe Antr. Ark. 70, 2019, 185–205. Ruiz et al. 2012 J. F. Ruiz/A. Hernanz/R. A. Armitage/ M. W. Rowe/R. Viñas- Vallverdú /J. M. GaviraVallejo/A. Rubio, Calcium oxalate AMS 14C dating and chronology of post-Palaeolithic rock paintings in the Iberian Peninsula. Two dates from Abrigo de los Oculados (Henarejos, Cuenca, Spain). Journal Arch. Scien. 39,8, 2012, 2655–2667. Sanches 2016 M. de Jesus Sanches, The paintings of ›oculadas‹ figures in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic of Northern Portugal: the study case of Serra de Passos. In: R. Fabregas Valcarce/ C. Rodríguez-Rellán (eds.), Public Images, Private Readings: Multi-perspective approaches to the Post-Palaeolithic rock art. Proceedings of the 17 UISPP World Congress (1–7 September 2014, Burgos, Spain) (Oxford 2016) 51–62. Sanches et al. 2016 M. de Jesus Sanches/P. R. Morais/J. Castro Teixeira, Escarpas rochosas e pinturas na Serra de Passos/Sta Comba (Nordeste de Portugal). In: M. de Jesus Sanches/D. Cruz (eds.), Actas da II Mesa-Redonda. Artes Rupestres da Pré-história e da Proto-história. Estudo, Conservação e Musealização de Maciços Rochosos e Monumentos Funerários (Porto, Faculdade de Letras, 10, 11 e 12 de Novembro de 2011), (Viseu 2016) 71–117. Sanfeliu/Flors 2009 D. Sanfeliu/E. Flors, Los materiales cerámicos. In: E. Flors (ed.), Torre la Sal (Ribera de Cabanes, Castellón). Evolución del paisaje antrópico desde la prehistoria hasta el medioevo. Monogr. Prehist. i Arqu. Castellonenques 8, 2009, 269–352. Sanguino/Oñate 2011 J. Sanguino Vázquez/P. Oñate Baztán, Nuevos yacimientos campaniformes en el entorno de la Cuesta de la Reina (Valdemoro y Ciempozuelos, Madrid). In: C. Blasco/C. Liesau/P. Ríos (eds.), Yacimientos calcolíticos con campaniforme de la Región de Madrid: nuevos estudios. Patrimonio Arqu. Madrid 6 (Madrid 2011) 23–28. Santos et al. 2020 M. Santos-Estevez/C. Tejerizo-García/ F. A. Toucido, El abrigo con pintura esquemática de Pala de Cabras (Ourense). Encuentros y desencuentros entre dos tradiciones. Complutum 31,1, 2020, 7–24. Scarre 2020 C. Scarre, Figuritas en la Europa atlántica. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 167–176. Soler 2002 J. A. Soler Díaz, Cuevas de Inhumación Múltiple en la Comunidad Valenciana. Bibl. Arch. Hispana 17 – MARQ, Ser. Mayor 2 (Madrid, Alicante 2002). Soler 2017 J. A. Soler Díaz, De nuevo sobre los ídolos oculados ›tipo Pastora‹. A propósito de la presentación del conjunto de elementos ideomorfos identificado en el ›Fondo Arqueológico La Marina 1995‹. In: J. A. Soler Díaz/J. A. Casabó (eds.), Nuevos datos para el conocimiento de la prehistoria en la comarca de La Marina Alta, Alicante. MARQ Ser. Mayor 13 (Alicante 2017) 283–370. Soler 2020a J. A. Soler Díaz, Ídolos. Una lectura historiográfica para un recurso de narrativa social-prehistórica. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 40–53. Soler 2020b J. A. Soler Díaz, En la otra orilla. Iconografías megalíticas muebles en el extremo oriental peninsular. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero-abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 303–322. Soler/Barciela 2018 J. A. Soler Díaz/V. Barciela González, Ídolos rupestres y sus paralelos muebles. Un registro singular. In: J. A. Soler Díaz/R. Pérez Jiménez/ V. Barciela González (eds.), Rupestre. Los Primeros Santuarios. Arte Prehistórico en Alicante, MARQ, julio 2018–enero 2019 (Alicante 2018) 190–205. TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 C O N S T R U C T I N G P O W E R F U L S Y M B O L S : S O L A R I M A G E S O N I B E R I A N F I G U R I N E S B E T W E E N T H E 4TH A N D 3 RD M I L L E N N I A B C Soler/Ferrer 2020 J. A. Soler Díaz/C. Ferrer García, Una interpretación del santuario de la Cova