An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi... more An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi area, Mazowe district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis (satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Explanations for the changes observed in this study highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A simple, linear explanation of land use and land cover change is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
This brief presents a critical discussion of the political economy of agricultural commercialisat... more This brief presents a critical discussion of the political economy of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe, focusing on the post-2000 period – when major land redistribution brought about dramatic agrarian structural transformation in the country. Understanding shifts in production and commodity marketing, and how these have had an impact on commercialisation patterns, helps to reveal how power, state practice, and capital all influence accumulation for the different groups of farmers in divergent settlement models.
There has been an increasingly well-documented, rapid rise in tobacco production over the last co... more There has been an increasingly well-documented, rapid rise in tobacco production over the last couple of decades in Mazowe, Zimbabwe, despite growing public health concerns about lung cancer and nicotine’s addictive capacities in the wealthier countries of the West – even affecting the South African market. This has been accompanied by a shift away from its production almost completely on large-scale farms towards predominantly small-scale farms. To date, less consideration has been given to the implications of climate change for tobacco production. Given the hopes that it can make a serious contribution to poverty reduction and food security, it is of increasing importance to understand these implications, to identify the most relevant and/or effective adaptation options and to assess the viability of their successful adoption. This paper presents a fine-grained, qualitative bottom-up analysis of the implications for commercial tobacco production of climate change impacts in Zimbabwe.
The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the do... more The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classificatio reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 in depth interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver shaping agrariantypologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classificatio reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interview...
he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the... more he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political transition.
This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation ... more This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation in Zimbabwe's post land reform where policy consistently disadvantages smallholders. Is the latest mechanisation wave any different? The article considers dynamics of tractor access and accumulation trajectories across and within land use types in Mvurwi area. Larger, richer and well-connected farmers draw on patronage networks to access tractors and accumulate further. Some small to medium-scale farmers generate surpluses and invest in tractors or pay for services. Thus, accumulation from above and below feeds social differentiation. Tractor access remains constrained yet mechanisation is only part of the wider post-2000 story.
This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation ... more This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation in Zimbabwe's post land reform where policy consistently disadvantages smallholders. Is the latest mechanisation wave any different? The article considers dynamics of tractor access and accumulation trajectories across and within land use types in Mvurwi area. Larger, richer and well-connected farmers draw on patronage networks to access tractors and accumulate further. Some small to medium-scale farmers generate surpluses and invest in tractors or pay for services. Thus, accumulation from above and below feeds social differentiation. Tractor access remains constrained yet mechanisation is only part of the wider post-2000 story.
The emergence of medium-scale farms is having important consequences for agricultural commerciali... more The emergence of medium-scale farms is having important consequences for agricultural commercialisation across Africa. This article examines the role of medium-scale A farms allocated following Zimbabwe's land reform after 2000. This study was supported by the Agricultural Policy Research in Africa project (www.futureagricultures.org), financed by the UK Department for International Development. TS coordinated the research, undertook interviews in Mvurwi and contributed to writing the paper; IS analysed the survey data, undertook interviews in both sites and drafted the paper and FM led the field team and undertook interviews in both sites. We would like to thank Jacob Mahenehene and Comfort Mare for help with the survey. Comfort Mare also helped with data entry. Finally, we must express our thanks to the many farmers and workers who spent time with us in the field.
The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its
typologies, revealing the do... more The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classification reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 indepth interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver shaping agrarian
he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and
commoditisation patterns across the... more he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political transition.
