Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe ntcharu icho chili pakati pa milonga ya Zambezi na Limpopo, kumwera na South Africa, kumwera na Botswana, kumpoto na Zambia. Msumba ukuru chomene wa Harare, ndipo waciŵiri ni Bulawayo. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni[14]. Mtundu ukuru chomene mu Zimbabwe ni wa Shona, uwo uli na ŵanthu 82% pa charu chose. Ku Zimbabwe kuli viyowoyero 16, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru ni Cingelezi, Cishona, na Ndebele.[4]
| Charu cha Zimbabwe 15 other official names[1]
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| Chiluso: "Unity, Freedom, Work"[2] | ||||||
| Nyimbo: "Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe"[3] |
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.svg) Makhalilo gha Zimbabwe (dark green) Makhalilo gha Zimbabwe (dark green) |
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| Msumba Waboma kweneso Msumba Usani | Harare | |||||
| Chiyowoyelo chaboma | 16 languages:[4] | |||||
| Mitundu ya Ŵanthu (2012 Census[5]) |
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| Vipembezo |
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| Mwenecharu | Zimbabwean Zimbo[6] (colloquial) |
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| Mtundu wa Boma | Unitary dominant-party presidential republic | |||||
| - | President | Emmerson Mnangagwa | ||||
| - | Vice-President | Constantino Chiwenga | ||||
| - | Upper house | Senate | ||||
| - | Lower house | National Assembly | ||||
| Independence from the United Kingdom | ||||||
| - | Declared | 11 November 1965 | ||||
| - | Republic | 2 March 1970 | ||||
| - | Zimbabwe Rhodesia | 1 June 1979 | ||||
| - | Independence recognised | 18 April 1980 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 15 May 2013 | ||||
| Ukulu wa Malo | ||||||
| - | Malo | 390,757 km2 (60th) 150,871 sq mi |
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| - | Maji (%) | 1 | ||||
| Chiŵelengelo cha ŵanthu | ||||||
| - | 2023 estimate | 15,418,674[7] (73rd) | ||||
| - | 2022 census | 15,178,979[8] | ||||
| - | Density | 39/km2 57/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2023 estimate | |||||
| - | Total |  $42.4 billion[9] (131st) |
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| - | Per capita | $2,627[9] (175th) |
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| GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate | |||||
| - | Total |  $29.9 billion[9] (110th) |
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| - | Per capita | $1,851[9] (154th) |
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| Gini (2019) |  50.3[10]high |
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| HDI (2021) | 0.593[11] medium ·146th |
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| Ndalama | Zimbabwean dollar U.S. dollar ($) (USD)[12] South African rand;[12] Other currencies[note 1] |
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| Mtundu Wanyengo | CAT[13] (UTC+2) | |||||
| Kalembelo kasiku | dd/mm/yyyy | |||||
| Woko la galimoto | left | |||||
| Intaneti yacharu | .zw | |||||
Kwamba mu ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (awo ŵakaŵa mtundu wa Shona) ndiwo ŵakazenga msumba wa Great Zimbabwe.[15] Mu ma 1000 C.E., msumba uwu ukaŵa umoza mwa misumba yikuru ya ku Africa iyo yikaguliskanga vinthu. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, msumba uwu ukaŵa kuti walekeka.[15]Kufuma apo, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukapangika, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Rozvi na Mutapa.[15]
British South Africa Company ya Cecil Rhodes yikamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Rhodesia mu 1890 apo ŵakathereska Mashonaland ndipo pamanyuma mu 1893 ŵakathereska Matabeleland pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabele ŵakakana. Mu 1923, boma la South Rhodesia likamba kulamulirika na boma la Britain. Mu 1965, boma la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa likapharazga kuti ni Rhodesia. Boma ili likaŵa kutali na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo likaŵa na nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ya vyaka 15 na ŵasilikari ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kufuma apo, charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa mu wupu wa Commonwealth of Nations, ndipo chikafumamo mu 2002 chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha vyaru vinyake.
Mugabe wakazgoka nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe mu 1980, apo chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chikaluska pa chisankho chikuru pamanyuma pa umaliro wa muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe kufuma mu 1987 mpaka apo wakafumako mu 2017. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe, wupu wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo ndiwo ukachitanga viheni vinandi.[16] Kufuma mu 2000 mpaka mu 2009, chuma chikamba kunangika na kukhuŵara chomene pambere chindawelere nyuma apo ndalama zinyake padera pa dola ya ku Zimbabwe zikazomerezgekanga. Pa 15 Novembala 2017, pamanyuma pa chaka chimoza cha viwawa vyakususkana na boma lake kweniso chuma cha Zimbabwe icho chikukhilira pasi, Mugabe wakajalirika mu nyumba na ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi mu boma, ndipo Mugabe wakafumapo pati pajumpha mazuŵa 6. Emmerson Mnangagwa ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Zimbabwe.
Charu cha Zimbabwe chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Southern African Development Community, African Union, na Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa.
Kwiza kwa zina
Zina lakuti "Zimbabwe" likufuma ku lizgu la ChiShona ilo likung'anamura Great Zimbabwe, msumba wa ku Middle Ages (Masvingo) uwo uli kumwera kwa charu ichi. Pali vigomezgo viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na umo lizgu ili likambira. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti dzimba-dza-mabwe, ilo lili kung'anamulika kufuma ku lizgu la Chishona la Karanga kuti "nyumba za malibwe"..[17][18][19] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Karanga ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Great Zimbabwe, mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Masvingo. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vinthu vyakale, zina lake Peter Garlake, wakati lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" likung'anamura lizgu lakuti dzimba-hwe.[20]
Kale, charu cha Zimbabwe chikachemekanga Southern Rhodesia (1898), Rhodesia (1965), na Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979). Mu 1960 munthu munyake wakuchemeka Michael Mawema ndiyo wakambiska zina lakuti "Zimbabwe".[21]Lizgu lakuti "Rhodesia", ilo lili kufuma ku zina la Cecil Rhodes, uyo wakambiska kuti ku Britain kukhalenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhodesia m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaliwonanga kuti ndakwenelera yayi.[22]
Mawema wakati mu 1960, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakachita ungano kuti ŵasankhe zina linyake la charu ichi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa charu cha Matabeleland ŵakayowoyaso kuti "Matopos", kung'anamura mapiri gha Matopos kumwera kwa Bulawayo.[21]
It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"[21] — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.[22]Mu 2001, Eddison Zvobgo, uyo wakaŵa wakuwona vya charu, wakayowoya kuti Mawema wakazunura zina ili pa ungano wa ndyali. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito zina ili pa nyengo ya kampeni yaciŵiri ya Chimurenga yakwimikana na boma la Rhodesia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia ya 1964-1979. Gulu likuru mu kampu iyi likaŵa la Zimbabwe African National Union (lakuwusika na Robert Mugabe kwambira mu 1975), na Zimbabwe African People's Union (lakuwusika na Joshua Nkomo kwambira apo likakhazikiskikira mu 1960s).
Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakuzizima, charu cha Zimbabwe nacho chilije mtundu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiShona, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵalipo pa chiŵerengero ichi ŵalipo 80 peresenti. Dango ili likuzomerezga viyowoyero 16, kweni viŵiri pera ndivyo vikuyowoyeka pa charu chose, chiShona na Chingelezi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusambira Chishona mu masukulu. Kweniso mu charu cha Zimbabwe mulije mulongozgi uyo ni Mushona yayi.[23][24]
Mbili
Nyengo ya pambere charu chindambe kulamulira
Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakumanya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu charu cha Zimbabwe vyaka 500,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San, awo ŵakasunga mivi na vithuzithuzi vya mu mphanji. Pafupifupi vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵalimi ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu charu ichi.[25][26]
Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Shona ŵakamba kuŵako mu chigaŵa chapakati cha mlonga wa Limpopo mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. pambere ŵandalute ku malo gha mapiri gha ku Zimbabwe. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pakatikati pa vyaru vinyake vya Shona, kwamba mu ma 1000 C.E. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda na ŵamalonda ŵa ku India, ndipo ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mapungubwe. Ichi chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵambe kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma mu 13 m'paka mu 15 C.E. Vinthu ivi vikuwoneka mu malo agho ghakaŵa ku Great Zimbabwe, kufupi na Masvingo, kweniso mu malo ghanyake ghachoko. Pa malo agha pakaŵa nyumba zakuzengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaguliskana vinthu mu Zimbabwe apo ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe ŵakafikanga kufuma ku Portugal. Vyaru ivi vikaguliskanga golide, njovu, na mkuŵa na kugura salu na gilasi.[27]
Kuzakafika mu 1220, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa kuti wajumpha wa Mapungubwe. Boma la Shona likasazgirako na kusazgirako maofesi gha malibwe gha ku Mapungubwe, agho ghachalipo m'paka sono pa malo agho ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe. Kufuma mu 1450 m'paka mu 1760, Ufumu wa Mutapa ukawusa chigaŵa chikuru cha Zimbabwe, kweniso vigaŵa vinyake vya Mozambiki. Charu ichi chikachemekangaso Ufumu wa Mutapa, panji Mwene Mutapa panji Monomotapa kweniso "Munhumutapa". Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa ufumu uwu ndipo ŵakambiska nkhondo zinandi izo zikapangiska kuti ufumu wawo uparanyike kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1700.[27]
Pakuzgora ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu ichi, boma liphya la Ŵashona likawuka. Pakuthemba pa umo ŵasilikari, ŵandyali, na chisopa ŵakendera kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozwi (kung'anamura "ŵakuparanya") ŵakachimbizga Ŵapwitikizi mu charu cha Zimbabwe mu 1683. Mu 1821, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Khumalo, zina lake Mzilikazi, wakawukira Themba Shaka na kukhazikiska mtundu wake wa Ndebele. Ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Transvaal, ndipo ŵakasakaza vinthu vinandi chomene. Mu 1836, ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakendanga mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal ŵakaŵachimbizga kumpoto chomene na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Tswana Barolong na ŵa Griqua. Kuzakafika mu 1838, Ŵandebele ŵakathereska Ufumu wa Rozwi pamoza na vyaru vinyake vichoko vya Shona.[28]
Mu 1840, Mzilikazi na fuko lake ŵakati ŵafumako ku vyaru vyawo ku South Africa, ŵakakhazikika kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Zimbabwe. Pamanyuma, Mzilikazi wakambiska gulu la ŵasilikari lakuyana na la Shaka. Mubali Mzilikazi wakafwa mu 1868; pamanyuma pa kulimbana na mwana wake Lobengula.
