Papers by Edward Bridge
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 2019
Despite recognition that Judah's plea to the unknown-to-him Joseph in Gen. 44.18-34 is one of the... more Despite recognition that Judah's plea to the unknown-to-him Joseph in Gen. 44.18-34 is one of the most tactful yet moving pleas in the Hebrew Bible, only Joosten's 2016 article has attempted to analyse why it is tactful yet persuasive. The present study uses a linguistic politeness analysis and interacts with Joosten's classical rhetorical approach to affirm much of Joosten's argument, yet also to argue that aspects of Joosten's argument can be better covered by linguistic politeness. Ultimately, how a biblical speech is worded pragmatically is as much persuasive rhetoric as the content, and should be used in addition to other methods of analysis when biblical speeches are studied.
Into All the World: Emergent Christianity in its Jewish and Greco-Roman Context. Eds., Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans., 2017
This study, after a review of the history of the city of Antioch on the Orontes and the Jewish co... more This study, after a review of the history of the city of Antioch on the Orontes and the Jewish community in that city up to the time of the beginning of the second century AD, looks at the question of Christian-Jewish relations in that city up to the time of Ignatius. Texts looked at are Acts and Matthew from the New Testament, Didache, and Ignatius’ letters. It is argued that the author of Acts understood there to be no significant tension between Christians and Jews in Antioch at the time of writing, in contrast to how Christian-Jewish relations are portrayed elsewhere in the Eastern Roman Empire and in Jerusalem. Matthew indicates tension between (Jewish) Christians and Jews, but there is no agreement that this Gospel can be provenanced to Antioch. The Didache also suffers from the problem that there is no agreement that it can be provenanced to Antioch. The disagreements on the dating of both texts also adds further problems to any witness they have of Christian-Jewish tension, if any, in Antioch. Further, the negative comments in the Didache and Ignatius’ letters in relation to Judaism can be as easily understood to be polemic against Christians wishing to adhere to Jewish customs as well as polemic against Jews and Judaism. The study concludes, “Christians and Jews in Antioch had generally amicable relations up to the time of Ignatius. If there was tension between the two groups, it would appear it was not serious enough to dampen enthusiasm by Christians in Antioch to adopt Jewish practices, an enthusiasm that remained for some centuries. Ignatius, therefore (and Didache, if written in Antioch), simply complains about enthusiasm for Jewish practices, and is part of a tradition that sought to make the Christian community in Antioch identifiably different from the Jewish community there; a parting of the ways between Christianity and Judaism that occurred long before his time.”
Bridge, Edward J., ‘An Audacious Request: Abraham’s Dialogue with God in Genesis 18’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 40 (2016) 281-296.
Genesis 18.17-33, Abraham’s dialogue with Yhwh over the number of righteous people in Sodom, is a... more Genesis 18.17-33, Abraham’s dialogue with Yhwh over the number of righteous people in Sodom, is a difficulty in exegesis and interpretation. What the passage means has long been debated. At a literary level, there has also been no agreement on the nature of Abraham’s language. It is common to interpret Abraham as bargaining with God in similar fashion to haggling over the price of goods in a bazaar; but proposals have been made that Abraham uses legal-like language, ‘socratic dialogue’ and midrash. There is also no agreement on the purpose of Abraham’s dialogue. An analysis of Gen 18.17-33 using politeness theory proposes that Abraham, as portrayed in the narrative, wants to reduce the number of people as the basis for God’s forgiveness of Sodom and Gomorrah. This is an audacious request and so considerable forms of polite language are used to assist the request. However, this request is not Abraham’s real intention. His intention is to have Lot spared from Yhwh’s destruction of the cities. This request is ‘off-record’; that is, the politest strategy that could be used.