An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi... more An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi area, Mazowe district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis (satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated on Landsat data to test for significant changes in the vegetation cover at five-year intervals from 1984 to 2018 in the study area. NDVI was used because its simplicity and applicability to vegetation-base studies has been tested extensively and successfully in different categories of remote sensing techniques used to monitor agriculture and plant growth. In addition, Landsat was selected since it is the only satellite mission that covered the whole spectrum of the study period. Statistical analysis of land cover changes was complemented with field-based ground-truthing and interviews with land users. The study revealed four phases of vegetation cover change. The first phase, 1984–1999, showed an increase in vegetation cover, while the second phase, 1999–2004, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. The third phase, 2004–09, showed an increase in the vegetation cover and then the fourth phase, 2009–18, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. To gain a more granular view, a focused study was carried out on one Ward. The study revealed that changes were varied across the area, which included communal areas (small-scale farming), largescale commercial farms/estates and, after the land reform in 2000, resettlement areas with different farm sizes. Explanations for these changes highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A simple, linear explanation of LULCC is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
COVID-19 AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TOBACCO AND MAIZE COMMODITY CIRCUITS: MAKORONYERA, THE ‘CONNECTED’ AND AGRARIAN ACCUMULATION IN ZIMBABWE
This paper analyses the global commodity circuits
(GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco ... more This paper analyses the global commodity circuits (GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco in Zimbabwe, in the context of a reconfigured agrarian economy and COVID-19 induced shocks. The study focuses on the political economy dynamics of agricultural commodity circuits to reveal how they can contribute to understanding the drivers and constraints of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe. The study was carried out in Mvurwi, a farming area in Mazowe district in Mashonaland Central Province, about 100km north-west of Harare. This paper traces the circuits of maize and tobacco, the two major crops for food security and foreign currency earnings in Zimbabwe. Maize is the staple food, while tobacco contributes to about 24 per cent of foreign currency earnings and 4 per cent of gross domestic product. However, COVID-19 induced regulations are likely to trigger increased illicit trade, corruption including fraud, theft, and pillaging along agricultural commodity circuits. This will likely impact on agricultural commercialisation and who wins and loses along the GCC.
TRACTORS AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN ZIMBABWE: INSIGHTS FROM MVURWI, 2019
This paper examines postcolonial agricultural
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent... more This paper examines postcolonial agricultural mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role played by state-capital relations – with notable links to international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the decline in tractor supply by the government, and the growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder and medium-scale farmers. This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews. While the tractors imported by the government from Brazil on concessional terms have become a major source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation. Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution of tractors and the establishment of tractor service cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political gains resulting from these investments.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AGRICULTURAL COMMERCIALISATION IN ZIMBABWE, 2018
Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have
centred on different framings of agriculture... more Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture viability and land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet, emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening and stagnations across settlement models. Normative– political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen on social and economic justice as well as democratic land ownership. Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
Tractors and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Insights from Mvurwi. APRA working paper 21, Future Agricultures Consortium, 2019
This paper examines postcolonial agricultural
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent ... more This paper examines postcolonial agricultural mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role played by state-capital relations – with notable links to international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the decline in tractor supply by the government, and the growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews. While the tractors imported by the government from Brazil on concessional terms have become a major source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation. Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution of tractors and the establishment of tractor service cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political gains resulting from these investments.
Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture ... more Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture viability and land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet, emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening and stagnations across settlement models. Normative– political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen on social and economic justice as well as democratic land ownership. Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi... more An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi area, Mazowe district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis (satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Explanations for the changes observed in this study highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A simple, linear explanation of land use and land cover change is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
This brief presents a critical discussion of the political economy of agricultural commercialisat... more This brief presents a critical discussion of the political economy of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe, focusing on the post-2000 period – when major land redistribution brought about dramatic agrarian structural transformation in the country. Understanding shifts in production and commodity marketing, and how these have had an impact on commercialisation patterns, helps to reveal how power, state practice, and capital all influence accumulation for the different groups of farmers in divergent settlement models.
There has been an increasingly well-documented, rapid rise in tobacco production over the last co... more There has been an increasingly well-documented, rapid rise in tobacco production over the last couple of decades in Mazowe, Zimbabwe, despite growing public health concerns about lung cancer and nicotine’s addictive capacities in the wealthier countries of the West – even affecting the South African market. This has been accompanied by a shift away from its production almost completely on large-scale farms towards predominantly small-scale farms. To date, less consideration has been given to the implications of climate change for tobacco production. Given the hopes that it can make a serious contribution to poverty reduction and food security, it is of increasing importance to understand these implications, to identify the most relevant and/or effective adaptation options and to assess the viability of their successful adoption. This paper presents a fine-grained, qualitative bottom-up analysis of the implications for commercial tobacco production of climate change impacts in Zimbabwe.