Nyengo ya Chikoloni na Rhodesia (1888~1964)
Mu ma 1880, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakiza na kampani ya Cecil Rhodes yakuchemeka British South Africa Company (iyo yikalembeka mu 1889). Mu 1888, Themba Lobengula la ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele, likapeleka wanangwa wa kunozga migodi ku charu cha Rhodes. Iyo wakapeleka mwaŵi uwu kuti wakhuŵilizge boma la Britain kuti lipeleke wanangwa wa kuwusa Matabeleland na vyaru vinyake nga ni Mashonaland. Rhodes wakagwiliskira ntchito chikalata ichi mu 1890 kuti walongosore makora chifukwa icho wakatumira gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakavikilirikanga na ŵapolisi ŵa ku Britain (British South Africa Police - BSAP) awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vinandi. Mu 1893 na 1894, ŵasilikari ŵa BSAP ŵakathereska Ŵandebele mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Rhodes wakapemphaso kuti waŵape wanangwa wakuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakachitiranga ku Limpopo na Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Kuyana na fundo izo zikaŵa mu mapangano agha, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, ndipo Ŵanung'una ŵakalutilira kulamulira ŵantchito, visulo vyakuzirwa, na vinthu vinyake.[29]
Mu 1895, BSAC yikapeleka zina lakuti "Rhodesia" ku malo agha. Mu 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" likazgoka zina la chigaŵa icho chili kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Zambezi. Chigaŵa cha kumpoto, icho chikaŵa na boma lapadera, pamanyuma chikachemeka Northern Rhodesia (sono ni Zambia). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo ŵabali ŵa ku Rhodes ŵakachitira nkhondo ya Jameson (Disembala 1895 m'paka Janyuwale 1896) pa charu cha South Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵakagalukira ŵalongozgi ŵatuŵa. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Matabele ya 1896-1897 yikamara mu Matabeleland mpaka mu 1896, apo Mlimo wakakomeka na Frederick Russell Burnham. Mu 1896 na 1897, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakagalukira boma la boma la Shona. Pamanyuma pa kugaluka uku, boma la Rhodes likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Ndebele na Shona ndipo likanozga vyaru kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakhalengepo.
Pa Seputembala 12, 1923, Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukakolerana na charu cha Southern Rhodesia.[30][31][32][33]Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokelereka, pa Okutobala 1, 1923, dango lakwamba la Southern Rhodesia likamba kugwira ntchito. Kuyana na dango liphya ili, charu cha Southern Rhodesia chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakateŵeteranga ku United Kingdom pa Nkhondo za Caru Cose ziŵiri izo zikacitika kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Kuyana na unandi wa ŵazungu, caru ca Southern Rhodesia cikapeleka ndalama zinandi comene pa munthu yumoza pa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose kuluska cigaŵa cilicose ca ufumu uwu, kusazgapo Britain.
Mu 1930, dango la kugaŵa malo likakanizga ŵanthu ŵafipa kuŵa na malo mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuyana, ntheura nyengo zinandi ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga vya kusintha kwa malo. Mu 1953, cifukwa ca kugaluka kwa vyaru vya ku Africa, Britain wakakolerana na vyaru viŵiri vya Rhodesia pamoza na Nyasaland (Malawi) mu Central African Federation. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamba kutinkhana chomene, chomenechomene ku Nyasaland. Apo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakamba kulamulira ku Northern Rhodesia na Nyasaland, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Rhodesia awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutilira kulamulira.
Pamanyuma pa wanangwa wa Zambia (kufumila mu Okutobala 1964), boma la Rhodesian Front la Ian Smith mu Salisbury likathereska zina lakuti "Southern" mu 1964 (para Northern Rhodesia yikasintha zina lake kuŵa Zambia, lizgu lakuti Southern pambere zina la Rhodesia lindambe kuzunulika likamba kuŵa lakukhumbikwa yayi ndipo charu chikamba kumanyikwa kuti Rhodesia pamanyuma). Smith wakakana fundo ya Britain yakuti "kuŵa na wanangwa yayi pambere ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵandambe kulamulira". Uwu ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba uwo ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Britain ŵakacita kufuma waka mu 1776.[34]
Kupharazga wanangwa na nkhondo ya mukati (1965-1980)
Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukawona kuti dango la Rhodesia likaŵa la kugaluka, kweni ukathereska yayi boma ili. Boma la Britain likapempha wupu wa United Nations kuti uŵike vyeruzgo pa caru ca Rhodesia cifukwa ca kudumbiskana na boma la Smith mu 1966 na 1968. Mu Disembala 1966, wupu uwu ukachita ivyo ukayowoya, ndipo ukakanizga boma la Georgia kuti licitenge malonda.[35] Mu 1968, ŵakawovwiraso pa nkhani iyi.
Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamba apo gulu la Joshua Nkomo la Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) na la Robert Mugabe la Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), ilo likakhozgeka na ŵamazaza ŵa Chikomyunizimu na vyaru vya mu Africa, likamba nkhondo ya kuwukira boma la Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. ZAPU yikakhozgeka na Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact na vyaru vinyake nga ni Cuba, ndipo yikamba kulondezga fundo za Marxist-Leninist. Mu 1970, Smith wakapharazga kuti Rhodesia ni charu cha ŵanthu wose, kweni charu chose chikamukana. Nyengo yeneyiyo, nkhondo ya mukati mu Rhodesia yikakura comene, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakeneranga kudumbiskana na ŵasilikari ŵa cikomyunizimu.
Mu Malichi 1978, Smith wakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵatatu ŵa mu Africa, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Bishop Abel Muzorewa, awo ŵakapeleka mwaŵi wakuti ŵazungu ŵakhalenge makora mu malo agha. Paumaliro wa ndondomeko iyi, mu Epulero 1979, pakaŵa mavoti ndipo United African National Council (UANC) ndiyo yikaŵa na vithuzithuzi vinandi mu nyumba ya malango. Pa 1 Juni 1979, Muzorewa, mulongozgi wa UANC, wakaŵa nduna yikuru ndipo zina la chalo likasinthika kuŵa Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Pa ndondomeko iyi, Ŵazungu ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, ŵantchito ŵa boma, makhoti, na pa vigaŵa vitatu vya nyumba za malango. Pa Juni 12, wupu wa United States Senate ukazomerezga kuti caru ca Rhodesia cileke kusuzgika na vinthu vya cuma.
Pamanyuma pa ungano wa vigaŵa vya Commonwealth uwo ukacitikira ku Lusaka, Zambia, kwambira pa Ogasiti 1 m'paka 7, 1979, boma la Britain likacemera Muzorewa, Mugabe, na Nkomo kuti ŵize ku ungano wa malango ku Lancaster House. Chilato cha ungano uwu chikaŵa chakuti ŵadumbiskane na kukolerana pa fundo zakukhwaskana na dango la boma lakujiyimira pawekha, kweniso kuti paŵe maungano gha boma agho ghazamuwoneseskeka na Britain. Pa ungano uwu pakaŵa Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs wa ku United Kingdom. Pa Disembala 21, 1979, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru vyose ŵakakolerana pa phangano la Lancaster House, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamara.[36][37]
Pa Disembala 11, 1979, Nyumba ya Maungano ya Rhodesia yikavota na mavoti 90 kuti yilute ku malo gha Britain (Ian Smith nayo wakazomera). Kufuma apo, boma likapokelera fundo iyi. Christopher Soames, uyo wakaŵa kazembe muphya, wakati wiza pa Disembala 12, 1979, Britain yikamba kulamulira charu cha Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Britain wakawuskapo vyeruzgo pa Disembala 12 ndipo United Nations pa Disembala 16.
Pa viwoneskero vya mu Febuluwale 1980, Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Themba Charles, ilo likaŵa mwimiliri wa Britain, likapeleka wanangwa ku caru ciphya ca Zimbabwe pa ciphikiro ico cikacitikira mu Harare mu Epulero 1980.[38]
Nyengo ya kujithemba (1980-paka sono)
Pulezidenti wakwamba wa Zimbabwe wati wapokera wanangwa wakaŵa Canaan Banana, uyo pakwamba wakaŵa mutu wa boma. Mugabe wakaŵa nduna yikuru na mulara wa boma. Mu 1980, Samora Machel wakaphalira Mugabe kuti Zimbabwe ni "Jewel of Africa" kweni wakasazgirapo kuti: "Mungayifipiskanga yayi!".[39][40][41]
Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabeleland ŵakamba kulimbana na ivyo Ŵashona ŵakawonanga kuti ni kuwukira boma. Nkhondo ya ku Matabele yikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo ilo likuchemeka Gukurahundi (Shona:'mvula yakwamba iyo yikugeziska duru pambere vula ya mu chihanya yindize'). Gulu la Cinkhondi, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakasambizgika na North Korea ndipo ŵakaphalirika na Mugabe, ŵakanjira mu Matabeleland na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakovwira "ŵakupambana maghanoghano". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya Gukurahundi iyo yikatora vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa pakati pa 3,750 na 80,000. Ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika mu misasa ya ŵasilikari. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu 1987 pamanyuma pakuti Nkomo na Mugabe ŵafika pa phangano la umoza ilo likasazga vipani vyawo na kupanga Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU-PF).[42][43][44] Pa mavoti gha mu Malichi 1990, Mugabe na chipani chake cha ZANU-PF ŵakathereskaso ŵanyawo, ndipo ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 117.[45][46]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵamalonda, na ŵantchito ŵanyake kanandi ŵakalongoranga kuti ŵakukondwa yayi na ivyo Mugabe na ZANU-PF ŵakachitanga. Mu 1996, ŵantchito ŵa boma, ŵasilikari, na ŵadokotala ŵakaleka ntchito cifukwa ca suzgo la malipiro. Kweniso umoyo wa ŵanthu ukamba kunangika comene. Mu 1997, ŵanthu pafupifupi 25% ŵakaŵa na HIV.
Mu 1997, boma la ZANU-PF likambaso kudandawura chomene pa nkhani ya kugaŵa malo. Nangauli pakaŵa pulogiramu ya kunozga malo kufuma mu ma 1980, kweni ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakaŵa ŵazungu ŵakakhalanga pa malo ghakukwana 0.6 peresenti.
