Papers: Dark Earth by Yannick Devos
Archéologie de l’espace urbain
ABSTRACT
La géoarchéologie française au xxie siècle, 2015
Introduction In urban contexts, which are essentially anthropogenic, the processes of accumulatio... more Introduction In urban contexts, which are essentially anthropogenic, the processes of accumulation, transformation and erosion are particularly intense and diversified (Cammas et al., 2011). These processes proceed from the urban fabric, by through dynamic interactions between societies and the materiality of spaces (Noizet, 2009). The strata resulting from the combination of these socio-environmental dynamics are more or less easily interpretable in terms of the human use of space. Any diicu..
CATENA, 2009
During the excavations of the site of Rue de Dinant in the historic centre of Brussels (Belgium),... more During the excavations of the site of Rue de Dinant in the historic centre of Brussels (Belgium), remains of the first city wall dating from the 13th century have been discovered. Intra muros thick dark sediment units predating this wall are observed. These dark units are among the oldest occupation traces so far encountered in this higher, eastern, part of
Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, 2014
info:eu-repo/semantics/publishe
Cette contribution vise à présenter les travaux de plusieurs chercheurs engagés dans la caractéri... more Cette contribution vise à présenter les travaux de plusieurs chercheurs engagés dans la caractérisation des terres noires médiévales, à partir d’expérimentations menées à Tours et à Bruxelles. Bien que les deux villes ne partagent pas une histoire semblable, elles livrent des dépôts de même nature. Par la reconnaissance des processus de formation et la caractérisation fonctionnelle de ces strates, l’application de la géoarchéologie (archéopédologie, micromorphologie, géochimie), de l’archéobotanique (carpologie, étude des phytolithes …) et de la microarchéologie, permet de mettre en évidence les changements radicaux qui affectent l’occupation du sol au cours du Moyen Age. Ainsi, la comparaison des résultats entre Tours et Bruxelles permet d’établir les traits communs mais aussi les spécificités des terres noires, en fonction de trajectoires urbaines différentes.
Catena 215
Among the buried urban Anthrosols and Technosols, urban Dark Earth composes a major challenge to ... more Among the buried urban Anthrosols and Technosols, urban Dark Earth composes a major challenge to urban archaeologists and soil scientists. These homogeneous units are often the result of a complex formation history, involving human actions and natural processes. In order to understand the significance of the late medieval to pre-industrial urban Dark Earth observed on the site of Mundaneum in the historical centre of Mons (Belgium) an integrated soil micromorphological and phytolith study has been performed.
The aim of this study is to understand how the urban Dark Earth formed and to identify the major natural and human processes that are involved in its formation. The results show that major natural processes are bio- turbation, sedimentation, humification, alkalinisation and clay translocation. These processes are mainly human induced. Main human activities include cereal cultivation, horticulture, dumping of waste and trampling. Phy- toliths proved to be an important witness of the presence of plant material, in a context where organic remains tend to decompose rapidly. The integrated approach allowed to come to a better understanding of the tapho- nomical history of the phytoliths, hence permitting to distinguish plant remains related to manure, cereal pro- cessing and in situ cultivated plants. The study further permitted the authors to gain insight in part of the biography of the site and its surroundings, hence showing changes in spatial organisation and the progressive urbanisation of the area. As such, this analysis provides an important stepstone to the further geoarchaeological study of town development in Medieval and Modern periods.
European Journal of PostClassical Archaeologies, 2018
Over the last decades a specific research protocol aiming at optimizing the integration of enviro... more Over the last decades a specific research protocol aiming at optimizing the integration of environmental archaeology within the urban archaeological practice has been developed in Brussels. Its systematic application has enriched our knowledge on many aspects of urban development. Current research addresses three main topics: urban Dark Earth and the
origins of Brussels, the evolution of the regional landscape and urban economy and personal life. Future research will further explore these themes, but also other themes such as the study of microlaminated house floors and the georeferencing of the environmental dataset open new perspectives in research in Brussels urban archaeology.
