UOS Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (ISSN # 2224-2341) UOSJSSH, Volume: 7, No. 1 Impacts of the Partition on Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent Mubashra Shaheen Assistant Professor of Political Science Govt. Graduate College for Women, Jhelum, Pakistan. Email: [email protected] Abstract Cultural heritage of subcontinent covers a variety of tangible and intangible cultural attributes. A cherished culture gives a sense of pride and identity to the present as well as future generations of the country. Subcontinent is a land of magnificent architectural monuments, art and archives, names and nomenclature, fiction and literary works. Partition of Subcontinent in 1947 due to atrocious British Rule left bloody marks on cultural heritage of subcontinent as it caused mass migration and annihilated victims of partition and cultural assets across the borders. These pains of partition have been reflected in language and literature of both countries. After partition, governments and people of diverse communities did not pay much heed to respect and safeguard the cultural heritage of each other. Religious and communal disharmony left striking marks on cultural homogeneity among different segments of society after partition in the subcontinent. Present study is highly significant as it will come up with the best possible outcomes for preservation of cultural heritage in the subcontinent especially by eliminating the scares of religious antagonism and communal riots caused by the process of partition. The study has followed the exploratory and qualitative methodology for the research. Key Words: Impacts, Partition, Culture, Heritage, Subcontinent. Introduction Cultural heritage is the legacy of a number of tangible and intangible attributes of communities inherited from the past generations, maintained and preserved for future generations. The word “Culture” derived from a French term “colere” (Kumar) symbolizes people’s way of life, religion, food, dress, language, music, art etc. Cultural heritage brings to mind paintings, drawings, sculptures, historical monuments as well as archeological sites. It is not only confined to material objects but the non-material elements such as traditions, rituals, performing art and skills transferred from ancestors to present decedents. Unique culture of subcontinent has been greatly influenced by ancient civilizations. The tangible culture encompasses archeological sites of the Hakra-Indus Civilization to Harrapan sites. The intangible heritage is rich with oral poetic and literary creations, the alluring music as well as the rich folk traditions and value system depicting life style of the communities of subcontinent. To preserve distinguished heritage of subcontinent is the foremost and collective responsibility of both governments and communities of Pakistan and India. International community is equally responsible to preserve this shared heritage of humankind. But concerted efforts to preserve these historical and cultural legacies have not been made at government level by both states. 31 Mubashra Shaheen This paper has been divided into following five sections: (1) Historical Background of Cultural Heritage in Subcontinent (2) Cultural Heritage of Subcontinent: An overview (3) Partition of Subcontinent 1947 (4) Impacts of partition on Cultural Heritage in Subcontinent (5) Conservation/Preservation of cultural heritage in Subcontinent. Historical Background of Cultural Heritage in Subcontinent Before partition, subcontinent was full of natural as well as physical beauty in terms of mountains and rivers with multiple climates having deep influence on the regional culture. Region has been under invasion from the Aryans, the Dravidians, the Parthians, the Greeks, the Sakas, the Kushans, the Huns, the Turks, the Afghans, and the Mongols who brought their distinguished cultural attributes resulting in amalgamation with Indian culture which gave rise to Indian Valley Civilization (Naqvi, Ibrar, & Bangash, 2011). The civilization evolved between the time periods of 2500BC to 1700BC. Its two major cities Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were excavated in 1921 and 1922 respectively. Excavations have revealed that the two cities were scientifically well developed with brick houses and had well established sanitation and transport system. Other notable objects such as copper coins, ancient jewelry, standing figures and many other artifacts were also spotted. The civilization belongs to the Bronze Age and somehow is related to the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Later in subcontinent, arrived the Gandhara civilization in the era of 600BC to 500AD (Carmichael). It comprises certain cities of KPK and Taxila in Punjab then all the way to Afghanistan. Buddhism originated in this area and multiple dynasties that came over in this region adopted it as religion. This era is marked with the arrival of Alexander the great and later the great prince Asoka. The ruins found by archeologist, rock carvings and the silk route confirm the existence of Gandhara