Mu 2000, boma likalutilira na ndondomeko yake ya kusintha malo mwaluŵiro. Ndondomeko iyi yikasazgapo kutora malo mwakucicizgika kuti ŵanthu ŵazakagaŵireso malo ku ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kuwombokwa kwa malo gha vyakurya, chilangalanga, na kuchepa kwa ndalama zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake na wovwiri unyake, vikapangiska kuti vyakurya vyakunjilira ku vyaru vinyake vichepe chomene. Kufuma nyengo yira, ŵalimi ŵa fuko la ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakujumpha 58,000 ŵamba kunozgaso vyakurya vinyake ivyo vikumara.[47]
Pulezidenti Mugabe na ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha ZANU-PF ŵakasangana na masuzgo ghakupambanapambana. Mu 2002, caru ici cikafumiskika mu wupu wa Commonwealth cifukwa ca kupoka minda mwambura kucenjera ndiposo kunanga mavoti. Chaka chakulondezgapo, ŵalara ŵa boma la Zimbabwe ŵakaleka kujipeleka ku Commonwealth. Mu 2001, boma la United States likakhazikiska dango lakuti Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA). Phangano ili likamba kugwira ntchito mu 2002 ndipo likakanizga boma la Zimbabwe kupeleka ngongoli. Bill Frist ndiyo wakalemba dango ili, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ni Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, Russ Feingold, na Jesse Helms. Kwizira mu cipaturo 4C ca ZDERA ("Multilateral Financing Restriction"), Secretary of the Treasury wakulangulika kuti walongozge U.S. Ŵalaŵiliri ŵa mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose agho ghali kulembeka mu cipaturo 3 "ŵakususka na kuvota kwimikana na-- (1) kunjizga ngongoli yiliyose, ngongoli, panji cisimikizgo ku boma la Zimbabwe; panji (2) kulekeska panji kucepeskako ngongoli iyo boma la Zimbabwe lili nayo ku United States panji ku mabungwe ghanyake gha vya ndalama".
Kuzakafika mu 2003, chuma cha charu ichi chikaŵa kuti chathika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 25 pa ŵanthu 11 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachimbira. Ŵanthu ŵatatu pa ŵanayi ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵakakhalanga na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pera pa zuŵa.
Pamanyuma pa mavoti mu 2005, boma likambiska "Operation Murambatsvina", mulimo wa kukanizga misika yambura kuzomerezgeka na mizi iyo yikaŵa mu misumba.[48][49] Boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti mulimo uwu ni nthowa yakupelekera nyumba ziwemi ku ŵanthu, nangauli ŵanthu awo ŵakususka nga ni Amnesty International ŵakuti ŵamazaza ŵandalongosorepo ivyo ŵakugomezga.[50]
Pa Malichi 29, 2008, Zimbabwe yikachita chisankho cha pulezidenti pamoza na chisankho cha pa nyumba ya malango. Pa mavoti gha mavoti agha ŵakasungapo kwa masabata ghaŵiri, pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T) ndiyo yili na mpando umoza mu nyumba ya malango.[51]
Pa Julayi 10, 2008, Russia na China ŵakakanira ivyo United Nations yikachita ku Zimbabwe.[52] Boma la United States ndilo likalemba chikalata ichi, icho mphanyi chikaŵa chakukanizga boma la Mugabe kugura vilwero. Ndipouli, vyaru 9 pa vyaru 15 ivyo vili mu wupu wa UN Security Council vikasuska, kusazgapo Vietnam, South Africa, na Libya, ivyo vikati Zimbabwe ni 'ciyezgo yayi ku mtende na civikiliro ca caru cose.'
Kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2008, masuzgo gha ku Zimbabwe ghakafika paheni chomene pa nkhani ya umoyo, umoyo wa ŵanthu (pakawuka nthenda ya kolera mu Disembala) na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo iyi, mawupu ghambura vya boma ghakatora malo gha boma pakupeleka vyakurya ku Zimbabwe.
Mu Seputembala 2008, pakaŵa phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza pakati pa Tsvangirai na Pulezidenti Mugabe, ilo likazomerezga Mugabe kuŵa nduna yikuru. Chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ŵaliska ŵa vipani vyawo, phangano ili likafiskika yayi m'paka pa Febuluwale 13, 2009. Kufika mu Disembala 2010, Mugabe wakawofyanga kuti wazamupoka makampani ghose agho ghakhalako mu Zimbabwe kwambura kuti "malango gha ku Western" ghalekeskeka.[53]
Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2011 na wupu wa Freedom House, wakalongora kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ukwenda makora chomene kufuma apo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza. Ofesi ya Wupu wa United Nations yakuwona vya wovwiri wa ŵanthu (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) yikati: "Vinthu vikwenda makora chomene mu Zimbabwe kufuma mu 2009, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali mu suzgo".
Pa 17 January 2013, Mubali John Nkomo wakafwa na kansa ku St Anne's Hospital, Harare, wali na vyaka 78. Dango liphya ilo likapokelereka mu 2013 ku Zimbabwe likuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti.[54]
Mugabe wakasankhikaso kuŵa purezidenti mu mavoti gha mu Julayi 2013 mu Zimbabwe agho The Economist yikati "ghakaŵa ghakupusika" ndipo Daily Telegraph yikati "ghakaŵa ghakubisika". Gulu la Movement for Democratic Change likati kuli upusikizgi ukuru ndipo likayezga kupempha wovwiri ku khoti. Mu nyengo yakuzizika pa ungano wa ZANU-PF mu Disembala 2014, President Robert Mugabe mwangozi wakaleka kuti opposition ndiyo yikaluska pa kafukufuku wa 2008 na 73%. Boma la Mugabe la ZANU-PF likati lathereska pa chisankho, likambaso kulamulira na chipani chimoza, likasazgirako maofesi gha boma, ndipo kuyana na magazini ya The Economist, likamba "kuchita vinthu viheni chomene". Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2017 na Institute for Security Studies (ISS) wakati chifukwa cha kunangika kwa boma na vyachuma, "boma likukhozga vimbundi kuti liwezge suzgo la kutondeka kupeleka ndalama ku maboma ghake".
Pa 22 Okutobala 2015, pulezidenti Robert Mugabe wakapokera chawanangwa cha Confucius Peace Prize, icho chili nga ni chawanangwa cha Nobel Peace Prize ku China chifukwa cha kujipeleka kwake pa ndyali na vyachuma.
Mu Julayi 2016, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka ivyo vikachitikanga mu charu chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma.[55][56][57]Mu Novembala 2017, ŵasilikari ŵakalongozga chipani cha coup d'état pamanyuma pa kufumiska mulara wa boma Emmerson Mnangagwa, ndipo ŵakaŵika Mugabe mu jele. Gulu la ŵasilikari likakana kuti ivyo ŵakacita vikaŵa vya kuwukira boma.[58][59]Pa Novembala 19, 2017, ZANU-PF yikachimbizga Robert Mugabe pakuŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ndipo yikimika muwusi mulara Emmerson Mnangagwa mu malo ghake. Pa Novembala 21, 2017, Mugabe wakapeleka chipika chake pambere ndondomeko yakususka yindamalizgike. Nangauli mu malango gha Zimbabwe Mugabe wakwenera kulondezgeka na Vice-president Phelekezela Mphoko, uyo wakukolerana na Grace Mugabe, kweni mulara wa ZANU-PF, Lovemore Matuke wakaphalira wupu wa Reuters kuti Mnangagwa ndiyo wazamwimikika kuŵa president.
Pa 30 Julayi 2018 Zimbabwe yikachita mavoti, ndipo chipani cha ZANU-PF icho chikulongozgeka na Mnangagwa ndicho chikaluska. Nelson Chamisa uyo wakalongozganga chipani chikuru chakususkana na boma cha MDC Alliance wakasuska ivyo vikachitika pa mavoti chifukwa cha upusikizgi, ndipo pamasinda wakapeleka mulandu ku khoti la Constitution Court of Zimbabwe. Khoti likakhozga kuti Mnangagwa watonda, ndipo ndiyo waŵenge pulezidenti muphya pamanyuma pa Mugabe.[60][61]
Mu Disembala 2017 webusayiti ya Zimbabwe News, pakupenda mtengo wa nyengo ya Mugabe pakugwiliskira nchito maukaboni ghakupambanapambana, yikati pa nyengo iyo charu chikapokera wanangwa mu 1980, caru cikakuranga pa ciŵelengero ca pafupifupi 5 peresenti pa caka. Usange vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu ichi kwa vyaka 37, mu 2016 Zimbabwe yizamuŵa na GDP ya madola 52 biliyoni. M'malo mwake yikaŵa na GDP ya US$14 biliyoni pera, ndipo yikakhumba ndalama zakukwana US$38 biliyoni. Mu 1980, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu cikakura comene mu Africa, pafupifupi 3.5 peresenti pa caka, ndipo cikasazgikiranga kaŵiri pa vilimika 21. Ŵanandi aŵa ŵaŵenge kuti ŵakalutilira kukura, mphanyi ŵakaŵa 31 miliyoni. Kweni mu 2018, ŵalipo pafupifupi 13 miliyoni. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti pali mphambano chifukwa cha njara na matenda, kweniso chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ŵana. Kufuma mu 1980, ŵanthu ŵakufwa na nkhaza izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha ndyali ŵakujumpha 200,000. Boma la Mugabe ndilo lapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵafwe mu vilimika 37. Wupu wa World Food Programme ukuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵali pafupi kufwa na njara cifukwa ca chilangalanga ico cacitika mu caru ici.
Mu chaka cha 2018, President Mnangagwa wakapharazga kuti boma lake lizamukhumba kuwelera ku Commonwealth, ndipo kufuma mu chaka cha 2023, lizamupanga upharazgi wakumanya unenesko pambere wandapemphe Secretary General kuti wapeleke ulongozgi.
Pa 6 September 2019, pulezidenti wakale Robert Mugabe wakafwa ku Singapore, wali na vyaka 95.[62]
Makhalilo
Charu cha Zimbabwe chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili pakati pa latitude 15° na 23°S, kweniso longitude 25° na 34°E. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa charu cha Botswana, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia, kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa Mozambique. Malo agha ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 150 kufuma ku Namibia. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili pachanya chomene, ndipo chili na malo ghatali chomene (high veld) agho ghakutambazga kufuma kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumpoto. Chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi chili na mapiri, ndipo chili na mapiri ghanandi chomene.