in: E. Lorans and X. Rodier (eds.), Archéologie de l'espace urbain. Tours-Paris, Presses universitaires François-Rabelais & Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques: 235-261., 2014
Dark earth is a thick layer of urban soil with a homogeneous appearance. It is an impor- tant sou... more Dark earth is a thick layer of urban soil with a homogeneous appearance. It is an impor- tant source of information about urban forms in the Early Middle Ages in Europe. For a long time it was ignored, or sometimes incorrectly interpreted as evidence of towns that had been abandoned or been used for agriculture, but the excavation and precise analysis of these deposits reveal the complexity of how space was occupied between the 4th and 11th centuries. A number of experiments, some dating back to the 1970s, provide the methodological foundation for the development and systematisation of inter-disci- plinary study protocols of recent operations.
By precise observation of the lateral and vertical variations of deposits, the stratigraphic excavation of dark earth can be used to determine when these soils were deposited and the nature of the activities that produced them. The fields of study involved include ceramology, geoarcheology, archeozoology, and archeobotanics. Recently, the aggre- gation of these data and analysis of the three-dimensional organisation of the deposits, combined with semi-quantitative methods (counting macro- and micro-constituents), have provided greater insight into how these deposits were formed and the organisation of space. Overall, the results show that dark earth provides evidence of phenomena of accretion and bioturbation, and of local organic waste. These patterns are related to very varied activities, outside (horticulture, penning, midden, etc.) or inside (housing, craft production, etc.), revealing the variability over time of dark earth phenomena, as well as the regular, and sometimes long-term, occupation of the space. These results highlight the importance of developing new methodological tools to identify in greater detail when and how deposits were formed (study of archaeological materials, laboratory datings, etc.), and also to determine with greater precision the activities and methods of waste management (organic or metallic pollution).
In: Anagnostopoulos et al.: Le Palais du Coudenberg à Bruxelles: Du château médiéval au site archéologique, 2014
Atti Soc. tosc. Sci. nat., Mem., Serie A, 112, pp. 145-151 , 2007
During excavations conducted at the treurenberg site, one of the seven city-gates of the medieval... more During excavations conducted at the treurenberg site, one of the seven city-gates of the medieval town of brus- sels (belgium), the basal construction level of the gate was found. historical sources point to the beginning of the 13th century as the erection period. this level covers a layer that was shown by the archaeopedologists not to be the natural soil. unfortunately, it was too poor in archaeological material to deliver a date or interpretation without absolute methods, but it was very characteristic from a palaeoenvironmental point of view. An interdisciplinary study involving archaeopedology, phytolith analysis and anthracology, adapted to the require- ments of urban archaeology, has proved to be a useful tool to gain evidences of agricultural and quarrying practices older than the construction level of the 13th century city gate. this was a remarkable discovery, because it was the first time that we uncovered such activities in a well-defined stratigraphical context and in direct association with the city wall.
During the excavations of the site of Rue de Dinant in the historic centre of Brussels (Belgium),... more During the excavations of the site of Rue de Dinant in the historic centre of Brussels (Belgium), remains of the first city wall dating from the 13th century have been discovered. Intra muros thick dark sediment units predating this wall are observed. These dark units are among the oldest occupation traces so far encountered in this higher, eastern, part of the historic centre of Brussels. In order to characterise them, and to understand the human activities and natural processes behind their formation, an interdisciplinary research, integrating archaeopedology and phytolith study, has been undertaken. This approach permitted us to identify a range of natural and cultural processes leading to the formation of these dark layers, and to characterise different activities. Remains of a hearth, old plough land (cropfields) and grassland have been identified, all activities referring to a rural landscape organisation. Later on, the area changes into an enormous silt extraction area, whereby Dark Earth is thrown into the dug pits. Finally, the construction of the first city wall marks the area as becoming part of the city. The study of Dark Earth shows to be a potentially valuable tool to shed light on the development and spatial organisation of pre-urban Brussels, a historically very poorly documented period.