civilization in the subcontinent (Härtel, &Yaldiz, 1982). Islam entered India during 711AD with the arrival of the Arabs in subcontinent as conquerors. This era is marked with the arrival of Muhammad bin Qasim. The Arabs built mosques in the area referred as Mansura. The most ancient mosque of south Asia was developed in the region of Bhambore by Arabs. Excavations revealed Arab coins, remains of mosques and other relics. Mahmud of Ghazni entered the subcontinent in 1000AD. He was known as the idol breaker and thus the Hindu culture of worshipping idols disappeared as Islam was accepted in the religious and cultural lives of the people. The Delhi sultanate originated in 1206AD and was founded by Qutub Uddin Aibek. The tomb of Rukh-ne-Alam was built in this era, which is described as the “One of the most splendid memorials ever created in the honor of the dead” (Sultana, & Ahmad, 2015) was built in 1320AD by Ghiyass Uddin Muhammad Tughluq. The Mughal era was founded by Zaheer Uddin Mohammad Babur which is marked with rich culture, including architecture, literature, calligraphies, music and paintings. The text of Holy Quran was carved in this time. Most of the cultural heritage of subcontinent belongs to this period including Taj Mahal, Badshahi Mosque, Rohtas fort and many others. The Mughal era brought about the concept of Sufism. The Muslim empire ended in 1858 and the subcontinent then came under the rule of British crown. British introduced western culture and influenced the architecture, mode of paintings and other heritage of the subcontinent and were almost considered as aliens by Hindus and Muslims. They developed departments of archeology which worked under the supervision of Sir John Marshall and Sir Mortimer Wheeler and excavated relics and remains of early civilizations of the subcontinent. During British rule, railways tracks, sea ports, offices, banks 2 Impacts of Partition on the Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent and educational institutions were built. The British rule came to an end by 1947 and thus the subcontinent was divided between two nations Hindus and Muslims. Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent: An Overview Subcontinent was very rich in cultural heritage called as “Sa Prathma sanskrati vishvavara” (Ali, Sandhu, & Chan, 2016) meaning “The first and supreme culture in the world.” The subcontinent consisted of Muslim majority – Pakistan, Bangladesh and Hindu majorityIndia (All three of these are now independent states). Each of these had very rich cultural heritage irrespective of cultural beliefs. The Indian architecture has been evolving by constantly absorbing the new ideas. Having looked at the history, the Buddhist and Hindu temples were considered as the fine example of architecture of the time. As the time passed, different invaders kept on invading this land but with the advent of Islam in this region the Indian architecture adopted a new style. Taj Mahal, Gol Gumbaz, Qutub Minar, Red Fort of Delhi in India and Badshahi Mosque, Alamgiri Gate, Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Shah-Jahan Mosque and many other architectural monuments in Pakistan are considered as the greatest creations of the time. Taj Mehal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the memory of his queen Arjumandbano Begum and titled “Mumtaz Mehal.” Humanyun’s tomb, built by Mughal emperor Humayun, in 1570 in Delhi is known as the first ever garden-tomb in subcontinent which keeps great importance in evolution of Mughal architectural history. A sacred Jammia Masjid built by the emperor Shah Jahan in 1650 is amongst the top most visited place for Muslims in India. Qutub Minar, a famous historical monument with magnificent structure was named after Khwaja Qutub Uddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. Its Construction was started by Qutub Uddin Aibak in 1199 and completed by his successor, Iltutmish (Dar, 2019). Lal Mahal or Kushak-i-Lal was built by Ghiyas Uddin Balban (1266-1286 AD). "Lal Mahal was constructed with red sandstone, over a plinth comprising a central domed room, with a verandah having a flat roof supported by pillars and lintels." Goraknath Temple in Gorkhatri area of Peshwar, Pakistan is dedicated to Guru Gorakhnath who founded the Kanphata Jogi order at Tilla Jogian in the first century BC. Hindu women and children started visiting this temple when it was reopened after a petition in the Peshawar High Court by Phool Wati, the daughter of the shrine's cleric. Gurdwara Panja Sahib, a famous shrine in Hasan Abdal, Pakistan is important as the handprint of Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, is believed to be imprinted on a boulder at the gurdwara which is visited twice a year by Sikh pilgrims across the globe (Johnson, 2015). Partition of the Subcontinent in 1947 Before partition in 1947, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh were included in Indian subcontinent but today they are autonomous states. India got independence from British rule, due to hostilities among Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs living in the country. The partition dislocated around 14 million people, creating refugee crises, large scale violence, bloodshed, massacre, religious antagonism among communities e.g., Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was large scale mass-migration in the history of the World, approximately 12 to 15 million people in human history; almost 200,000 to 500,000 people were killed and nearly 75000 women in the process of migration, loot and communal riot (Baixas, 2008).The savage and unrelenting partition not only influenced the tranquility and regional stability of South Asia but also arose 33 Mubashra Shaheen serious socio-political and economic issues between India and Pakistan while affecting the innocent Indian culture sorely. As the subcontinent was separated by the demarcation of boundaries, it resulted in the division of cultural heritage of the two nations. The descendants of those who innovated and enriched the cultural life of Muslims in the subcontinent were now divided partly into people of India and Pakistan. The heritage of the two countries is not only bound to what came in their geographical territories but it also referred to everything noble and historical that was the part of Muslim India. Impacts of Partition on Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent The partition of Indian subcontinent was an annihilating event for both Pakistan and India. The impacts of partition were quite traumatic as it caused the large-scale migration of people and was the root cause of violence among the people. Communal riots took place throughout the country and the law-and-order situation worsen. Hindu and Muslims destroyed cultural heritage of one another as reactions to the cruelties caused during partition. Holy Places were burnt and people were killed. Women were kidnapped and raped. The people who were living together for thousands of years became the worst enemies of each other. Moreover, those who after suffering these great hardships reached India and Pakistan had to face the great social and economic problems. Among the worst victims of ruthless partition, cultural heritage is considered as one of the sufferers. Before Partition all Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and other minorities have the same culture but due to the partition it undergoes the transition at the large scale. The partition of India cast its shadows on the social and political lives of people as well as on the cultural heritage of Indian subcontinent. Architectural Demolitions and Negligence Pains of partition had not been removed from the minds of communities in subcontinent so cultural and religious heritage sites were targeted during communal violence. With 298 dargahs, 205 mosques, 17 temples and three churches (Hole, 2013)were either demolished or destroyed in just two months. A famous old mosque in Isanpur, a monument, was destroyed. Dargah of renowned Urdu Poet Wali Gujarati was dashed to the ground at Shahi Baugh in Ahmadabad. Somanatha temple, a great symbol of colonial period was also destroyed by the Muslim ruler Mahmud Ghazanvi in a raid in Gujrat. Famous Babri Masjid was demolished on 6th December, 1992 by Kar Sevaks of the Ayodhya Movement supported by Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and other Hindu right-wing organizations. The demolition was seen against the Muslim segments of society showing hatred among the communities of Hindus and Muslims. Hindus violated and ignored historical monuments of Islamic traditions in India. Tipu Sultan’s armory at Srirangapatna was moved by 100meters to make way for railway line to connect Bengaluru and Mysore (Rajani, & Rajani, 2021). However, unfortunately Tipu’s armory has not been declared a protected monument yet. Devarakonda Reddy, president of Karnataka Ithihasa Academy, said that the armory in Bengaluru is highly neglected and has turned into a public lavatory dismaying historians and cultural heritage which is identity of glorious past of the subcontinent (Ahmed, 1997). The spacious building of Taj Mehal attracts everyone towards itself. It has great importance in the history of subcontinent. After partition, India was bestowed with this artifact but the Indian 4 Impacts of Partition on the Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent bureaucratic incompetence and negligence led to destroy India’s great monument. Large part of the Jamia Masjid is damaged due to environmental and social hazards which are threat to 20,000 worshippers who come there daily but the government of India did not take actions for its preservation (Sutton, 2007). Lal Mahal or Kushak-i-Lal built by Ghiyas Uddin Balban was encroached upon and used as a residence. Ajmer Sharif, Dargah of Muslims in India was under serious security threats. In year 2015 there was a bomb threat creating chaos. Such incidents could create insecure environment for minority communities in India, claimed by spiritual head of Ajmer Sharif Dargah (Asher, Asher, & Asher,1992). Taj Mahal in Agra constructed by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan is regarded as a “Jewel of