Malo agha ghakumanyikwa na malo ghakutowa nga ni Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba na Chirinda Forest pa Phiri la Selinda. Pafupifupi vigaŵa 20 pa vigaŵa 20 vya charu ichi vili pasi pa mamita 900. Victoria Falls, yimoza mwa majigha ghakuru comene pa caru, yili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndipo yili mu mlonga wa Zambezi.[63][64]
Geology
Mu nyengo ya geological, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru vya kuswa kwa charu cha Gondwana (ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti Africa na Africa), kweniso chigaŵa chinyake cha Plio-Pleistocene.[65]
Nyengo
Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mphepo ya subtropical iyo yikupambana chomene. Ku vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu ichi kukufipa chomene, ndipo ku chigaŵa chinyake cha pakati pa charu ichi kukuzizima. Dambo la Zambezi likumanyikwa na kuthukira comene, ndipo ku Eastern Highlands kanandi kukuzizima comene ndipo kukulokwa comene. Nyengo ya vula mu charu ichi yikwamba kuumaliro wa Okutobala m'paka Malichi. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukusuzgika na chilangalanga. Mu 2019, njovu zakukwana 55 zikafwa cifukwa ca chilangalanga. Vivula vikuru vikuchitika viŵi yayi.[66]
Vinthu vyakupambanapambana
Zimbabwe yili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri: Kalahari acacia ̇baikiaea, South Africa bushveld, Southern miombo, Zambezian Baikiaea, Zambezian na mopane, Zambezian halophytics, na Eastern Zimbabwe.[67]
Charu ichi chili na makuni ghanandi, kweni mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya kumafumiro gha dazi muli nkhorongo na makuni ghanandi. Makuni ghanyake agho ghakusangika ku Eastern Highlands ni teak, mahogany, khuni likuru la mkama, nkhorongo ya Newtonia, makuni ghakurughakuru, makuni ghamsinjiro ghatuŵa, chirinda, knobthorn, na ghanyake ghanandi.
Mu vigaŵa vya pasi vya caru ici muli makuni ghanandi gha five, mopane, combretum, na baobab. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili na makuni gha miombo. Pa maluŵa na makuni ghanyake agho ghalipo, pali hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotis, cassia, tree wisteria, na dombeya. Ku Zimbabwe kuli vyamoyo vyakukwana mitundu yakujumpha 350. Paliso njoka na vyakumera vinandi, viyuni vyakujumpha 500, na somba 131.
Environmental issues
Nyengo yinyake, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Zimbabwe vikaŵa na makuni ghanandi. Pakuti makuni ghakumalira mu malo ghakupambanapambana kweniso ŵanthu ŵakukoma vinyama, vikoko vya mu nkhorongo vyachepa. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge na kupasuka chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu, kusazgikira kwa mizi, na kugwiliskira ntchito mafuta, ni vyakuti vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge. Ŵalimi ŵa ku malo agha ŵakususkika cifukwa ca kotcha vyakumera kuti ŵasunge ndudu. Charu ichi chili na chiŵerengero cha 6.31/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172.[68]
Boma
Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma la pulezidenti. Ndondomeko iyi yikamara mu 2013 apo boma likapeleka malango ghaphya. Mu 2005, boma likasintha malango gha boma la Georgia, ndipo likambaso kuŵa na nyumba yikuru yakucemeka Senate. Nyumba ya Malamulo ndiyo ni nyumba yaciŵiri ya boma. Mu 1987, Mugabe wakasintha malango gha boma, wakawuskapo mazaza gha pulezidenti na gha nduna yikuru kuti paŵe boma la pulezidenti. Chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chakhala chikupambana pa mavoti ghose kwambira apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Mu 1990, chipani cha ZUM cha Edgar Tekere, icho chikaŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri, chikapokera mavoti 20%.[69][70]
Ndale
Pa nyengo ya maungano gha pa caru cose gha mu 1995, vyaru vinandi ivyo vikususkana na boma, kusazgapo chipani ca ZUM, vikakana maungano agha.[71] Apo ŵakususka ŵakaweleraso ku mavoti mu 2000, ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 57, ndipo vikaŵa vichoko na vithuzithuzi 5 pera pakuyaniska na vya ZANU-PF. Mu 2002, ŵakaŵaso na mavoti gha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoya kuti pa mavoti pakaŵa mavoti ghambura kwenelera. Chisankho cha Nyumba ya Malamulo ku Zimbabwe mu 2005 chikachitika pa 31 March, ndipo maboma gha Movement for Democratic Change na Jonathan Moyo ghakaphalira ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵakachitanga ukhuluku, upusikizgi, kweniso kuti ŵakopa ŵanthu. Moyo wakachitako mavoti nangauli ŵakamupa mulandu ndipo wakapokera mpando wa mphala ya malango.[72]
Mu 2005, chipani cha MDC chikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Movement for Democratic Change Mutambara (MDC-M), chakulongozgeka na Arthur Mutambara icho chikapangana pa viphikiro vya Senate, na Movement for Democratic Change Tsvangirai (MDC-T) chakulongozgeka na Morgan Tsvangirai icho chikakana kupangana pa viphikiro ivi. Makampu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakaŵa na ungano wawo mu 2006 ndipo Tsvangirai wakasankhika kulongozga MDC-T, iyo yikaŵa yakutchuka chomene kuluska gulu linyake.
Mu 2008, pa mavoti gha boma, pakaŵa chigaŵa cha Mugabe na Tsvangirai. Chipani cha MDC-T chikakanizga mavoti agha, pakughanaghana kuti boma la Mugabe likachitiska upusikizgi. Pa June 27, 2008, ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵapeleke ndalama zakuwuskira ŵanyawo. Pa 22 Juni, chifukwa cha kuleka urunji kwa ndondomeko iyi na kukana kunjilirapo pa "ntchito ya nkhaza, yautesi", Tsvangirai wakafumapo pa chigamulo cha pulezidenti, komiti ya vyakusankha yikachitiska chigamulo ichi, ndipo pulezidenti Mugabe wakapokera wanandi chomene. Chipani cha MDC-T chikapokapo yayi mavoti gha Senate, apo chipani cha MDC-M chikapokera mavoti ghankhondi mu Senate. Chipani cha MDC-M chikadodoliskika na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaleka kuwungana. Pa 28 Epulero 2008, Tsvangirai na Mutambara ŵakapharazga pa ungano wa ŵapharazgi mu Johannesburg kuti magulu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakolerananga, ndipo MDC yikaŵa na wanandi mu nyumba ya malango.[73][74] Tsvangirai wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wangalutilira yayi kuŵa pulezidenti usange palije wanandi wa ŵanthu mu nyumba ya malango.
Pakati pa Seputembala 2008, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali na ŵalongozgi ŵa South Africa na Mozambique, Mugabe na Tsvangirai ŵakasayina phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza umo Mugabe wakasungiliranga mazaza pa ŵasilikari. Vyaru ivyo vyapeleka ndalama vikulindilira dankha, ndipo vikukhumba kuwona kuti vinthu vyasintha nadi pambere vindaŵikeko ndalama zakovwilira kuzenga, izo vikwenera kuti vyatora vilimika vinkhondi. Pa 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai wakapika udindo wa nduna yikuru na Mugabe.[75][76]
Mu Novembala 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 7.3 miliyoni gha ku United States izo zikafuma ku The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Wimiliri wa wupu uwu wakakana kuyowoya umo ndalama zikagwilira nchito, kweni wakalemba kuti zikaŵa zawakawaka yayi, ndipo boma likatondeka kupulikira ivyo likapempha.
Mu February 2013, mulongozgi wa vyakusankha wa Zimbabwe, Simpson Mtambanengwe, wakaleka ntchito chifukwa cha ulwari. Iyo wakaleka mulimo uwu pambere pacali myezi yichoko waka kuti paŵe maungano gha malango na maungano gha boma.
Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika na boma la Zimbabwe ilo likapoka mazaza mu Novembala 2017. Emmerson Mnangagwa wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa chipani ichi ndipo wakasankhika na 50.8% ya mavoti mu 2018 Zimbabwean general election.
Boma likupokera mazgu ghambura kwenelera kufuma ku ŵanthu chifukwa chakuti nyengo zose likujara Intaneti pa nyengo ya viwawa nga ni ivyo vikunozgekera pa Julayi 31. 2020.[77]
Wankhondo
Gulu la Zimbabwe Defence Forces likakhazikiskika pakukolerana magulu ghatatu gha chigaluka - Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), na Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) - pamanyuma pa Chimurenga wachiŵiri na wanangwa wa Zimbabwe mu 1980. Mu nyengo ya umoza, gulu la nkhondo la Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) na Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) likapangika nga ni maboma ghakupambanapambana agho ghakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Solomon Mujuru na Air Marshal Norman Walsh, uyo wakafumapo mu ntchito mu 1982 ndipo wakasinthika na Air Marshal Azim Daudpota uyo wakapeleka mazaza kwa Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai mu 1985. Mu 2003, Jenerale Constantine Chiwenga, wakakwezgeka na kusankhika Mulara wa mawumba gha Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Mulara Mukuru P. V. Sibanda ndiyo wakanjira mu malo ghake pakuŵa Mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari.
Gulu la ZNA lili na ŵasilikari 30,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakuŵapo 5,139.[78] Wapolisi wa Republic of Zimbabwe (wakusazgapo Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) ndi chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Defence Forces ndipo wali na ŵanthu 25,000.
Pakwamba kwa 1980, ŵaliska ŵa ku Britain ndiwo ŵakalongozganga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia. Mu cilimika cakwamba, ŵakalondezganga ndondomeko yakuti uyo wacitenge makora comene ndiyo waŵe mulongozgi wa gulu. Usange wakaŵa wa ZANLA, munthu uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa iyo ndiyo wakaŵa na maluso ghapachanya pa ZIPRA. Ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe mtende pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha.
Pakwamba, ZNA yikaŵa na magulu ghanayi gha ŵasilikari. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakovwira ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵaluso ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, apo ŵasilikari ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakaŵikika mu gulu la ŵasilikari 1, 3 na 4. Brigade ya Cinkhondi yikapangika mu 1981 ndipo yikamara mu 1988 pamanyuma pakulongosora za nkhaza na kukoma ŵanthu pa nyengo iyo brigade iyi yikawusanga Matabeleland mu malo agho ghakachemekanga Gukurahundi. Gulu ili likapangikaso mu 2006, ndipo mulara wake, Brigadier General John Mupande wakalumba "mbiri yake".[79]
Ufulu wamunthu
Pali malipoti ghanandi ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Zimbabwe mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU-PF. Kuyana na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu nga ni Amnesty International na Human Rights Watch, boma la Zimbabwe likuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa kukhala, kurya, kwenda na kukhala mwakufwatuka, kuwungana mwakufwatuka, na kuvikilirika na dango. Mu 2009, Gregory Stanton, pulezidenti wa International Association of Genocide Scholars, wakayowoya kuti pakaŵa "ukaboni wakuti boma la Mugabe likaŵa na mulandu wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu ndipo pakaŵa ukaboni wakukwana wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu kuti Mugabe weruzgike panthazi pa khoti la International Criminal Court".