Bridge, Edward J., ‘Desperation to a Desperado: Abigail’s request to David in 1 Samuel 25’, Australian Biblical Review 63 (2015) 14-28, 2015
An analysis of Abigail’s speech in 1 Samuel 25:23–31 and her subsequent speaking in v. 41, using ... more An analysis of Abigail’s speech in 1 Samuel 25:23–31 and her subsequent speaking in v. 41, using aspects of politeness, metaphor and narrative theory, indicates she is highly polite and rhetorically effective. She is portrayed in a complex manner: as a social inferior to David when she requests him; but as social superior when she talks about David’s future. Her speaking in v. 41 is especially self-abasive, but it represents thanks to David. Ultimately, Abigail acts “counterfactually” to her social standing to portray herself as an inferior to David, but wins because she gets what she wanted. Abigail’s speaking is a good example of how the ambiguity inherent in polite language allows the hearer to give what the speaker wants, yet both speaker and hearer can maintain their respective face in the process. Such an analysis as provided by the present study can also help avoid inadequate interpretations of Abigail’s intent for her speaking, and nuance other interpretative methods applied to 1 Samuel 25.
Bridge, Edward J., ‘A Mother’s Influence: Mothers naming Children in the Hebrew Bible’, Vetus Testamentum 64 (2014) 389-400, Jul 2014
When parents are narrated in the Hebrew Bible as actively naming their children, mothers naming c... more When parents are narrated in the Hebrew Bible as actively naming their children, mothers naming children occurs more frequently than fathers naming children. When this phenomenon is combined with those biblical texts that indicate women as having influence over the religious leanings or language spoken by their children, it suggests that the authors of the Hebrew Bible texts recognized that women had significant standing and influence in the ancient Israelite household.
Bridge, Edward J., ‘The “Slave” is the “Master”: Jacob’s Servile Language to Esau in Genesis 33:1-17’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 38.3 (2014) 263-278, Mar 2014
Jacob’s meeting and reconciliation with Esau as narrated in Gen. 33.1-17 has created problems for... more Jacob’s meeting and reconciliation with Esau as narrated in Gen. 33.1-17 has created problems for interpretation, especially Jacob’s use of servile language to Esau, his instance that Esau accepts his gift, and his apparent lying. An analysis of the dialogue using politeness theory reveals that Jacob uses his language to encourage Esau to favourably grant two requests. These are: first, to encourage Esau to forego his right of revenge for Jacob’s stealing of the blessing due to him, narrated in Genesis 27; and second, Jacob desires to remove himself from being with Esau. Neither of these requests is stated openly. Jacob’s language is typical of requests in Genesis, but he uses it to portray himself as a social inferior to Esau. This allows Esau to avoid loss of face or feeling he has been coerced if he grants the two requests. This interpretation of Jacob’s language matches with some other literary interpretations of the dialogue and gives caution to the appropriateness of the common interpretations that Jacob gives back to Esau the stolen blessing and that Jacob negotiates a treaty with Esau.
Bridge, Edward J., ‘Who killed the Kings? An Ancient Whodunnit: 2 Kings vs. the Tel-Dan Inscription’, Ancient History: Resources for Teachers 40 (2010) 139-150
This article reviews the scholarship on the Tel Dan inscription, fragments of which were discover... more This article reviews the scholarship on the Tel Dan inscription, fragments of which were discovered in 1993 and 1994 in excavations at biblical Dan. Particular focus is on: bytdwd ('house of David'); dating of the inscription and its author (Hazael or his son Bar-Hadad); arrangement of the fragments; the relationship of the inscription's version of events with that of the relevant parts of the biblical book 2 Kings; and possible bias in both texts.
Bridge, E.J., ‘Belated Greetings to Everyone’, in New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity, Vol. 10 (eds, S.R. Llewelyn, J.R. Harrison; assoc. ed., E.J. Bridge; Macquarie University / Grand Rapids: Ancient Cultures Research Centre / Eerdmans, 2012) 170-174.
P. Oxy. 3859 is a fourth century letter by Horigenes to Sarapammon, who is Horigenes' social supe... more P. Oxy. 3859 is a fourth century letter by Horigenes to Sarapammon, who is Horigenes' social superior. The letter explains why Horigenes could not meet Sarapammon at Oxyrhynchus. Horigenes explains that he had been detained because of being charged for various crimes. The second half of the letter is extensive list of greetings to various people. Horigenes greets fourteen ‘brothers’, five ‘sisters’, two ‘mothers’ and one ‘father’. It would appear that Horigenes and Sarapammon are Christians, though overt Christian terms are not used. This entry in New Docs 10 discusses the similarities and differences of the familial language in this list of greetings and that used by Paul in Romans 16; along with Horigenes' term for 'wife' in relation to the term used in the New Testament.