Muslim art in India”. The building is conserved by the Indian government just for economic gains as it is the site of great tourist attraction (Sekhar, 2003). Recently the building has turned yellow due to pollution so the government planted Taj trapezium zone for its preservation. The tomb of Alexander the Great located in Alexandria city was robbed and attacked several times and was also flooded away by tsunami. There is no definite record and traces of the tomb due to inability of the authorities to preserve it. On the other hand, historical places of Hindu art and architecture are highly neglected in Pakistan. After partition, most Hindu temples of Punjab were taken over by migrants (Khan, 2017) or property grabbers. There were rare efforts by the locals to preserve the sanctity of the temple depicting Hindu art and culture. The Rohtas fort located in Jhelum, Pakistan built by the Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri went under major destruction and remained ruined until 2006. Later, the Himalayan Wildlife Foundation (HWF) with the funds provided by USAID worked on the renovation of fort. Previously the fort was used by the people to defecate because of the unavailability of proper toilets. The site was deteriorated. The HWF built proper night lights and toilets in the surrounding areas. The ministry of culture did not support the renovation of the fort and thus it was worn out by 2010 due to negligence of governing authorities (Araujo, 2010). Katas Raj Temple located in the district of Chakwal is one of the sacred places of Hindus. Many temples built within it are being renovated by Pakistan’s government. Recently the Supreme Court of Pakistan has ordered (Bowman, 2021) cement factories in Chakwal to fill the pond of the temple with fresh and purified water thus to preserve the worship places of minorities. Gurdwara Panja Sahib is the place of worship of Sikhs located in the city of Hassan Abdal. In 1960, government of Pakistan under the act of rights of minorities conserved the place and in response to it many Sikhs migrated from India to Pakistan but still it needs renovation and preservation. There are many other historical sites which suffered demolition and destruction because of communal violence caused by pains of partition. The illegal and unauthorized constructions against the protective wall of the Shalimar Garden are damaging the art and beauty of this site. Badshahi Mosque is somehow maintained as it is the site of tourist attraction. The Varundev temple in Manora, Karachi which was abandoned after the incident of Babri Masjid is now being restored. Whereas the gurdhwara in Manora is preserved by the government and is open for Sikh communities to perform prayers (Khalid, 2016). The Baoli Wala Mandir located on the Jhelum Road is in bad state (Jawad, & Arif, 2009). The area where the idol placed is deserted and no efforts are made for its preservation. The shiva temple in Behra is another site that is isolated (Menon, 2013)). This negligence of cultural heritage is due to the inability of the governing 35 Mubashra Shaheen authorities of the two states who are unable to procure and preserve the heritage of ancestors. These conditions indicate towards the negative influences of partition of the subcontinent. Literary Creations Bloody riots during partition were reflected in literary creations (Parveen, 2017) in terms of massacres during the migration and difficulties faced by the refugees in both countries. Bhatia Nandi in his article Twentieth Century Hindi Literature gives details regarding the human cost of independence and partition. Forgotten Atrocities by Bal. K. Gupta, Toba Tek Singh by Saadat Hassan Manto, Urdu poems such as Subh-e-Azadi by Faiz Ahmad Faiz, A Bend in the Ganges (1965), and Bapsi Sidhwa's Ice-Candy Man (1988), were great literary works depicting the importance of independence, mass annihilation during partition process and untiring struggle for freedom (Escherle, 2013). Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children (1980) highlighted magical attributes of children who born on the night of Independence. Freedom at Midnight (1975), a non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre , depicted the event occurring on the Independence Day celebrations in 1947 in chronological order. Cinematic Reflections Process of Partition and atrocities not only affected writers but also affected Cinema, film and music industry in both countries. Roy, Anjali Gera mentioned in his work “Partitioned Lives: Narratives of Home, Displacement and Resettlement (Ghosh, 2015) that Nemai Ghosh's Chinnamul (Bengali) (1950), Dharmputra (1961) Lahore (1948),Chhalia (1956), Nastik (1953) Garm Hava (1973) and Tamas(1987) were based on pre and post partition scenario. A number of films including Train to Pakistan (1998), Khamosh Pani (2003), Pinjar (2003), Partition (2007), and Viceroy's House (2017) were made to highlight the atrocities and pains of partition and mass migration (Imran, 2021). The biographical films Gandhi (1982) and Jinnah (1998) were based on towering characters of partition. Daastan, a