Ku Zimbabwe, ŵanalume awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume ŵekhaŵekha mbambura kuzomerezgeka. Kwambira mu 1995, boma likulimbana na ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo. Pulezidenti Mugabe wakususka ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha chifukwa cha masuzgo ghanandi agho Zimbabwe yili nagho ndipo wakuwona kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ni ŵanthu "ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ku Africa" ndiposo kuti mbambura nkharo.
Nyengo zinandi ŵapolisi ŵakuwukira awo ŵakuwukira boma, nga umo ŵakacitira pa ungano wa MDC uwo ukacitika pa Malichi 11, 2007, kweniso pa ungano unyake uwo ukacitika pa nyengo ya ungano wa 2008. Secretary General wa UN Ban Ki-moon, European Union, na United States ŵakususka comene ivyo ŵapolisi ŵakucita. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakudandawura chifukwa cha wanangwa wa Fox Southwest. Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika kuti likukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Gulu ili likuyuyulika kanandi waka kuti likugwiliskira nchito wupu wa Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation. Manyuzipepara agho ghakatenge ghakususka boma, nga ni Daily News, ghakajalika pamanyuma pakuti mabomba ghaphulika mu maofesi ghawo ndipo boma likakana kuwezgerapo layisensi yawo. BBC News, Sky News, na CNN ŵakakanizgika kujambura panji kulemba nkhani kufuma ku Zimbabwe. Mu 2009, boma likawuskapo dango lakuti BBC na CNN vileke kulemba nkhani. Sky News yikulutilira kulemba ivyo vikucitika mu Zimbabwe kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni South Africa.[81][82]
Pa 24 Julayi 2020, ofesi ya United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) yikayowoya kuti yikudandawura na ivyo boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti likagwiliskira ntchito suzgo la COVID-19 kuti likanizge wanangwa wa kuyowoya na kuwungana mu msewu. Liz Throssell, muyowoyeri wa OHCHR, wakati ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kususka vimbundi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ku Zimbabwe ŵakagwiliskira nchito nkongono kuti ŵaparanye na kukora ŵasilikari na ŵantchito ŵa munkhwala, awo ŵakasuskanga mwamtende kuti ŵapike malipiro ghawemi ndiposo kuti ŵagwirenge makora nchito. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa chipani cakususkana na nyuzipepara ŵakakakika na kukakika cifukwa ca kucitako viyezgelero.
Pa 5 August 2020, kampeni ya #ZimbabweanLivesMatter pa Twitter yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose na ŵandyali kuti ŵamanye umo wanangwa wa ŵanthu ukusinthira mu charu ichi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Emmerson Mnangagwa liŵe na suzgo. Kampeni iyi yikacitika cifukwa ca kukakika, kukomeka na kutambuzgika kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzganga ŵandyali, kweniso kukakika kwa mupharazgi Hopewell Chin'ono na mulembi wa buku la Booker Prize, Tsitsi Dangarembga.[83]
Administrative divisions
Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma lakugaŵikana ndipo chili na vigaŵa 8 na misumba yiŵiri. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na msumba ukuru uwo boma likuwusamo.[3]
Mazina gha vigaŵa vinandi ghakafuma ku chigaŵa cha Mashonaland na Matabeleland pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi: Mashonaland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikakoleka na British South Africa Company Pioneer Column, ndipo Matabeleland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikapokeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Ichi chikukolerana na chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona na Matabele ŵakakhalanga pambere charu chindambe kuwusa. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na kazembe uyo wakuchemeka na pulezidenti. Boma la cigaŵa likulongozgeka na mulaŵiliri wa cigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Commission of Public Service. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha vigaŵa vyawo ghakuchita milimo yinyake.
Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 59 na vigaŵa 1,200 (ivyo nyengo zinyake vikuchemeka maboma). Chigaŵa chilichose chikulongozgeka na mulongozgi wa chigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Public Service Commission. Paliso wupu wa Rural District Council, uwo ukusora mulara wa boma. Wupu wa Rural District Council ukupangika na ŵanthu ŵakusoleka, mulaŵiliri wa chigaŵa, na mwimiliri wa ŵalongozgi (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakwimikika mwakuyana na dango la cikaya) mu chigaŵa. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha mu vigaŵa ghakuchita milimo iyi.
Pa chigaŵa ichi pali Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda, iyo yikusazgapo mulongozgi wa chigaŵa uyo wakusankhika, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakulongozgeka na ŵalongozgi) na ŵimiliri ŵa Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu mizi, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na komiti ya chitukuko ya mizi na mulongozgi.[84]
Sanctions
Kwambira mu 2000, charu cha Zimbabwe chili pasi pa vyeruzgo vyakufuma ku United States na European Union ivyo vyakhwaska ndyali ya mu charu ichi kweniso ubwezi wa charu ichi na vyaru vya ku Western. Mu 2002, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa maungano gha chigaŵa, ndipo pambere maungano agha ghandambe, wupu wa EU ukatuma ŵanthu kuti ŵakawonelere. Mu Febuluwale 2002, EU yikaŵika malango ghakukanizga Zimbabwe. Ŵalara ŵa boma pafupifupi 20 ŵakakanizgika kunjira mu Europe, ndipo ndalama za EU zikamara. Pambere mavoti ghandambe, boma la Zimbabwe likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 128 miliyoni kufuma mu 2002 m'paka mu 2007, kweni ŵakazikanizga. Ndipouli, EU yikathera waka kupeleka ndalama ku boma, kweni yikalutilira kutuma ndalama kwizira mu mawupu gha wovwiri na mawupu gha boma yayi.
Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵa EU na Zimbabwe ŵakamazga mphindano zawo ndipo vyeruzgo vinandi vya EU vikafumiskika. Mubali Mugabe na muwoli wake ndiwo ŵakakhalapo pa ndondomeko iyi, apo ŵamazaza ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakafumiskikapo. Ndipouli, EU yikatondeka kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. Ntheura, boma likupeleka ndalama kwizira mu mawupu ghambura vya boma nga ni umo vikaŵira na chimphepo cha Idai icho chikachitika pa Malichi 4, 2019.
Boma la United States nalo likakanizga Zimbabwe. Pali mitundu yiŵiri ya vyeruzgo vya United States pa Zimbabwe. Cakwamba ni Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA) ndipo caciŵiri ni Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA wakapempha vinthu vinandi. Cakwamba nchakuti Zimbabwe yikwenera kuchindika wanangwa wa ŵanthu, caciŵiri Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kunjilirapo pa vinthu vya mu Democratic Republic of Congo, cacitatu Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kupoka minda ya ŵazungu. Usange palije cimoza mwa vinthu ivi ico cikupulikikwa, boma la United States lizamukanizga IMF na World Bank kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. ZIDERA yiphya yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na fundo yakuti, Welerani ku Demokalase panji kuzamuŵavya ubwezi, pakwenera kuŵa mavoti ghakufwatuka, wayilesi yakufwatuka na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, Zimbabwe yikwenera kufiska ivyo khoti la SADC likadumura. Ndondomeko ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2003, ndipo yikulongosora makampani gha ku Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika kuchita malonda na makampani gha ku America. Malango gha pa Zimbabwe ghalipo kwa virimika vyakujumpha 20. Mu Malichi 2021 boma la US likakhazikiskaso malango ghakwendeskera Zimbabwe.[85]
Chuma
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Vinthu vikuru ivyo Zimbabwe yikuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni visulo, golide, na ulimi. Charu cha Zimbabwe ndico nchigaŵa cikuru comene ico South Africa yikuguliskirana vinthu. Malipiro gha msonkho na msonkho ni ghapacanya comene ku makampani gha ŵeneco, apo mabungwe gha boma ghakovwira comene. Malamulo gha boma ghakuŵa ghakudura comene ku makampani; kwamba panji kujara bizinesi kukucitika mwakucedwa ndiposo kwakudura. Ulendo nawo ukuwovwira comene pa vya cuma, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa ukuchepa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force ukalemba lipoti mu Juni 2007, ndipo ukati vyamoyo vinandi vya ku Zimbabwe vyafwa kufuma mu 2000 chifukwa cha kupenja vinyama mwakubisilizga. Lipoti ili likucenjezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa cifukwa ca kuthereska makuni. Vinthu vya sayansi na vyakupharazga vikukura comene. Lipoti la kampani ya Opera mu 2011 likati charu cha Zimbabwe ndicho chikukura luŵiro chomene mu Africa.[86][87]
Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2002, boma la Zimbabwe lalekeska ngongoli izo likapeleka ku mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose, kwizira mu dango la ku United States lakucemeka Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Chigaŵa cha 4C chikuphalira Secretary of the Treasury kuti waphalire mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose kuti ghatondeke kupeleka ngongoli ku boma la Zimbabwe. Kuyana na umo boma la United States likuyowoyera, vyeruzgo ivi vikukhwaska waka mabizinesi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ghali mu mawoko gha ŵalara ŵa boma panji agho ghakwendeskeka na iwo.
GDP pa munthu yumoza (uno), pakuyaniska na vyaru vyapafupi (pacharu chose = 100)
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, Zimbabwe yikalutilira kukura (5% pa chaka) kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 (4,3% pa chaka). Kufumira mu 2000, ciŵelengero ca ndalama cikakhira na 5 peresenti mu 2000, 8 peresenti mu 2001, 12 peresenti mu 2002 na 18 peresenti mu 2003. Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikachitako nkhondo mu charu cha Democratic Republic of the Congo kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2002, ndalama zinandi zikamara. Kwamba mu 1999 m'paka mu 2009, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na chuma chambura kukura chomene, ndipo chaka chilichose GDP yikakhiranga na 6.1%. Vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha vimbundi na vimbundi ivyo vikachitika mu boma kweniso chifukwa chakuti ŵakachimbizga ŵalimi ŵatuŵa ŵakujumpha 4,000 mu 2000.[88][89][90][91] Boma la Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana nalo ŵakukhozgera kuti ndyali za ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndizo zikananga chuma cha charu ichi.
Kuzakafika mu 2005, nkhongono zakugulira za ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe zikaŵa kuti zachepa chomene. Mu 2005, boma, ilo likalongozgekanga na Gideon Gono, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa banki yikuru, likamba kupempha kuti ŵalimi ŵazgoke. Mu caru ici mukaŵa viŵeto vya viŵeto 400 mpaka 500, kweni malo ghanandi agho ghakapokeka ghakaŵa ghambura vyakurya. Kuzakafika mu 2016, pa minda 4,500 iyo yikaŵa mu charu ichi, yikaŵa na minda pafupifupi 300 iyo yikaŵa ya ŵanichi. Mafamu agho ghakafumako ghakaŵa ghakutali comene, panji ŵeneco ŵakalipira kuti ŵaŵavikilire, panji ŵakakolerana na boma. Mu Janyuwale 2007, boma likapeleka ndalama zakugulira munda kwa nyengo yitali ku ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵazungu. Kweni nyengo yeneyiyo, boma likalutilira kukhumba kuti ŵalimi wose ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵapokera kale ulongozgi wakuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo, ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo. Mugabe wakalongosora za maboma gha vyaru vinyake na kuyowoya kuti "kuswa malango" ndiko kukapangiska kuti chuma cha Zimbabwe chikhale pasi, kweniso kuti ŵanthu 80 pa 100 ŵalije nchito.