Quaternary International Volume 315, 27 November 2013, Pages 147–166, Nov 27, 2013
Soil micromorphology has become an important tool in urban archaeology to investigate enigmatic d... more Soil micromorphology has become an important tool in urban archaeology to investigate enigmatic dark, humus-rich, apparently homogeneous units, known as Dark Earth. It has also proven to be of great value to study microstratified sequences (such as floors), allowing a finer grained picture. Phytolith studies have also shown to be of particular interest to investigate archaeological layers, especially where other botanical remains are poorly preserved. The integration of phytolith studies and micromorphology al- lows understanding of the distribution and orientation patterns of the phytoliths and their relation to other features/fabrics, contributing to a better understanding of taphonomical processes and the iden- tification of different human activities.
The aim of the present article is to demonstrate the possibilities of such an integrated approach by the example of the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten, situated near the top of a steep slope, next to the Palace of the Dukes in the centre of Brussels (Belgium). The present article focuses on one complex sequence that includes two levels of Dark Earth and a microstratified sequence.
The integrated study demonstrates that the formation of the Dark Earth on the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten results from multiphased processes, whereby various human actions interact with natural phenomena. Among the human activities pasturing, crop growing, manuring and composting have been identified. The microstratified sequence has been identified as a potential floor layer. As such, this approach does not only allow understanding the site formation processes both from homogenised units like Dark Earth, and microstratified ones, but also identification of ancient activities that are rather difficult to interpret based on field data alone.
Since the early 1980s the study of “Dark Earths” has been a research field in which geo- scientis... more Since the early 1980s the study of “Dark Earths” has been a research field in which geo- scientists have collaborated with archaeologists. After a brief overview of the origin of the expression “Dark Earth” and of its wide chronological spectrum, the article describes the analytical methods of geosciences most commonly employed in its study. Four case studies from Italy, Belgium and France are presented to provide an overview of the range of natural and anthropic processes involved in dark earth formation.
Smith, Claire (ed.): Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, pp.7532-7540, 2014
DI-fusion, le Dépôt institutionnel numérique de l'ULB, est l'outil de référencementde l... more DI-fusion, le Dépôt institutionnel numérique de l'ULB, est l'outil de référencementde la production scientifique de l'ULB.L'interface de recherche DI-fusion permet de consulter les publications des chercheurs de l'ULB et les thèses qui y ont été défendues.
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Papers: Dark Earth by Yannick Devos
The aim of this study is to understand how the urban Dark Earth formed and to identify the major natural and human processes that are involved in its formation. The results show that major natural processes are bio- turbation, sedimentation, humification, alkalinisation and clay translocation. These processes are mainly human induced. Main human activities include cereal cultivation, horticulture, dumping of waste and trampling. Phy- toliths proved to be an important witness of the presence of plant material, in a context where organic remains tend to decompose rapidly. The integrated approach allowed to come to a better understanding of the tapho- nomical history of the phytoliths, hence permitting to distinguish plant remains related to manure, cereal pro- cessing and in situ cultivated plants. The study further permitted the authors to gain insight in part of the biography of the site and its surroundings, hence showing changes in spatial organisation and the progressive urbanisation of the area. As such, this analysis provides an important stepstone to the further geoarchaeological study of town development in Medieval and Modern periods.
origins of Brussels, the evolution of the regional landscape and urban economy and personal life. Future research will further explore these themes, but also other themes such as the study of microlaminated house floors and the georeferencing of the environmental dataset open new perspectives in research in Brussels urban archaeology.
By precise observation of the lateral and vertical variations of deposits, the stratigraphic excavation of dark earth can be used to determine when these soils were deposited and the nature of the activities that produced them. The fields of study involved include ceramology, geoarcheology, archeozoology, and archeobotanics. Recently, the aggre- gation of these data and analysis of the three-dimensional organisation of the deposits, combined with semi-quantitative methods (counting macro- and micro-constituents), have provided greater insight into how these deposits were formed and the organisation of space. Overall, the results show that dark earth provides evidence of phenomena of accretion and bioturbation, and of local organic waste. These patterns are related to very varied activities, outside (horticulture, penning, midden, etc.) or inside (housing, craft production, etc.), revealing the variability over time of dark earth phenomena, as well as the regular, and sometimes long-term, occupation of the space. These results highlight the importance of developing new methodological tools to identify in greater detail when and how deposits were formed (study of archaeological materials, laboratory datings, etc.), and also to determine with greater precision the activities and methods of waste management (organic or metallic pollution).