Pakistani drama, highlights the miseries of Muslim women being raped during partition. Artistic Depictions The art of the Indian subcontinent suffered a lot after the partition. In the events of partition, many sculptures and paintings on both sides of the border were lost; consequently, cultural heritage of the states suffered a huge blow. Many Hindu and Muslim artists were badly influenced by this traumatic incident and thus conveyed their feeling and the situation of the subcontinent at the time of partition by their sketches and paintings. The classical art disappeared after partition and was replaced by the modern arts. In Pakistan the miniature style of painting with some modifications is present and in India the classical Indian styles of painting are present. Partition of the Indian subcontinent has been largely addressed from a political and historical perspective only. Often related to shame or volatile refugee situations, personal accounts of the partition and women’s plight remained taboo subjects. More recently, endeavors have been undertaken to focus on the nature of human experience, lending voice to those who were and continue to be affected by this tragedy. Other attempts have been initiated to introduce the “Partition in the sphere of the visual arts (Nasar, & Dadi, 2012).” Aanchal Malhotra and Sharlene Bamboat, two emerging South Asian Canadian artists, began to develop artistic projects in link with the partition, more specifically addressing how it had affected their families. Then, a series of challenges pose themselves; how is it possible to make the Partition visible? How does one introduce into the present such traumatic 6 Impacts of Partition on the Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent circumstances, which can be related to what Jacques Lacan calls the real? Without answering these complex questions, it is necessary to state that none of the artists has intended to represent this troubling historical event through visual components (Scott,1994). Instead, their intentions stress the importance of memory transmission, beet fictional or real, as a healing process across generations, and the necessity to question and transcend various types of borders that have had an impact on their surrounding environment. The selected compilation of eclectic data by Malhotra, collected mostly through interviews conducted on both sides of the Pakistani-Indian border in the cities of Delhi and Lahore, acts as a tribute to the first generation of people who experienced partition. Dr. Trishanjit Kaur, elaborates in his work entitled “1947 Partition Archive: Preserving Memories of Partition in India”, that “The Archive has been preserving oral histories of partition witnesses since 2010. Over 3000 stories have been preserved on digital video from 320 cities in 12 countries across the world in different languages and a plan to record 10,000 stories by end of 2017 (Kaur, & Kaur, 2017). Socio-Cultural Diversity Since the Partition, traditions and customs of both Pakistan and India are influenced by each other. The formation of geographical borders reinforcing the cultural diversity and assimilation made the societies into dynamic ones, ensuring social development over the generations. However, it has also caused irreparable damage to the culture of the subcontinent.Persian was considered as the heart of languages in the Indian subcontinent. Right after partition the Indians developed an insight that Persian is the heritage of Muslims and so was replaced by Hindi and Sanskrit. Sanskrit was the “Deva Bhasha” (Khan, 2013) for Hindus whereas Hindi was introduced in literature by Muslim emperors but it was soon ignored because of its unworthy speech. Urdu was a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity but its importance was declined by Hindus. At the Nagpur session in 1940, Gandhi said, “Urdu was developed by the Muslim kings. It is for the Muslims to develop it, if they so desire.” The music and dance of the countries have also been modified a lot since the partition. Although the roots of these arts for both the countries are the same, Pakistanis now condemn the use of the art forms as worship, and refuse to recognize dances like kathak as their own. The original heritage of the country has been forsaken due to hatred, while additions are being made which are not their own. In addition, before partition, Muslims and Hindus used to dance and sing in religious festivals together normally. However, after partition, it is considered a taboo to dance in Hindu festivals like Holi in the present Pakistani society. The most important developments in music in the subcontinent were done by Muslims, and the partition left such households in India. These, called Gharaanas, are now in India which make most of the music and awe-inspiring poetry in present day in India. It can be said that the partition bestowed India with cultural gems with respect to music and poetry. The attire of the two nations changed after partition and later became the national dress. Before partition the dress common between males was Sherwani