Kuyana na lipoti la Central Statistical Office, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufuma pa 32% mu 1998 kufika pa 11,200,000% mu Ogasiti 2008. Ici cikaŵa cilongolero ca suzgo la kukhuŵara kwa ndalama, ndipo banki yikapeleka ndalama ziphya zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 100. Mu Janyuwale 2009, pakuyezgayezga kuti ŵaleke kunjira ndyali, Patrick Chinamasa, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vya ndalama, wakapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵazomerezgekenge kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinyake zakukhora pakuchita bizinesi. Mu April 2009, ndalama ya ku Zimbabwe yikamara kugwira ntchito mu mwezi umoza. Mu 2016, charu cha Zimbabwe chikapeleka ndalama za United States dollar na ndalama zinyake nga ni rand (South Africa), pula (Botswana), euro, na pound sterling (UK). Mu Febuluwale 2019, Governor wa Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe John Mangudya wakambiska ndalama yiphya ya Real Time Gross Settlement dollar, mu chilato cha kumazga masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndalama mu Zimbabwe.
Mu 2009, boma la Zimbabwe likati lakhazikiska boma la umoza na kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinandi m'malo mwa dola ya Zimbabwe, chuma cha charu ichi chikambaso kwenda makora. Pakati pa 2009 na 2012, GDP yikakura na 8-9% pa caka. Mu Novembala 2010, wupu wakuwona vya ndalama pa charu chose (IMF) ukati chuma cha charu cha Zimbabwe "chikukura chomene chaka chachiŵiri".[92][93] Mu Febuluwale 2011, wupu wa pan-African investment bank IMARA ukalemba lipoti lakukondweska pa nkhani ya ndalama izo Zimbabwe yikuguliska. Mu Janyuwale 2013, unduna wa vya ndalama ukati ŵali na ndalama zakukwana madola 217 pera. Kufika mu 2014, Zimbabwe yikaweleraso ku mlingo uwo ukaŵa mu ma 1990, kweni pakati pa 2012 na 2016, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi. Kukwera kwa ndalama kunali 42% mu 2018; mu June 2019, chiwerengero cha kukwera kwa ndalama chinafika 175%, zomwe zinayambitsa chisokonezo chachikulu m'dziko lonselo.[94]
Malibwe ghakudula
Vinthu vikwenda makora mu migodi iyi, ndipo mabungwe gha Anglo American plc, Zimplats, na Impala Platinum, ndigho ghakusanga platinamu unandi chomene pa charu chose. Zimplats, kampani yikuru chomene ya platinamu mu charu ichi, yaluta panthazi na ndalama zakukwana madola 500 miliyoni, ndipo yikulutilira na pulojekiti yinyake ya madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri, nangauli Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti kampani iyi yiŵe ya boma.
Malibwe agha ŵakaghasanga mu 2006, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene mu vyaka vyakujumpha 100. Vinthu ivi vingawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu charu, kweni pafupifupi ndalama zose izo zikufuma mu vyaru ivi zili kutayika mu mathumba gha ŵasilikari na ŵandyali ŵa ZANU-PF. Kuyana na unandi wa dayamondi izo zilipo, malo gha Marange ni ghanyake mwa malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu.
Mu Okutobala 2014, kampani ya Metallon Corporation ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene ku Zimbabwe.[95]
Ulimi
Mulimo wa kulima mu caru ca Zimbabwe ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ukupeleka nchito 400,000. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya boma ya kunozga malo yikananga comene nchito iyi, ndipo Zimbabwe yikazgoka caru ico cikuguliska vyakurya vinandi. Mwaciyelezgero, pakati pa 2000 na 2016, vyakurya ivyo vikupambika tirigu vikakhira kufuma pa matani 250,000 kufika pa matani 60,000, ndipo tirigu wakakhira kufuma pa matani 200,000 kufika pa matani 500,000. Mu 2000, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakora panji kupoka minda yawo ya khofi, ndipo pamasinda ŵakayima.
Vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, wupu wa International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, wawovwira ŵalimi ŵa ku Zimbabwe kuti ŵambe kulima makora. Para ŵalimi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zitatu izi: kusuzga chomene dongo, kulima vyakumera vyakudinya, na kulima vyakumera vyakututuŵa, mbwenu dongo likwenda makora, kunangika yayi, na kunangika.[96] Pakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresentPakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresenti mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu 2012, boma likati mbuto ya mbuto iyi njakukhumbikwa chomene.
Mvurwi, cigaŵa ca ku Mashonaland Central Province, nyengo yinyake cikaŵa mu "cigaŵa ca vyakurya vinandi" mu Zimbabwe, na dongo liwemi. Ndipouli, mu vyaka 30 ivyo vyajumpha, malo agha ndigho ghakhwaskika comene na ndondomeko ya kunozga malo.
Tourism
Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo ndondomeko ya kunozga malo mu 2000, vyalo vya ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda mu Zimbabwe vikamba kuchepa. Mu 2018, chiŵelengero cha ŵalendo chikafika pa 2.6 miliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2016, ndalama zose izo ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Zimbabwe zikaŵanga $1.1 billion (USD), panji pafupifupi 8.1% ya GDP ya Zimbabwe. Ntchito za mu vyaru vya maulendo na vyakusanguluska, pamoza na vyaru ivyo vikovwira na maulendo na vyakusanguluska, vikaŵa 5.2% ya nchito za mu vyaru vyose.
Pakati pa 2000 na 2007, ndege zinandi zikafumamo mu Zimbabwe. Kampani ya Qantas ya ku Australia, Lufthansa ya ku Germany, na Austrian Airlines ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufumamo ndipo mu 2007 British Airways yikayimiska maulendo ghose ghakuluta ku Harare. Ndege ya ku Zimbabwe, iyo yikendanga mu vyaru vya ku Africa na vyaru vinyake ku Europe na Asia, yikamara kugwira ntchito mu Febuluwale 2012. Mu 2017, ndege zinandi zikuruzikuru zikambaso kwendera charu cha Zimbabwe.
Ku Zimbabwe kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta. Maji gha Victoria Falls, agho ghali pa mlonga wa Zambezi, ghali kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe. Pambere vinthu vindasinthe, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku malo agha kufuma ku Zimbabwe, kweni sono Zambia ndiyo yikusangirapo chandulo chomene. Victoria Falls National Park nayo yili mu cigaŵa ici ndipo njimoza mwa malo ghankhondi na ghatatu agho ghali mu Zimbabwe.
Malo gha ku Eastern Highlands ni mapiri agho ghali pafupi na mphaka na Mozambique. Phiri la Nyangani ilo lili pachanya chomene ku Zimbabwe lili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,593 (8,507 ft). Malo agha ndigho ghali pa mapiri agha, ndipo kufuma pa mapiri agha, munthu wangawona malo ghakutali chomene.
Charu cha Zimbabwe ntchakuzizwiska chomene mu Africa chifukwa chili na misumba yinandi yakale na yakale iyo yikazengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Vinyake mwa malo agha ni malo ghakupatulika gha Great Zimbabwe agho ghali ku Masvingo. Vinyake ivyo vilipo ni Khami, Dhlo-Dhlo na Naletale. Mapiri gha Matobo ni malo gha granite kopjes na makuni agho ghakwamba makilomita 35 kumwera kwa Bulawayo kumwera kwa Zimbabwe. Mapiri agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha mabiliyoni ghaŵiri ivyo vyajumpha apo malibwe gha granite ghakafumanga pa malo agha. Mzilikazi, uyo wakambiska mtundu wa Ndebele, ndiyo wakapeleka zina ili ku malo agha. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakwiza ku malo agha cifukwa ca umo malo agha ghakaŵirako kale comene kweniso vyamoyo vya mu malo agha. Cecil Rhodes na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha nga ni Leander Starr Jameson ŵali kusungika mu mapiri agha.[97]
Kupeleka maji na maji ghakumwa
Mu Zimbabwe muli vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vili na maji na vyakutoweskera ŵanthu. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (World Health Organization) ukati mu chaka cha 2012, 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵa na maji ghawemi ghakumwa, ndipo 40% pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na maji ghakumwa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kusanga maji ghawemi na malo ghakutowa. Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti maji gha mu Zimbabwe ghaŵe ghakwenelera mu nyengo zakunthazi. Vinthu vikuruvikuru vitatu ni suzgo la ndalama mu charu ichi.[98][99]
Sayansi na vyakupangapanga
Boma la Zimbabwe lili na vinthu vinandi vyakukhumbikwa pa caru cose ndipo likulimbikira comene pa nkhani ya kafukufuku..[100][101] Charu ichi chili na masambiro ghakupulikikwa makora, ndipo munthu yumoza pa ŵanthu 11 waliyose wali na digiri ya sekondare. Pakuti charu ichi chili na vinjeru vinandi kweniso vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mwaŵi ukuru wa kukura.[100][101] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili pa nambala 113 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 122 mu 2019.[102][103][104][105]
Kuti Zimbabwe yikure makora, yikwenera kumazga masuzgo ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, caru ici cikusoŵerwa ŵasayansi awo ŵakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacite vinthu viphya. Nangauli pali vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti kafukufuku na vyakupangapanga viwovwire kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Zimbabwe, kweni masukulu ghapachanya na mabungwe gha kafukufuku ghalije ndalama na ŵanthu ŵakukwana kuti ŵachite kafukufuku. Masuzgo gha vyachuma ghapangiska kuti ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa pa yunivesite na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵafumemo mu vigaŵa vikuruvikuru (vyakuzenga, vyakupangira vinthu, na vinyake) ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukondwa na ntchito yawo. Mu 2012, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakujumpha 22% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakamalizga masambiro ghawo ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 2012, pakaŵa ŵasayansi 200 mu boma, ndipo pa ŵanthu aŵa, 25 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchakukwana kaŵiri kuluska cha pa charu chose (91 mu 2013) kweni ni hafu ya chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku mu South Africa (818 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni). Boma la Zimbabwe lazenga webusayiti ya Zimbabwe Human Capital kuti lipelekenge mauthenga ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe pa nkhani ya ntchito na ndalama.[100][101]
Nangauli ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakulongozga pa kafukufuku na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake, kweni mu ndondomeko ya nyengo yapakati ya 2011 na 2015, pakaŵavya ndondomeko yakukhwaskana na kusambizga masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Kuchepa kwa madokotala gha sayansi na injiniya kufuma ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe mu 2013 kukulongora kuti ŵakutondeka.[100][101]
Kweniso ndondomeko ya vyakuzenga ya 2018, iyo yikucemeka kuti Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation, njambura vilato vyakukhwaskana na kusazgirako unandi wa ŵasayansi na mainjiniya, panji ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa mulimo wa kupanga vinthu. Kweniso, cifukwa ca kuleka kwenderana na kukolerana pakati pa mawupu gha boma, vyakuzirwa vya kafukufuku vikusazgikira comene ndipo ndondomeko izo zilipo sono zikufiskika makora yayi.[100][101]
Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya vya Sayansi na Maluso ya mu charu ichi yikamba mu Juni 2012, pamanyuma pakuti yapangika na wovwiri wa UNESCO. Likutora malo gha ndondomeko yakale iyo yikaŵako mu 2002. Ndondomeko ya mu 2012 yikulaŵiska comene pa sayansi ya vyamoyo, sayansi ya vya mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga (nanotechnology), masisitemu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, vyamahara ivyo vicali kunthazi, na nthowa za sayansi zakumazgira masuzgo gha mu malo agho tikukhala. Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya Sayansi na Maluso gha Miphanyi yikukhozgera kuti boma lipelekenge ndalama zakukwana 1% ya GDP pa kafukufuku na vyakupangiska, ndipo 60% ya masambiro gha pa yunivesite ghaŵikenge pa kusambizga ŵanthu vya sayansi na vyakupangiska.[100][101]
Mu 2014, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa mabuku 21 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni mu manyuzipepara gha pa charu chose. Ivi vikapangiska kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chiŵe pa nambara 6 pa vyaru 15 vya SADC, pamanyuma pa Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) na South Africa (175) na Seychelles (364). Pa ŵanthu 100 miliyoni mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, ŵanthu 20 ŵakalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya sayansi.[101]
Ŵanthu
Mtundu wa ŵanthu
Kuyana na lipoti la ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka mu 2012, ŵanthu 99.7% ŵa mu charu ichi mba ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni Ŵashona ndipo ŵalipo 82 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufuma ku mafuko ghanyake agho ghakasama na kutorana na Ŵazulu. Mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufumamo mu charu ichi ndipo ŵanandi ŵaluta ku South Africa. Mtundu unyake ni Venda, Tonga, Tsonga, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana, Xhosa na Lozi.
Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ni ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵanandi ŵali kufuma ku Britain, kweni paliso ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, Greece, Portugal, France, na Netherlands. Mu 1975, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakwana 278,000, panji kuti 4.3% ya ŵanthu wose. Pa kalembera wa mu 2012, ŵanthu wose ŵazungu ŵakaŵa 28,782 (pafupifupi 0.22% ya ŵanthu wose), chiŵelengero icho chikaŵa pachanya chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku United Kingdom (pakati pa 200,000 na 500,000 ŵa ku Britain ŵali kufuma ku Rhodesia panji Zimbabwe), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, Canada, Australia na New Zealand. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵalipo 0.5% ndipo mitundu yinyake ya ku Asia, chomenechomene ya ku India na China, ŵalipo 0.5%.[106][107][108]
Misumba ikulu ikulu
| Mndandanda | Province | Ŵanthu | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Harare  Bulawayo |
1 | Harare | Harare | 1,485,231 |  Mutare | ||||
| 2 | Bulawayo | Bulawayo | 653,337 | ||||||
| 3 | Chitungwiza | Harare | 356,840 | ||||||
| 4 | Mutare | Manicaland | 186,208 | ||||||
| 5 | Epworth | Harare | 167,462 | ||||||
| 6 | Gweru | Midlands | 154,825 | ||||||
| 7 | Kwekwe | Midlands | 100,900 | ||||||
| 8 | Kadoma | Mashonaland West | 91,633 | ||||||
| 9 | Masvingo | Masvingo | 87,886 | ||||||
| 10 | Chinhoyi | Mashonaland West | 68,273 | ||||||
Viyowoyelo
Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli viyowoyero 16 ndipo mu dango la charu ichi, pali dango lakuti viyowoyero vinyake ndivyo viŵenge vyakuzomerezgeka. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa masukulu na mu makhoti. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakuchemeka Shona na Ndebele. 78% ya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cishona, ndipo 20% ŵakuyowoya Cindebele. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ni Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau na Nambya. Ŵanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi ni 2.5%, comenecomene awo mbazungu ndiposo awo mbakufuma ku mitundu yinyake. ChiShona chili na maluso ghanandi agho ghakalembeka mu buku lakwamba la ChiShona, la Feso ilo likalembeka na Solomon Mutswairo, ilo likafuma mu 1956. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi mu matawuni kweni ku mizi ŵakuyowoya viŵi yayi. Nkhani za pa wayilesi na pa wayilesi zikupharazgika mu Chishona, Chisindebele na Chingelezi.
Mu Zimbabwe muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vili kufupi na mphaka na Mozambique kweniso mu misumba yikuruyikuru. Kwamba mu 2017, kusambizga Chiphwitikizi kwaŵikika mu masambiro gha sekondare mu Zimbabwe.[110][111]
Chisopa
Kuyana na kafukufuku wa 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey wakuchitika na Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, 84% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe Mbakhristu, 10% ŵalije chisopa, ndipo 0.7% Mba Chisilamu.[112][113][114] Ŵanthu 62 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuluta ku matchalitchi nyengo zose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 69% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵali mu chisopa cha Protestant, ndipo 8% ŵali mu chisopa cha Roman Catholic. Makhaliro gha Cikristu gha Pentekoste, comenecomene, ghakura comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa ndipo ghakuŵa na ncito yikuru comene mu umoyo wa ŵantu, wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali. Matchalitchi ghakurughakuru gha Cikhristu ni Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, na Methodist.
Nga ni umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Cikristu cingaŵa cakusazgikana na vigomezgo vyacikaya. Chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira, icho chikaŵako kale pambere charu cha Zimbabwe chindaŵeko na ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga visopa vyawo, chikulutilira kuŵa chakuzirwa mu chisopa cha ku Zimbabwe.[115][116] Kusopa ŵasekuru ni cisopa ico cikupambana na Cikhristu, ico cikusazgapo kuŵeyelera kwauzimu. Mu viphikiro vinandi, mbira dzavadzimu, kung'anamura "tumazgu twa ŵasekuru", ni ciŵiya ico cikukolerana na ma lamelophone ghanandi agho ghali palipose mu Africa.
Umoyo
Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakamba kujiyimira ŵekha, ŵakamba kulwara matenda agho ghakaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu vyaka vinkhondi vyakwambilira pamanyuma pa kujiwombora, vinthu vikenda makora chomene pa nkhani ya katemera, wovwiri wa munkhwala, na munkhwala wakukanizga nthumbo. Ntheura, pa caru cose, caru ca Zimbabwe cikuwoneka kuti cikucita makora comene pa nkhani ya umoyo.
Nyengo zinyake ku Zimbabwe kukaŵanga matenda ghakofya. Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikasuzgika cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu mu vyaru mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, nthenda ya HIV/AIDS, na suzgo la vyachuma kufuma mu 2000. Mu 2006, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na umoyo wambura kukhumbikwa chomene pa charu chose, kuyana na umo UN yikulongolera kuti ŵanalume ŵakhalanga vyaka 44, ndipo ŵanakazi ŵakakhalanga vyaka 43.[117][118] Cakucitika cikuru comene ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kusuzgika comene ni nthenda ya HIV na AIDS. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na nthenda iyi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6% m'ma 1990 kufika pa 12.3% mu 2004. Pa vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵana awo ŵakababikanga ŵakaŵa 3.6 (2002), 3.8 (2006) na 3.8 (2012). Mu 2014, pa ŵana 100,000 awo ŵakababika, 614 ndiwo ŵakafwanga pa nthumbo. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na ŵana ŵambura kukwaniska vyaka vinkhondi pa ŵana 1,000 ŵakafwanga na ŵana 75 mu 2014 (94 mu 2009). Mu 2016, pakaŵavya ŵabwezi 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo, ndipo pa ŵanakazi ŵakutora, pa ŵanakazi 42 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakafwanga.
Mu 2006, wupu wa ŵadokotala ku Zimbabwe ukachiska Mugabe kuti wawovwire ŵadokotala awo ŵakusuzgika. Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV ku Zimbabwe chikaŵa 14 peresenti pa ŵanthu ŵa vyaka 15-49. Wupu wa UNESCO ukayowoya kuti ŵanakazi awo ŵali na nthumbo ŵali na HIV, ndipo ŵakakhira kufuma pa 26% mu 2002 kufika pa 21% mu 2004. Kuzakafika mu 2016, chiŵelengero cha HIV/AIDS chikakhira kufika pa 13.5% pakuyaniska na 40% mu 1998.