The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the do... more The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classificatio reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 in depth interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver shaping agrariantypologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classificatio reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interview...
he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the... more he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political transition.
This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation ... more This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation in Zimbabwe's post land reform where policy consistently disadvantages smallholders. Is the latest mechanisation wave any different? The article considers dynamics of tractor access and accumulation trajectories across and within land use types in Mvurwi area. Larger, richer and well-connected farmers draw on patronage networks to access tractors and accumulate further. Some small to medium-scale farmers generate surpluses and invest in tractors or pay for services. Thus, accumulation from above and below feeds social differentiation. Tractor access remains constrained yet mechanisation is only part of the wider post-2000 story.
This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation ... more This article explores whether mechanisation affects patterns of accumulation and differentiation in Zimbabwe's post land reform where policy consistently disadvantages smallholders. Is the latest mechanisation wave any different? The article considers dynamics of tractor access and accumulation trajectories across and within land use types in Mvurwi area. Larger, richer and well-connected farmers draw on patronage networks to access tractors and accumulate further. Some small to medium-scale farmers generate surpluses and invest in tractors or pay for services. Thus, accumulation from above and below feeds social differentiation. Tractor access remains constrained yet mechanisation is only part of the wider post-2000 story.
The emergence of medium-scale farms is having important consequences for agricultural commerciali... more The emergence of medium-scale farms is having important consequences for agricultural commercialisation across Africa. This article examines the role of medium-scale A farms allocated following Zimbabwe's land reform after 2000. This study was supported by the Agricultural Policy Research in Africa project (www.futureagricultures.org), financed by the UK Department for International Development. TS coordinated the research, undertook interviews in Mvurwi and contributed to writing the paper; IS analysed the survey data, undertook interviews in both sites and drafted the paper and FM led the field team and undertook interviews in both sites. We would like to thank Jacob Mahenehene and Comfort Mare for help with the survey. Comfort Mare also helped with data entry. Finally, we must express our thanks to the many farmers and workers who spent time with us in the field.
The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its
typologies, revealing the do... more The article presents an Emerging Farmer Classification model and its typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers, consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classification reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230 household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 indepth interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver shaping agrarian
he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and
commoditisation patterns across the... more he reconfigured agrarian structure imposed new production and commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political transition.
An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi... more An analysis of the variations in land use and land cover over the past four decades in the Mvurwi area, Mazowe district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis (satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated on Landsat data to test for significant changes in the vegetation cover at five-year intervals from 1984 to 2018 in the study area. NDVI was used because its simplicity and applicability to vegetation-base studies has been tested extensively and successfully in different categories of remote sensing techniques used to monitor agriculture and plant growth. In addition, Landsat was selected since it is the only satellite mission that covered the whole spectrum of the study period. Statistical analysis of land cover changes was complemented with field-based ground-truthing and interviews with land users. The study revealed four phases of vegetation cover change. The first phase, 1984–1999, showed an increase in vegetation cover, while the second phase, 1999–2004, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. The third phase, 2004–09, showed an increase in the vegetation cover and then the fourth phase, 2009–18, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. To gain a more granular view, a focused study was carried out on one Ward. The study revealed that changes were varied across the area, which included communal areas (small-scale farming), largescale commercial farms/estates and, after the land reform in 2000, resettlement areas with different farm sizes. Explanations for these changes highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A simple, linear explanation of LULCC is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
COVID-19 AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TOBACCO AND MAIZE COMMODITY CIRCUITS: MAKORONYERA, THE ‘CONNECTED’ AND AGRARIAN ACCUMULATION IN ZIMBABWE
This paper analyses the global commodity circuits
(GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco ... more This paper analyses the global commodity circuits (GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco in Zimbabwe, in the context of a reconfigured agrarian economy and COVID-19 induced shocks. The study focuses on the political economy dynamics of agricultural commodity circuits to reveal how they can contribute to understanding the drivers and constraints of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe. The study was carried out in Mvurwi, a farming area in Mazowe district in Mashonaland Central Province, about 100km north-west of Harare. This paper traces the circuits of maize and tobacco, the two major crops for food security and foreign currency earnings in Zimbabwe. Maize is the staple food, while tobacco contributes to about 24 per cent of foreign currency earnings and 4 per cent of gross domestic product. However, COVID-19 induced regulations are likely to trigger increased illicit trade, corruption including fraud, theft, and pillaging along agricultural commodity circuits. This will likely impact on agricultural commercialisation and who wins and loses along the GCC.