The term for 'wife' in the letter is also contrasted with the terms used in the New Testament.
Bridge, E.J., ‘A Difficult (?) Request to ‘beloved father’ Diogenes’, in New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity, Vol. 10 (eds, S.R. Llewelyn, J.R. Harrison; assoc. ed., E.J. Bridge; Macquarie University / Grand Rapids: Ancient Cultures Research Centre / Eerdmans, 2012) 164-169.
"P. Oxy. 3858 is a an early fourth century CE letter from a Christian, Barys, to another Christia... more "P. Oxy. 3858 is a an early fourth century CE letter from a Christian, Barys, to another Christian, Diogenes, to grant a third person, Horus, leave or an extension of leave, because he is of moderate means and occupied with some land apparently belonging to yet anther person, Serenianus. Later, in the month of Hathyr Horus will give up working that land and devote himself to the ‘service/ministry’. This entry in New Docs discusses Barys' use of familial language to Diogenes, who appears to be superior in status, evidenced by Barys' use of kurios for Diogenes. Parallels with familial language in the New Testament is noted and discussed, as is also how Barys' language for requesting compares and contrasts with Paul's in Paul's Letter to Philemon."
Bridge, Edward J., ‘The Metaphoric Use of Slave Terms in the Hebrew Bible’, Bulletin for Biblical Research 23 (2013) 13-28.
An analysis of metaphoric uses of slavery terms in the Hebrew Bible reveals a culture of hierarch... more An analysis of metaphoric uses of slavery terms in the Hebrew Bible reveals a culture of hierarchical relationships based on power and status. Associations from slavery that are evoked in such uses are “possession” (with the derived association, “control”), “inferior status,” “work,” “debt/poverty,” “oppression,” and “propensity to run away”. Of six major categories of metaphoric use (subjects and officials to the king, vassalship, personal servants, people in relation to God, deference), “inferior status” is the association that is evoked in all contexts.
This article studies the metaphoric use of db( in the Prophetic Books in the Hebrew Bible to dete... more This article studies the metaphoric use of db( in the Prophetic Books in the Hebrew Bible to determine what possible associations or connotations from the institution of slavery are evoked by its use. It is a term that is primarily found in exilic or post-exilic prophets. For the nation Israel, associations evoked are “work” and “possession,” along with “loyalty.” For Israel’s leaders, especially Moses and David, associations of “work” and “loyalty” are evoked. The prophets and the Suffering Servant of Isa 40–55 are portrayed as more slave-like than David, Moses or Israel. But for all, it is their close relationship with Yhwh that confers status. When db( is applied to ordinary people who worship Yhwh, only “loyalty” is the association evoked.
Study of the two female slave terms, אָמָה and שִׁפְחָה, which takes into account text genre and ... more Study of the two female slave terms, אָמָה and שִׁפְחָה, which takes into account text genre and context of use, shows that, in contrast to current scholarship, there is no inherent distinction in meaning between אָמָה and שִׁפְחָה. The intertwining of context of use and text genre results in their synonymy; that is, both are used for slave wives in Genesis, in legislation contexts for a female slave of any standing, in deferential language by women in narrative, in property lists, and in relation to the slave’s relationship with either master or mistress. Some patterns of use, however, are present. אָמָה is predominant in legislation and marriage or other conjugal contexts. שִׁפְחָה is strongly preferred in Genesis and, outside of Genesis, appears to be favored over אָמָה when designating female slaves in general.
Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Jan 1, 2012
Self-abasement is commonly used in the Hebrew Bible to express thanks, especially in narrative te... more Self-abasement is commonly used in the Hebrew Bible to express thanks, especially in narrative texts. Using aspects of politeness theory, it is found that, by using self-abasement, a speaker accepts a loss of face and so avoids indebtedness to the hearer, but at the same time increases the hearer’s face by showing how gracious he was to favourably treat the speaker. It is a form of deference, a use of language that increases social distance between hearer and speaker. Self-abasement is also used to express thanks to God in narrative texts. However, the contexts show that the avoidance of obligation to God is not the focus of the speakers, but rather they highlight God’s magnanimity, and, in prayers of request, use it as part of their argument that God grant their request. The language of self-abasement also plays on the metaphoricity in the terms used, so self-abasement should not be interpreted as literal expressions of self-demeaning.