The aim of the present article is to demonstrate the possibilities of such an integrated approach by the example of the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten, situated near the top of a steep slope, next to the Palace of the Dukes in the centre of Brussels (Belgium). The present article focuses on one complex sequence that includes two levels of Dark Earth and a microstratified sequence.
The integrated study demonstrates that the formation of the Dark Earth on the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten results from multiphased processes, whereby various human actions interact with natural phenomena. Among the human activities pasturing, crop growing, manuring and composting have been identified. The microstratified sequence has been identified as a potential floor layer. As such, this approach does not only allow understanding the site formation processes both from homogenised units like Dark Earth, and microstratified ones, but also identification of ancient activities that are rather difficult to interpret based on field data alone.
The aim of this study is to understand how the urban Dark Earth formed and to identify the major natural and human processes that are involved in its formation. The results show that major natural processes are bio- turbation, sedimentation, humification, alkalinisation and clay translocation. These processes are mainly human induced. Main human activities include cereal cultivation, horticulture, dumping of waste and trampling. Phy- toliths proved to be an important witness of the presence of plant material, in a context where organic remains tend to decompose rapidly. The integrated approach allowed to come to a better understanding of the tapho- nomical history of the phytoliths, hence permitting to distinguish plant remains related to manure, cereal pro- cessing and in situ cultivated plants. The study further permitted the authors to gain insight in part of the biography of the site and its surroundings, hence showing changes in spatial organisation and the progressive urbanisation of the area. As such, this analysis provides an important stepstone to the further geoarchaeological study of town development in Medieval and Modern periods.
origins of Brussels, the evolution of the regional landscape and urban economy and personal life. Future research will further explore these themes, but also other themes such as the study of microlaminated house floors and the georeferencing of the environmental dataset open new perspectives in research in Brussels urban archaeology.
By precise observation of the lateral and vertical variations of deposits, the stratigraphic excavation of dark earth can be used to determine when these soils were deposited and the nature of the activities that produced them. The fields of study involved include ceramology, geoarcheology, archeozoology, and archeobotanics. Recently, the aggre- gation of these data and analysis of the three-dimensional organisation of the deposits, combined with semi-quantitative methods (counting macro- and micro-constituents), have provided greater insight into how these deposits were formed and the organisation of space. Overall, the results show that dark earth provides evidence of phenomena of accretion and bioturbation, and of local organic waste. These patterns are related to very varied activities, outside (horticulture, penning, midden, etc.) or inside (housing, craft production, etc.), revealing the variability over time of dark earth phenomena, as well as the regular, and sometimes long-term, occupation of the space. These results highlight the importance of developing new methodological tools to identify in greater detail when and how deposits were formed (study of archaeological materials, laboratory datings, etc.), and also to determine with greater precision the activities and methods of waste management (organic or metallic pollution).
The aim of the present article is to demonstrate the possibilities of such an integrated approach by the example of the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten, situated near the top of a steep slope, next to the Palace of the Dukes in the centre of Brussels (Belgium). The present article focuses on one complex sequence that includes two levels of Dark Earth and a microstratified sequence.
The integrated study demonstrates that the formation of the Dark Earth on the site of the Court of Hoogstraeten results from multiphased processes, whereby various human actions interact with natural phenomena. Among the human activities pasturing, crop growing, manuring and composting have been identified. The microstratified sequence has been identified as a potential floor layer. As such, this approach does not only allow understanding the site formation processes both from homogenised units like Dark Earth, and microstratified ones, but also identification of ancient activities that are rather difficult to interpret based on field data alone.