TRACTORS AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN ZIMBABWE: INSIGHTS FROM MVURWI, 2019
This paper examines postcolonial agricultural
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent... more This paper examines postcolonial agricultural mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role played by state-capital relations – with notable links to international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the decline in tractor supply by the government, and the growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder and medium-scale farmers. This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews. While the tractors imported by the government from Brazil on concessional terms have become a major source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation. Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution of tractors and the establishment of tractor service cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political gains resulting from these investments.
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AGRICULTURAL COMMERCIALISATION IN ZIMBABWE, 2018
Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have
centred on different framings of agriculture... more Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture viability and land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet, emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening and stagnations across settlement models. Normative– political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen on social and economic justice as well as democratic land ownership. Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
Tractors and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Insights from Mvurwi. APRA working paper 21, Future Agricultures Consortium, 2019
This paper examines postcolonial agricultural
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent ... more This paper examines postcolonial agricultural mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role played by state-capital relations – with notable links to international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the decline in tractor supply by the government, and the growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews. While the tractors imported by the government from Brazil on concessional terms have become a major source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation. Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution of tractors and the establishment of tractor service cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political gains resulting from these investments.
Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture ... more Debates on Zimbabwe’s agricultural development have centred on different framings of agriculture viability and land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet, emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening and stagnations across settlement models. Normative– political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and ‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen on social and economic justice as well as democratic land ownership. Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
Uploads
Papers
typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers,
consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza
district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classification
reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result
of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land
Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230
household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 indepth
interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver
shaping agrarian
commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in
Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with
differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of
farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact
of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and
global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively
unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article
reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal
agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have
significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds
rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming
arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article
contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political
transition.
district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental
change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis
(satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Normalised
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated on Landsat data to test for significant changes in the vegetation
cover at five-year intervals from 1984 to 2018 in the study area. NDVI was used because its simplicity and
applicability to vegetation-base studies has been tested extensively and successfully in different categories of
remote sensing techniques used to monitor agriculture and plant growth. In addition, Landsat was selected
since it is the only satellite mission that covered the whole spectrum of the study period. Statistical analysis of
land cover changes was complemented with field-based ground-truthing and interviews with land users. The
study revealed four phases of vegetation cover change. The first phase, 1984–1999, showed an increase in
vegetation cover, while the second phase, 1999–2004, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. The third phase,
2004–09, showed an increase in the vegetation cover and then the fourth phase, 2009–18, showed a decrease
in vegetation cover. To gain a more granular view, a focused study was carried out on one Ward. The study
revealed that changes were varied across the area, which included communal areas (small-scale farming), largescale commercial farms/estates and, after the land reform in 2000, resettlement areas with different farm sizes.
Explanations for these changes highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A
simple, linear explanation of LULCC is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must
always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
(GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco in
Zimbabwe, in the context of a reconfigured agrarian
economy and COVID-19 induced shocks. The
study focuses on the political economy dynamics of
agricultural commodity circuits to reveal how they can
contribute to understanding the drivers and constraints
of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe. The
study was carried out in Mvurwi, a farming area in
Mazowe district in Mashonaland Central Province,
about 100km north-west of Harare. This paper traces
the circuits of maize and tobacco, the two major
crops for food security and foreign currency earnings
in Zimbabwe. Maize is the staple food, while tobacco
contributes to about 24 per cent of foreign currency
earnings and 4 per cent of gross domestic product.
However, COVID-19 induced regulations are likely
to trigger increased illicit trade, corruption including
fraud, theft, and pillaging along agricultural commodity
circuits. This will likely impact on agricultural
commercialisation and who wins and loses along the
GCC.
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land
reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role
played by state-capital relations – with notable links to
international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor
usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform
Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide
crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging
agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the
decline in tractor supply by the government, and the
growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms
as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder
and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical
data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group
discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews.