A study of the Lachish letters (ostraca) that goes beyond treating conventional formulae as simpl... more A study of the Lachish letters (ostraca) that goes beyond treating conventional formulae as simply epistolary phenomena or scribal preference shows that such language, along with other forms of language expressed in the letters, reflects a culture of high politeness. However, this culture is not restrictive. The senders also feel free to express their opinion and even criticise the recipient at times, with a corresponding reduction in respectful language. Such adjustment of language use to topic and/or emotion explains the variation in both conventional and other forms of polite language. When compared to biblical narrative and prayer, the letters affirm the biblical portrayal of social relationships. That is, the biblical portrayal of generally high politeness to a social superior or deity yet freedom to express opinion and criticism, along with the reduction in politeness that naturally occurs, with it reflects social reality of the time.
In Num. 20.14-21, Israel requests passage to pass through Edom but is denied. Of interest are the... more In Num. 20.14-21, Israel requests passage to pass through Edom but is denied. Of interest are the elements that add to Israel’s request (e.g. historical preamble, and self-imposed conditions to encourage Edom to accept their request). Using politeness theory, this article finds these elements to be strategies of politeness, and also show that Israel has a strategy of increasing politeness during the communication with Edom. In contrast, Edom is impolite, which indicates it wishes to be superior to Israel. This is consistent with the Bible’s portrayal of Edom as a ‘bad brother’ to Israel. The ability of politeness theory to bring out subtleties in communication in the Bible shows that it is a useful heuristic device to assist with the interpretation of biblical texts.
An exploration of the use of ‘bd in the Psalms shows that it is almost exclusively used metaphori... more An exploration of the use of ‘bd in the Psalms shows that it is almost exclusively used metaphorically. As a verb, this study affirms translations such as ‘to worship’ in reference to deity, and ‘to be subject to’ in reference to human power. As a noun, it is used to describe a wide range of things or people, all in relation the YHWH. Of interest how ‘bd is used as a metaphor (‘bdk/’bdyk) for the voice in a number of psalms, effectively being a substitution for ‘I’ or ‘we’. This use is always connected with supplication and or claims of loyalty to YHWH, and shows that ‘bd indicates the relationship of the voice in the psalm to YHWH is that of dependency, submission and loyalty. When used to describe others outside of the voice in the psalm, the term can indicate status, but always derived status.
This paper review the phenomenon of the use of "slave" or "servant" language in peoples' titles a... more This paper review the phenomenon of the use of "slave" or "servant" language in peoples' titles and in deference across the ancient Near East, including the Hebrew Bible, before 330 BCE. The paper covers seal inscriptions, tomb inscriptions and letters. A particular focus are instances where the people who used these terms had status or claimed or implied some sense of authority. It is argued that such use is for the purposes of politeness. But when status is denoted, that status is derived from the connotation of loyalty to a superior power or person.
Edited Books by Edward Bridge
Llewelyn, Stephen R., Harrison, Jim R. (eds), Bridge, Edward J. (assoc. ed.), New Documents illustrating Early Christianity, Vol. 10 (Macquarie University / Grand Rapids: Ancient Cultures Research Centre / Eerdmans, 2012)
The tenth volume in the New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity series has collected docume... more The tenth volume in the New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity series has collected documentary evidence which appeared in publications between the years 1988 and 1992, a five-year net. However, the collected documents represent only part of a much larger number of documents of potential interest. Of these the more significant texts have been chosen to be representative for the base years and with their associated discussions thematically grouped under the headings of Philosophy, Magic, Cult and Oracle, Public Life: Caesarian Accession, Public Life: Benefactors and Business, Household, Judaica and Christianity. In all there are twenty-nine separate documents discussed. As with the previous volumes in the series, the intended reader of New Docs 10 is the researcher, teacher or student in biblical studies and other related fields. The series is offered as a tool to broaden the context of studies in these fields.
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Papers by Edward Bridge
The term for 'wife' in the letter is also contrasted with the terms used in the New Testament.
Edited Books by Edward Bridge
The term for 'wife' in the letter is also contrasted with the terms used in the New Testament.