de l’Or a la luz del Paisaje que Domina. In: J. A. Soler/R. Pérez (eds.), Cova de l’Or. Beniarrés. Museo de sitio. Investigación, protección y apertura de un santuario del VI milenio a.C. (Alicante 2020) 45–52. Soler et al. 2018 J. A. Soler Díaz/V. Barciela González/P. Ferrer Marset, El yaciemento esquemático del Cabeço d’Or (Abrigo I). Relleu, Alicante. In: J. A. Soler Díaz/R. Pérez Jiménez/V. Barciela Gonzáles (eds.), Rupestre. Los primeros santuarios. Arte Prehistórico en Alicante. MARQ, julio 2018– enero 2019 (Alicante 2018) 176–189. Soria et al. 2001 M. Soria Lerma/M. López Payer/D. Zorrilla Lumbreras, Un nuevo núcleo de arte rupestre postpaleolítico en Andalucía Oriental: el núcleo del río Guadalmena. Quaderns de Prehist. i Arqu. Castelló 22, 2001, 281–320. Sotirakopoulou 2020 P. Sotirakopoulou, Figuritas cicládicas: una introducción. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Expo- sición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 323–342. Valera 2012 A. C. Valera, ›Ídolos almerienses‹ provenientes de contextos neolíticos do complexo de recintos dos Perdigões. Apontamentos de Arqu. Património 8 (Lisboa 2012) 19–28. Valera 2020 A.C. Valera, La materialización de la imagen humana en el IV y III milenio a.C. en el sur de Portugal: una mirada a los recintos de Perdigões. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 229–244. Vella Gregory 2020 I. Vella Gregory, Figuritas prehistóricas de las islas maltesas. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero–abril 2020/ MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 353–367. Vera et al. 2010 J. C. Vera Rodríguez/J. A. Linares Catela/ M. J. Armenteros Lojo /G. González Batanero, Depósitos de ídolos en el poblado de La Orden–Seminario de Huelva: Espacios rituales en contexto habitacional. In: C. Cacho/ R. Maicas /E. Galán/J. A. Martos (eds.), Los ojos que nunca se cierran. Ídolos en las primeras sociedades campesinas (Madrid 2010) 199– 242. Villalobos et al. 2020 R. Villalobos García/G. Delibes de Castro/ P. Zapatero Magdaleno/E. Guerra Doce/ J. Fernandez Eraso/J. A. Mujika Alustiza/ P. Bueno Ramírez, Los ídolos espátula del interior peninsular. In: P. Bueno Ramírez/ J. A. Soler Díaz (eds.), Ídolos: miradas milenarias: [Exposición], MARQ [Alicante], enero– abril 2020/MAR [Madrid], mayo–octubre 2020 (Alicante 2020) 217–228. Züchner 2005 C. Züchner, El arte macroesquemático y la Linienbandkeramik, preguntas sin respuestas definitivas. Actas del 3 Congreso del Neolítico en la Península Ibérica, Santander, 5 a 8 de octubre de 2003 (Santander 2005) 715–718. Source of figures 1 Map basis: LDA; mapping adapted from authors: J. Filipp, Bad Bibra; map based on SRTM, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology) and GEBCO, General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (Lancharro/Bueno 2020, Fig. 2) 2 Map basis: LDA; mapping adapted from authors: J. Filipp, Bad Bibra; map based on SRTM, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology) and GEBCO, 1 General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (Lancharro/Bueno 2020, Fig. 1) 3 Items kept at the Llerena private collection (No. 32); ERA Arqueologia, Cruz Quebrada (6, 13, 22, 30); the Museum of Almeria (3, 27); the National Archaeological Museum, Madrid (1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 21, 28); the Museum of Alicante (19,20); the Museum of Huelva (24, 25);the Museum of Badajoz (26); the Museum of Malaga (4); the National Archaeology Museum, Lisbon (12, 15, 23); the Museum of Lorca (17); the Museum of Seville (31) and the Museum of Valladolid (10). Reproduced in the catalogues of the Ídolos. Miradas milenarias exhibition (Bueno/Soler 2020a; Bueno/Soler 2020b) 4 1, 3 Martí/Hernández 1988, Fig. 1; 