While the tractors imported by the government from
Brazil on concessional terms have become a major
source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in
Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds
from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly
in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source
for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation.
Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution
of tractors and the establishment of tractor service
cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political
gains resulting from these investments.
centred on different framings of agriculture viability and
land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet,
emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation
pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening
and stagnations across settlement models. Normative–
political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and
‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and
some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for
redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen
on social and economic justice as well as democratic
land ownership.
Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture
is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper
explores how these contrasting debates have played
out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are
aligned with different positions. The paper locates
the discussion in a critical examination of the politics
of agrarian change and presents a political economy
and policy process review of winners and losers in
commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores
power, political and institutional incentives driving
commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period.
It argues that competing interests within the state,
the ruling party, opposition movements, within the
agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital
(large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international
and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract
farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped
land and commercialisation over time. It posits that
these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes
of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an
examination of two value chains linked to agricultural
commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land
reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role
played by state-capital relations – with notable links to
international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor
usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform
Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide
crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging
agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the
decline in tractor supply by the government, and the
growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms
as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder
and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical
data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group
discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews.
While the tractors imported by the government from
Brazil on concessional terms have become a major
source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in
Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds
from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly
in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source
for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation.
Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution
of tractors and the establishment of tractor service
cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political
gains resulting from these investments.
Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
typologies, revealing the dominance of medium-scale farmers,
consisting of smallholder and medium-sized farms, in Hwedza
district. The article argues that the Emerging Farmer Classification
reflects ongoing reconfiguration in Hwedza district and is a result
of the changing workings of capital after the Fast Track Land
Reform era. The analysis is based on a case study involving 230
household interviews across five settlement models, and 20 indepth
interviews. The article identifies capital as a key driver
shaping agrarian
commoditisation patterns across the settlement types in
Zimbabwe. From 2000, new markets were established, with
differentiated effects on capital accumulation for different sets of
farmers. After the Fast Track Land Reform programme, the impact
of the economy-wide challenges, climate change, capital and
global geo-politics on the agrarian economy remain relatively
unexplored. Using a case study of Hwedza District, this article
reveals the changing agrarian relations beyond the trimodal
agrarian structure, showing that smallholder farmers have
significantly relied on reinvestment of agricultural sales proceeds
rather than contract farming. Farmers exit the contract farming
arrangements citing their exploitative nature. The article
contributes to the debate on Zimbabwe’s agrarian and political
transition.
district, Zimbabwe illustrates how socio-economic dynamics and natural factors combine to shape environmental
change. Land use and cover changes (LULCC) were assessed using a combination of quantitative analysis
(satellite imagery) of land cover and a grounded analysis of the social, economic and political factors. Normalised
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was calculated on Landsat data to test for significant changes in the vegetation
cover at five-year intervals from 1984 to 2018 in the study area. NDVI was used because its simplicity and
applicability to vegetation-base studies has been tested extensively and successfully in different categories of
remote sensing techniques used to monitor agriculture and plant growth. In addition, Landsat was selected
since it is the only satellite mission that covered the whole spectrum of the study period. Statistical analysis of
land cover changes was complemented with field-based ground-truthing and interviews with land users. The
study revealed four phases of vegetation cover change. The first phase, 1984–1999, showed an increase in
vegetation cover, while the second phase, 1999–2004, showed a decrease in vegetation cover. The third phase,
2004–09, showed an increase in the vegetation cover and then the fourth phase, 2009–18, showed a decrease
in vegetation cover. To gain a more granular view, a focused study was carried out on one Ward. The study
revealed that changes were varied across the area, which included communal areas (small-scale farming), largescale commercial farms/estates and, after the land reform in 2000, resettlement areas with different farm sizes.
Explanations for these changes highlight social, economic and political drivers that have changed over time. A
simple, linear explanation of LULCC is inappropriate as multiple drivers intersect, and environmental change must
always be understood as co-constituted with social dynamics and political economy.