but after partition, Hindus adopted kurta and lungi whereas the dress code of Muslims remained Shalwar kameez. Among females, Sari was very common before partition and after partition, resulted in the adoption of shalwar kameez and dupatta by Muslim females. Thus, the partition even influenced the apparels of the people of subcontinent. Partition was basically demanded on the basis of religion as extremist Hindu communityimposed restrictions on Azaan and on the slaughtering of cows. Thus, Pakistan was created on 37 Mubashra Shaheen the name of Islam, a religion that provides complete code of conduct of life. Whereas, Hindus continued to practice Hinduism, the oldest religion of India. Thus, the separation of religions was however a positive impact of partition. The celebration of festivals also changed after the event of partition. Muslims mainly celebrate three festivals of Eid-ul Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha and Eid Miladun-Nabi (PBUH). Whereas Hindus celebrate Holi, Diwali and many other events of pujas. Both the nations celebrate festivals according to their cultures. Dietary habits have also been influenced by their religious and cultural tastes. Before partition Muslims were not allowed to slaughter the cow and thus, they were forced to eat the vegetables and fruits. But after partition, the diet patterns of people changed and they shifted from solely vegetarian diet to both vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet. The partition also caused new ethnicities to be born, adding in the cultural heritage of the subcontinent. Most important of these are the Muhajirs on both sides of the borders, the people most affected by the segregation of 1947. They have a separate identity in Pakistan as Urdu speakers and are often called as rejected people from India. Similarly, the partition created the ethnicity of Sindhis in India, who had no area to claim their own. Through hard times they survived and grew as one, establishing and strengthening the Sindhi community in India. Such attitudes have been cultivated due to extremism which has been generated in the countries since the animosity of partition. Conservation/Preservation of Cultural Heritage in Subcontinent Conserving cultural heritage is imperative as recognition of the necessity of the past and so that future generations are bestowed with similar benefits of self-discovery by learning of the history. The demolition of historical monuments and cultural objects cause irreparable damage to the heritage sites of the countries. So, both Pakistan and Indian governments should take critical actions to preserve and remember the glorious heritage. cultural heritage should be preserved for research purposes, so that nations continue to discover about their days of past, thus strengthening their unity and identity and broadening the scope of their knowledge .It can be inferred that intellectuals from both federations, media, state governmental institutions ,Ministries of Culture and Archives, NGOs and individuals should contribute to the existing cultural diversity that is shared across borders and protect it (from attacks both external and internal) through combined efforts, by forsaking the past loathing for good, so that the identity of the nations is brought back from the cusp of endangerment and loss as it is rightly said that time does not obliterate tradition unless tradition is given up by the people themselves through forgetfulness or suppression by invaders. Conclusion Cultural Heritage is often expressed as way of living developed and transferred from generation to generation, including norms, values and artistic depictions. Cultural heritage is based on tangible and intangible elements. Tangible heritage identifies physical objects as buildings, monuments or landscapes but intangible heritage includes customs, traditions and oral history. Mostly this is perceived through cuisine, dresses, traditional skills, religious festivals and performing artsetc. Subcontinent has vast treasure of cultural heritage which has been from prehistoric times one of the richest and most worked on heritages in the world. It comprises of its architectural magnificent designs and monuments, glorious art, books, language, knowledge, ethnicities, historical remains, practices, traditions, rituals cuisine etc. The partition of Indian 8 Impacts of Partition on the Cultural Heritage of the Subcontinent Subcontinent in 1947 was the apocalyptic event that had the horrifying impacts on Cultural heritage as it caused the mass destruction, violence, communal riots and ravaged both the countries. The architectural monuments were destroyed in both the countries and the literature was used as a tool to intricate the relationships of Muslims and Hindus by inculcating in their mind’s hatred for each other. Pains of partition were reflected in literature, art, paintings and sculptures, movies, writings, documentaries etc. Cultural heritage of a society provides it with a sense of identity and unity by acting as a peep hole in the past. 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