27, 1; 2 Carrasco et al. 2006, Fig. 3,13; 4–5 Carrasco et al. 2015, Fig. 6, 1; 6,3; 6–7 Gavilán/Vera 1993, Fig. 5; 8 Soler 2017, Fig. 7.5 E, drawing by R. Álvarez; 9 Sanfeliu/Flors 2009, Fig. 10 5 1 Leisner/Leisner 1956, Pl. 128;1); 2 Martín/Cámalich 1982, Fig. 4); 3 Garrido/Muñoz 2000, Fig. 2; 4 Sanguino/Oñate 2011, Fig. 4); 5 photograph by P. Pentz; 6 Scarre 2020, Fig. 4). Images 1–4 and 6 published in Bueno/Soler 2020a and Bueno/Soler 2020b. Vessels now kept at the Geological Museum, Lisbon (1); the National Archaeological Museum, Madrid (reproduction of the original) (2); the Regional Archaeological Museum, Alcalá de Henares (3–4); the National Museum Denmark (photograph supplied by P. Pentz) (5); the British Museum, London (6) 6 1 main panel, copy and photograph Martínez/Blanco 2014, 160; 2 copy by H. Breuil, 1935 (Barciela 2020, Fig. 2); 3 panel 2, copy and photograph (Barciela 2015, 68–69); 4 copy and photograph (Lucas/Fernandez 2021, 32) 7 1 copy González 1967, Pl. 4, digital image by C. Moreno processed using the DStretch program (Martínez/López 2020, Fig. 5); 2 copy Soria et al. 2001, Fig. 21; 4 Soler et TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 al. 2018, Fig. 18; 7. González 1967, Pl. 8), photograph by M. Soria; 9 Sanches et al. 2016, photograph by M. Sanchez; 10 Soler/Barciela 2018, Fig. 15); 11 copy (Ruiz et al. 2012, Fig. 3), image by F. J. Ruiz. Published images in Bueno/Soler 2020a and Bueno/Soler 2020b of pieces kept at the Archaeological Museum of Alcoy (4), the Archaeological Museum of Alicante -MARQ (5), the Museum of Almeria (6), and the National Archaeology Museum, Lisbon (8) 8 1–2, 3–4 photos P. Bueno and R. Balbín; 5–6, 7–8 photos Jorge de Oliveira; 9 Bueno et al. 2016a 9 1, 3, 7 Gonçalves 2006 Fig.6,10.14.15; 8, 9, 2 Valera 2012, Fig. 1; 4 Linares 2020; 5, 6 Images published in Bueno/Soler 2020a and Bueno/ Soler 2020b and supplied by the National Archaeology Museum, Lisbon (3, 8, 9), the National Archaeological Museum, Madrid (6) and J. P. Bellón (5) 10 Pieces kept in Prehistory Museum of Valencia (1, 2, 7), the national Archaeology Musum of Lisbon (3–4), the Archaeological Museum of Seville (5, 8, 13, 14), The Museum of Almería (6), ERA Arqueología, Cruz Quebrada (9, 11, 17) , private collection (12, 16) and the Archeological Museum of Badajoz (10, 15) 147 148 PRIMI T I VA B U E N O R A MÍRE Z A N D J O R G E A . S O L E R DÍ A Z Addresses Prof. Dr. Primitiva Bueno-Ramírez Universidad de Alcalá C / Colegios nº 2 28801 Alcala de Henares Spain [email protected] Prof. Dr. Jorge A. Soler Díaz Museo Arqueológico de Alicante Placa Dr. Gómez Ulla, S / N 03013 Alicante Spain [email protected] TA G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E • B A N D 24 • 2 0 21 Bislang erschienene Bände in der Reihe »Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle« Die Reihe der Tagungsbände des Landesmuseums wurde 2008 ins Leben gerufen. Anlass dazu war die Konferenz »Luthers Lebenswelten«, die im Jahr 2007 in Halle (Saale) ausgerichtet wurde. Bereits der zweite Tagungsband widmete sich mit dem Thema »Schlachtfeldarchäologie« dem Mitteldeutschen Archäologentag, der seit 2008 jährlich vom Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt veranstaltet und zeitnah publiziert wird. Dem großen Anteil internationaler Autorinnen und Autoren entsprechend, erscheinen viele Beiträge dieser Reihe in englischer Sprache mit deutscher Zusammenfassung. Mit dem zuletzt erschienenen Tagungsband konnten die Vorträge der Internationalen Konferenz »Von den Hunnen zu den Türken – Reiterkrieger in Europa und Zentralasien« in zahlreichen Artikeln renommierter Forscher verschiedenster Fachdisziplinen vorgelegt werden. Band 18 Band 19 Band 20/I Band 21/I Band 22/I Band 23 Band 1/2008 Harald Meller/Stefan Rhein/Hans-Georg Stephan (Hrsg.),  Luthers Lebenswelten. Tagung vom 25. bis 27. September 2007 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-22-3, € 39,00 € 9,00 Band 2/2009 Harald Meller (Hrsg.),  Schlachtfeldarchäologie. Battlefield Archaeology. 1. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 09. bis 11. Oktober 2008 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-41-4, € 35,00 Band 3/2010 Harald Meller/Kurt W. Alt (Hrsg.),  A nthropologie, Isotopie und DNA – biografische Annäherung an namenlose vorgeschichtliche Skelette? 2. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 08. bis 10. Oktober 2009 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-53-7, € 29,00 € 9,00 Band 4/2010 Harald Meller/Regine Maraszek (Hrsg.),  Masken der Vorzeit in Europa I. Internationale Tagung vom 20. bis 22. November 2009 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-54-4, € 32,00 € 9,00 Band 5/2011 Harald Meller/François Bertemes (Hrsg.),  Der Griff nach den Sternen. Wie Europas Eliten zu Macht und Reichtum kamen. Internationales Symposium in Halle (Saale) 16.–21. Februar 2005. ISBN 978-3-939414-28-5, € 128,00 € 29,00 Band 6/2011 Hans-Rudolf Bork/Harald Meller/ Renate Gerlach (Hrsg.),  Umweltarchäologie – Naturkatastrophen und Umweltwandel im archäologischen Befund. 3. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 07. bis 09. Oktober 2010 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-64-3, € 32,00 € 16,00 Band 7/2012 Harald Meller/Regine Maraszek (Hrsg.),  Masken der Vorzeit in Europa II. Internationale Tagung vom 19. bis 21. November 2010 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-90-2, € 32,00 € 16,00 4. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 14. bis 16. Oktober 2011 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-00-2, € 69,00 € 34,00 Band 10/2013 Harald Meller/Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich/Franziska Knoll (Hrsg.),  Rot – die Archäologie bekennt Farbe. 5. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 04. bis 06. Oktober 2012 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-01-9, € 49,00 € 24,00 Band 11/2014 Harald Meller/Roberto Risch/ Ernst Pernicka (Hrsg.),  Metalle der Macht – Frühes Gold und Silber. Metals of power – Early gold and silber. 6. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 17. bis 19. Oktober 2013 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-13-2, € 119,00 Band 12/2015 Harald Meller/Helge Wolfgang Arz/ Reinhard Jung/Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  2 200 BC – Ein Klimasturz als Ursache für den Zerfall der Alten Welt? 2200 BC – A climatic breakdown as a cause for the collapse of the old world? 7. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 23. bis 26. Oktober 2014 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-29-3, € 109,00 Band 13/2016 Judith M. Grünberg/Bernhard Gramsch/ Lars Larsson/Jörg Orschiedt/Harald Meller (Hrsg.),  Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities. Mesolithische Bestattungen – Riten, Symbole und soziale Organisation früher postglazialer Gemeinschaften International Conference Halle (Saale), 18th–21st September 2013. ISBN 978-3-944507-43-9, € 81,00 Band 14/2016 Harald Meller/Hans Peter Hahn/ Reinhard Jung/Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  A rm und Reich – Zur Ressourcenverteilung in prähistorischen Gesellschaften. Rich and Poor – Competing for resources in prehistoric societies. 8. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 22. bis 24. Oktober 2015 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-45-3, € 89,00 Band 8/2012 François Bertemes/Harald Meller (Hrsg.),  Neolithische Kreisgabenanlagen in Europa. Neolithic Circular Enclosures in Europe. Internationale Arbeitstagung 7. bis 9. Mai 2004 in Goseck (Sachsen-Anhalt). ISBN 978-3-939414-33-9, € 59,00 € 29,00 Band 15/2016 Harald Meller/Alfred Reichenberger/ Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich (Hrsg.),  A lchemie und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts. Fallstudien aus Wittenberg und vergleichbare Befunde. Internationale Tagung vom 3. bis 4. Juli 2015 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-48-4, € 49,00 Band 9/2013 Harald Meller/François Bertemes/ Hans-Rudolf Bork/Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  1600 – Kultureller Umbruch im Schatten des Thera-Ausbruchs? 1600 – Cultural change in the shadow of the Thera-Eruption? Band 16/2017 Harald Meller/Susanne Friederich (Hrsg.),  Salzmünde – Regel oder Ausnahme? Salzmünde – rule or exception? Internationale Tagung vom 18. bis 20. Oktober 2012 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-11-8, € 75,00 Band 17/2017 Harald Meller/Falko Daim/Johannes Krause/ Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  Migration und Integration von der Urgeschichte bis zum Mittelalter. Migration and Integration from Prehistory to the Middle Ages. 9. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 20. bis 22. Oktober 2016 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-61-3, € 49,00 Band 18/2018 Harald Meller/Detlef Groneborn/ Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  Überschuss ohne Staat. Politische Formen in der Vorgeschichte. Surplus without the State. Political Forms in Prehistory. 10. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 19. bis 21. Oktober 2017 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-83-5, € 69,00 Band 19/2019 Harald Meller/François Bertemes (Hrsg.),  Der Aufbruch zu neuen Horizonten. Neue Sichtweisen zur europäischen Frühbronzezeit. Abschlusstagung der Forschergruppe FOR550 vom 26. bis 29. November 2010 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-948618-03-2, € 59,00 Band 20/2019 Harald Meller/Susanne Friederich/ Mario Küßner/Harald Stäuble/Roberto Risch (Hrsg.),  Siedlungsarchäologie des Endneolithikums und der frühen Bronzezeit. Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Settlement Archaeology. 11. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 18. bis 20. Oktober 2018 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-94-1, € 149,00 Band 21/2019 Harald Meller/Susanne Kimmig-Völner/ Alfred Reichenberger (Hrsg.),  R inge der Macht. Rings of Power Internationale Tagung vom 09. bis 10. November 2018 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-944507-97-2, € 79,00 Band 22/2020 Harald Meller/Roberto Risch/Kurt W. Alt/ Francois Bertemes/Rafael Micó (Hrsg.),  R ituelle Gewalt – Rituale der Gewalt. Ritual Violence – Rituals of Violence. 12. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 10. bis 12. Oktober 2019 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-948618-06-3, € 109,00 Band 23/2021 Falko Daim/Harald Meller/ Walter Pohl (Hrsg.),  Von den Hunnen zu den Türken – Reiterkrieger in Europa und Zentralasien. From the Huns to the Turks – Mounted Warriors in Europe and Central Asia Internationale Konferenz am Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum – Leibniz Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie in Kooperation mit dem Institut für Mittelalterforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und dem Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle Mainz, 25. –26. April 2018 ISBN 978-3-948618-24-7, € 49,00 Erhältlich im Buchhandel oder direkt beim Verlag Beier & Beran Thomas-Müntzer-Straße 103 08134 Langenweißbach Deutschland Tel. +49 37603/36 88 [email protected] https://archaeologie-und-buecher.de/