(GCCs) – value chains – for maize and tobacco in
Zimbabwe, in the context of a reconfigured agrarian
economy and COVID-19 induced shocks. The
study focuses on the political economy dynamics of
agricultural commodity circuits to reveal how they can
contribute to understanding the drivers and constraints
of agricultural commercialisation in Zimbabwe. The
study was carried out in Mvurwi, a farming area in
Mazowe district in Mashonaland Central Province,
about 100km north-west of Harare. This paper traces
the circuits of maize and tobacco, the two major
crops for food security and foreign currency earnings
in Zimbabwe. Maize is the staple food, while tobacco
contributes to about 24 per cent of foreign currency
earnings and 4 per cent of gross domestic product.
However, COVID-19 induced regulations are likely
to trigger increased illicit trade, corruption including
fraud, theft, and pillaging along agricultural commodity
circuits. This will likely impact on agricultural
commercialisation and who wins and loses along the
GCC.
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land
reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role
played by state-capital relations – with notable links to
international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor
usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform
Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide
crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging
agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the
decline in tractor supply by the government, and the
growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms
as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder
and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical
data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group
discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews.
While the tractors imported by the government from
Brazil on concessional terms have become a major
source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in
Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds
from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly
in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source
for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation.
Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution
of tractors and the establishment of tractor service
cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political
gains resulting from these investments.
centred on different framings of agriculture viability and
land redistribution, which are often antagonistic. Yet,
emerging evidence of agricultural commercialisation
pathways shows complex and differentiated deepening
and stagnations across settlement models. Normative–
political constructions of ‘good’, ‘modern’ and
‘progressive’, as advocated by large-scale farmers and
some bureaucrats, are countered by proponents for
redistribution, mainly the landless rural peasants, keen
on social and economic justice as well as democratic
land ownership.
Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture
is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper
explores how these contrasting debates have played
out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are
aligned with different positions. The paper locates
the discussion in a critical examination of the politics
of agrarian change and presents a political economy
and policy process review of winners and losers in
commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores
power, political and institutional incentives driving
commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period.
It argues that competing interests within the state,
the ruling party, opposition movements, within the
agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital
(large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international
and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract
farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped
land and commercialisation over time. It posits that
these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes
of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an
examination of two value chains linked to agricultural
commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.
mechanisation in Zimbabwe in the context of recent land
reforms. It pays particular attention to the central role
played by state-capital relations – with notable links to
international finance – in shaping a resurgence in tractor
usage following Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform
Programme (FTLRP). Moreover, the economy-wide
crisis triggered by land reform shaped the emerging
agricultural mechanisation. This study examines the
decline in tractor supply by the government, and the
growth and dominance of large-scale commercial farms
as a source of second-hand tractors for smallholder
and medium-scale farmers.
This paper relies on archival sources as well as empirical
data collected in Mvurwi through surveys, focus group
discussions, tracker studies and in-depth interviews.
While the tractors imported by the government from
Brazil on concessional terms have become a major
source of tractor services for the resettled farmers in
Mvurwi, resettled farmers are also reinvesting proceeds
from the sale of agricultural commodities predominantly
in agricultural mechanisation, creating a new source
for tractor hiring services and agrarian transformation.
Although patronage politics has shaped the distribution
of tractors and the establishment of tractor service
cooperatives, there is no evidence of concrete political
gains resulting from these investments.
Across the divide, commercialisation of agriculture is seen as efficient and poverty-reducing. This paper explores how these contrasting debates have played out in Zimbabwe over time, and what interests are aligned with different positions. The paper locates the discussion in a critical examination of the politics of agrarian change and presents a political economy and policy process review of winners and losers in commercialisation. In so doing, the paper explores power, political and institutional incentives driving commercialisation, particularly in the post-2000 period. It argues that competing interests within the state, the ruling party, opposition movements, within the agricultural bureaucracy and across fractions of capital (large-scale commercial farmers, banks, international and domestic commodity merchants linked to contract farming, and the inputs/outputs markets) have shaped land and commercialisation over time. It posits that these ongoing contests are influencing the outcomes of the land reform of 2000. This is illustrated with an examination of two value chains linked to agricultural commercialisation in Mvurwi area of Mazowe district.