Opal phytoliths are created by the accumulation and precipitation of monosilicic acid (Si(OH)4) within plant tissues. Usually the process produces a variety of phytolith morphotypes with specific anatomical distribution within the plant tissues. When deposited in soil, phytoliths from decomposed plant tissue become microfossils of the plants in which they were produced. Decomposition or decay of plant tissue can take place either before or after it is incorporated into the soil matrix. When decay takes place after plant tissue is incorporated into a soil matrix, the anatomical distribution of the phytoliths within the tissue is often preserved, if the soil has not been affected by post-burial disturbances. Typically, analysis of phytoliths in soil begins with removing the phytoliths from the soil using techniques such as heavy liquid floatation, thereby destroying much of the distribution pattern of the phytoliths within the matrix and losing potentially important data. Analysing phytoliths within soil thin sections is becoming a more frequently applied alternative to analysing phytoliths extracted from the soil. Thin sections preserve the distribution patterns of phytoliths within an archaeological deposit or soil and as such can help re- searchers answer questions concerning redundancy, multiplicity and depositional history.
In this study we demonstrate how the integration of phytolith analysis with micromorphological analysis of a series of thin sections made from Brussels urban archaeological deposits that have complex and multiphase formation histories can be used to differentiate phytoliths with different histories. The potential for improved botanical identification of the different groups of phytoliths is also discussed.
archaeobotanical studies. This paper describes and discusses new archaeobotanical finds related to textile dyeing in the
southern Low Countries, which was among the most important areas of cloth production and export in Europe during the
late medieval period. Remains of weld, madder and woad, the three main medieval dye plant species, were identified via
archaeobotanical analysis and high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (HPLC-PDA).
The remains were found in river deposits, dating between the 10th/12th and 15th century, from two medieval cloth-pro-
ducing towns, Brussels and Mechelen. Most likely, the finds must be interpreted as waste discarded by textile dyers, which
were often concentrated along the urban riverbanks. This study not only documents the use of dye plants in both cities,
but also demonstrates the importance of archaeobotanical analyses of fluvial deposits for the reconstruction of artisanal
activities within ancient towns. The assemblages are confronted with historic sources and mapped with other medieval
remains of dye plants in the region.
A number of house structures were excavated within the D-shaped rampart area. A micromorphological analysis of micro-laminated layers of one of these structures was performed, revealing the evolution of its use within a single location. On top of the oldest ash deposit, a thick stabling horizon containing leaves, grass, wood fragments and animal dung was identified. The insect analysis from the stabling horizon confirmed that this deposit was primarily comprised of dung or stable manure, with stored hay or other plant matter also indicated. A high percentage presence of natural woodland indicators was also noted, suggesting that timber and wattle for buildings and trackways was sourced from such woodlands in close proximity to the early town. This is a virtually unique aspect for insect faunas from early towns in north and west Europe, with closest parallels coming from Novgorod, in Russia. The upper part of the sequence shows the presence of floors related to a more domestic use of space. This combined archaeological, macrofaunal, insect and micromorphological study suggests that early Antwerp already had a thriving market and artisanal quarter by the 10th century, with domestic animals stabled within the town for butchery or export, and wild resources being brought in for processing and craft working.
With the exception of a botanical sequence from the lower part of the city, indicating the presence of a forest at least until the Roman period, the oldest palaeoenvironmental evidence for the centre of Brussels dates from the 10th-13th centuries. During this period we observe profound modifications of the environment ensuing from human activities. As such, we have observed deforestation, agriculture, herding, quarrying and soil extraction. These activities induce changes in the topography, provoke pollution and change the soil cover and the outlook of the landscape.
The construction of the first city wall indicates the end of the pre-urban period and the reorganisation of the area.
Among the human activities crop cultivation, gardening, pasture, middening and quarrying have been identified. Main natural phenomena seem to be bioturbation, erosion, alluviation and colluviation.
Taking into account that Dark Earth has a polygenetic history, it can be concluded that it should be investigated on a case-by-case basis.
Its systematic study enhances our knowledge of the diversity of human and natural events that took place in medieval Brussels, and as such contributes to the understanding of the urban development.
The oldest dark earth, dated to the 11th century, was characterised by agricultural activities. The second dark earth (12e13th century) formed as a result of intensive human activities, witnessing the site's transformation to an urban space. This layer contained large amounts of organic matter and anthropogenic inclusions and developed gradually in situ. It probably represents an early market or open space close to dwellings or small courtyards. Units that contain evidence for intensive building activity separate the second and third dark earth, and are possibly the result of a spatial re-organisation of the square. The formation of the third dark earth, which started in the 14th century, is characterised by an intensification of traffic and craftworking activities. Surfaces may have been maintained by spreading organic matter such as leaves, sand and hearth detritus. However, there is no evidence for a kept, empty urban square before a thick layer of levelling sand was deposited (in the second half of the 14th century at earliest) and the market was cobbled. The analysis shows that mixed market activities took place in this intensively used zone, and presents a number of micromorphological characteristics and inclusions typical of a medieval market place in a temperate climate.
Excavations in the Antwerp burg have revealed remarkably well preserved wooden trackways, houses, fences, and numerous finds, often related to artisanal activities, including bone, antler and metal working. Around 900 CE, a D-shaped earthen rampart was erected; it was subsequently fortified by a stone wall. The Antwerp burg area is considered a nucleus and catalyst for the urban development. Like many contemporary early urban sites, the macrofaunal remains are dominated by bones of domestic cattle and pigs. However, the presence of sizable numbers of wild mammals, including red deer, wild boar, and beaver, distinguishes the Antwerp burg sites from other contemporary sites such as Ipswich.
A number of house structures were excavated within the D-shaped rampart area. A micromorpho- logical analysis of micro-laminated layers of one of these structures was performed, revealing the evo- lution of its use within a single location. On top of the oldest ash deposit, a thick stabling horizon containing leaves, grass, wood fragments and animal dung was identified. The insect analysis from the stabling horizon confirmed that this deposit was primarily comprised of dung or stable manure, with stored hay or other plant matter also indicated. A high percentage presence of natural woodland in- dicators was also noted, suggesting that timber and wattle for buildings and trackways was sourced from such woodlands in close proximity to the early town. This is a virtually unique aspect for insect faunas from early towns in north and west Europe, with closest parallels coming from Novgorod, in Russia. The upper part of the sequence shows the presence of floors related to a more domestic use of space.
This combined archaeological, macrofaunal, insect and micromorphological study suggests that early Antwerp already had a thriving market and artisanal quarter by the 10th century, with domestic animals stabled within the town for butchery or export, and wild resources being brought in for processing and craft working.
During the Conference on the Environmental Archaeology of European Cities (CEAEC) held in Brussels at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (27 - 29 May, 2015), the latest results, new approaches and the issue of the integration of the results from different approaches have been discussed. The present special volume, composed of a total of 15 papers, testifies of the diversity of approaches and thematics that have been treated.
Soil micromorphology, the analysis of thin sections under a polarizing microscope, was used to study samples taken from a profile of the Grote Markt in Lier containing three phases of so-called dark earth. Combined with textural and chemical analyses, the results improved our understanding of the formation processes that took place at this site, including a range of post-depositional processes. The oldest Dark Earth witnessed agricultural activities, including the enhancement of soil quality through manuring. Next, a deliberate preparation of the surface was observed. The geoarchaeological results indicate that the dark earth on top of it, dated to the 1300s, formed as a result of human activities taking place on the site, which may at that time already have been in use as a market. The units that separate this dark earth from the higher lying one are probably related to building activities in the neighbourhood, possibly involving a spatial reorganisation. By the time the top dark earth formation started, the intensity of traffic, trade and especially artisanal activity at the Grote Markt seems to have increased further. The surface of the market may have been maintained by covering it with organic matter such as leaves, or with sand or hearth detritus, but there is no evidence for a kept, empty, cobbled square before the thick unit of levelling sand was deposited and the market was paved using stone in Late Medieval times (second half 14th century).