Kuumaliro wa Novembala 2008, maofesi ghanyake gha vipatala vikuruvikuru vitatu vya ku Zimbabwe ghakaleka kugwira ntchito, pamoza na sukulu ya vya munkhwala ya Zimbabwe Medical School. Vipatala ivyo vikaŵa kuti vichali kugwira ntchito vikatondeka kusanga munkhwala. Vinthu vikasintha comene pamanyuma pa boma la umoza na kukhazikiska ndalama zinandi mu mwezi wa Febuluwale mu 2009, nangauli suzgo la ndyali na la vya cuma nalo likapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala ŵafumeko mu vyaru vinyake.[119]
Mu Ogasiti 2008, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa nthenda ya kolera. Kuzakafika mu Disembala 2008, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 10,000 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakoleka na nthenda iyi mu vigaŵa vyose vya Zimbabwe kupaturako cimoza.[120][121]Pa Disembala 4, 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likati nthenda iyi njakofya chomene pa charu chose ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake. Pa Malichi 9, 2009, wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose ukati ŵanthu 4,011 ŵali kufwa na nthenda iyi kufuma apo yikambira. Ku Harare, ŵalara ŵa tawuni ŵakapeleka malaro ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka na kolera.[122]
Msambilo
Ku Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba. Mu 2013, chiŵelengero ichi chikafika pa 90.70%. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na 92 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2010 na United Nations Development Programme na 97.0 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2002 apo palembeka 80.4 peresenti mu 1992.[123][124][125]
Ŵanthu awo ŵali na ndalama zinandi ŵakupeleka ŵana ŵawo ku masukulu ghakujiyimira paŵekha. Mu 1980, masukulu ghakazgoka ghawanangwa, kweni kwambira mu 1988, boma likusazgirako ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakulipira pa sukulu. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro mu Zimbabwe ndiyo yikwendeska masukulu gha boma, kweni ndalama izo masukulu ghakujiyimira ghakupokera zikufuma ku boma. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro yikati ŵasambizgi 20,000 ŵali kufumamo mu Zimbabwe kwambira mu 2007 ndipo hafu ya ŵana ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵandafike pa sukulu. Kusambira kukasuzgika comene cifukwa ca suzgo la cuma ilo likaŵako mu 2000, ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵakamba kugwentha cifukwa ca malipiro ghacoko, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakatondekanga kuŵika maghanoghano ghawo pa ivyo ŵakasambiranga cifukwa ca njara, kweniso mtengo wa yunifomu ukakwera comene. Ŵasambizgi nawo ŵakaŵa cimoza mwa vilato vikuru vya kuyuzgika kwa Mugabe cifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti mbakugomezgeka yayi.[126]
Mu charu ichi, masambiro ghakwamba ghakwenda vyaka viŵiri, vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro ghakwamba na vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro gha sekondare. Chaka cha masambiro ku Zimbabwe chikufuma mu Janyuwale mpaka Disembala, ndipo pali masambiro ghatatu agho ghakupambana mwezi umoza. Masambiro gha cigaŵa ghacitikanga mu Novembala mu nyengo ya cigaŵa cacitatu.
Ku Zimbabwe kuli maunivesite 7 gha boma kweniso maunivesite ghanayi agho ghakukolerana na matchalitchi. Yunivesite ya Zimbabwe, iyo yikaŵa yakwamba kweniso yikuru chomene, yikazengeka mu 1952 ndipo yikaŵa mu tawuni ya Mount Pleasant ku Harare. Ŵanyake awo ŵakasambirako ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe ni Welshman Ncube, Peter Moyo, Tendai Biti, Chenjerai Hove na Arthur Mutambara. Ŵandyali ŵanandi mu boma la Zimbabwe ŵali kusambira masambiro gha ku yunivesite ya ku United States panji ku vyaru vinyake.
National University of Science and Technology ni yunivesite yaciŵiri yikuru comene ya ku Zimbabwe iyo yili ku Bulawayo. Wakapangika mu 1991. Yunivesite ya National University of Science and Technology yikuyezgayezga kuti yiŵe yunivesite yakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kumwera kwa Africa. Africa University ni yunivesite ya United Methodist ku Manicaland iyo yikukopa ŵana ŵa sukulu kufuma ku vyaru vya ku Africa 36.
Kuyana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi
Ŵanakazi ku Zimbabwe ŵakutondeka pa vigaŵa vinandi nga ni vya vyachuma, ndyali, na vya umoyo wa ŵanthu.[127] Lipoti la wupu wa UN ilo likafuma mu 2014, likati ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika chomene chifukwa cha mitheto yawo, nkharo yawo, na chisopa chawo. Ŵanakazi ŵakuwona vinthu mwambura kwenelera, ndipo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikuŵakhuŵazga kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito za ndalama. Dango la Zimbabwe lili na fundo izo zikovwira kuti ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵakuyana waka, kweni maukaboni ghakulongora kuti dango ili likugwiriskika makora yayi ndipo likugwira ntchito mwakuchedwa. Mu Disembala 2016, wupu wa International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ukachita kafukufuku kuti umanye umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito makora fundo zakovwira pa nkhani ya nkhaza za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ŵakasanga kuti nkhaza izo zikucitikira ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana zikusazgikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vyaŵa na masoka (vivula, chilangalanga, na matenda) kweni palije uyo wangamanya unandi wake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeska ŵanthu kumazga nkhaza izi ni masuzgo gha vyachuma agho ghakutondeska ŵanthu kuzomerezga nkhaza za kugonana. Kweniso, maboma agho ghakovwira ŵanthu kumanya makora nkhani izi kweniso kupeleka wovwiri ku ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika na vigeŵenga, ghalije ndalama zakukwana ndipo ghakutondeka kufiska milimo yawo. Wupu wa United Nations nawo ukaŵakhozga kuti ŵaleke kuchita vinthu ivi.
Kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura kuzirwa, ŵakuŵawona nga ni vinthu vyambura kuzirwa, ndipo ŵakuŵawona kuti mbakuzirwa yayi mu mbiri na vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakuzirwa chomene kuluska ŵana ŵanakazi. Mazgu agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu khoti ghakuti "vakadzi ngavanyarare", ghakung'anamura kuti "ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kukhala chete". Kuyuzgika kwa ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, ndiposo maluso gha cikaya agho ghakuŵakanizga kuŵa ŵantchito, kwapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵafwe na kujipeleka kuti ŵalute panthazi pa nchito mwakuti ŵafiske mulimo wawo wa kuŵa ŵawoli, ŵamama, na ŵantchito..[128][129]Ŵanakazi ŵakusambizgika kuti ŵaleke kukana para ŵafumu ŵawo ŵakukhumba kugonana nawo, nangauli ŵakumanya kuti ŵali na HIV cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezgeka. Cifukwa ca kucita nthena, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵali na nthenda ya HIV pa ciŵelengero ca 16.1% ndipo ŵalipo 62% pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵali na nthenda iyi.[130]
Ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakukumana na masuzgo pa umoyo wawo wa nchito, ndipo ivi vikukhwaska masambiro ghawo, luso lawo, na umo ŵakukulira. Mu 2009, magazini ya South African Journal of Education yikati nangauli ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa masukulu gha pulayimale ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kupika maudindo, kweni palije uyo wakapempha ntchito. Ŵanakazi aŵa ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbakuyana yayi na ŵanalume ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti mulimo wawo wa kuŵa muwoli na mama ngwakuzirwa chomene kuluska milimo yinyake yose. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakafumbika pa kafukufuku uyu ŵakaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, agho ghangaŵa ghakukolerana na maudindo ghawo mu gulu kweniso maghanoghano gha ŵanakazi. Mu 2016, wupu wa FAO ukasanga kuti ŵanakazi 60 pera ndiwo ŵakagwiranga ntchito za mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito zinandi za ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na masambiro ghacoko, nga ni 70% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya viŵeto, kweni ŵakagwiranga nchito pa 16.7% na 21% pera mu maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo na mu vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vya boma, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukwana 14% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Zimbabwe na 33% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe, nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume chikaŵa 0.95 pa mwanakazi yumoza. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo la kusankhana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi, wupu wa UN ukuwovwira kuti ŵanakazi ŵalutilire kuŵa na maudindo ghapachanya, nga ni ŵalongozgi ŵa masukulu. Kwizira mu ndondomeko izi, caru ca Zimbabwe caŵa na mwaŵi wa kumazga mphambano ya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pa nkhani ya sukulu: Ŵanalume 50.5% ŵakuŵazga masukulu gha sekondare pakuyaniska na ŵanakazi 49.5%.
Ku Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana. [131]Pakuti ŵanthu wose yayi awo ŵakukoleka ŵakuyowoyeka, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukoleka cikuŵa cikuru comene. Pa nyengo ya 2010 m'paka 2016, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakachichizgikanga kuti ŵatoleke chikakwera na 42%. Pa nkhaza zose izo zikucitikira ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, 78 peresenti zikucitikira ŵafumu ŵawo, ŵadada ŵawo, panji ŵanyawo ŵa mu nthengwa. [131]Malipoti gha UNICEF ghakulongora kuti msungwana yumoza pa ŵasungwana ŵatatu waliyose uyo wakukura mu Zimbabwe wakusuzgika pambere wandakwaniske vyaka 18. [131]Ŵasungwana kanandi ŵakucimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu para mwaŵi wawo wakusambira ulije. Ŵapolisi ŵakutemwa yayi kupenja ŵanalume awo ŵakuchita nkhaza pa nyumba panji ŵasungwana awo ŵakuchimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti nkhaza ni nthowa yakulongolera nkhongono na citemwa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Women's Lawyers Association ni wupu uwo ukovwira kuti malango gha boma gha 2013 ghalondezgeke. Wupu uwu ukupeleka mapulogiramu agho ghakovwira ŵanakazi kumanya makora wanangwa wawo na kuŵapa mwaŵi wa kulimbana na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana.[131]
Mwambo
Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli mitheto yakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakugomezga chomene vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵali na vikozgo vinandi.[132]
Pa 18 Epulero, 1980, charu cha Zimbabwe chikamba kujithemba.[133]Maholide agha ghakuchitikira ku National Sports Stadium panji Rufaro Stadium ku Harare. Ungano wakwamba wa kujithemba ukacitika mu 1980 pa Zimbabwe Grounds. Pa viphikiro ivi, ŵakufumiska nkhunda kuti ŵalongore mtende. Moto wa wanangwa ukuŵala na pulezidenti pamanyuma pa viphikiro vya mbumba ya pulezidenti na ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe. Kweniso pulezidenti wakuyowoya nkhani ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe iyo yikuŵa pa TV ku awo ŵangakwaniska yayi kwiza ku sitediyamu. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukuŵaso chiphikiro cha kutowa cha Miss Heritage Zimbabwe icho chikuchitika chaka chilichose kwambira mu 2012.
Maluso
Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu nga ni viŵiya, matumba, vyakuvwara, majuda, na vyakuŵaja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikumanyikwa chomene ni makapu na vitanda ivyo vikuŵa mu khuni limoza. Vikozgo vya Ŵashona, ivyo vili na mbiri yitali, vikamba kusintha mu nyengo yasono pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 ndipo vikamba kutchuka pa charu chose. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vikuŵa vya viyuni na ŵanthu. Vinthu ivi ŵakuvivwara na malibwe nga ni soapstone, kweniso malibwe ghanyake nga ni serpentine na verdite. Vinthu vya ku Zimbabwe vingasangika mu vyaru nga ni Singapore, China na Canada. Cikozgo ca Dominic Benhura mu Singapore Botanic Gardens.
Vinthu vyakuŵaja vya Ŵashona vilipo m'paka sono, ndipo ivyo ŵakuŵaja mazuŵa ghano vikukolerana na mitheto ya ku Africa na ku Europe. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ku Zimbabwe ni Nicholas, Nesbert na Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi na Locardia Ndandarika. Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵakuŵaja vyakuvwara ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakhwaska ŵanthu ŵaphya, comenecomene ŵa ku America ŵa mitundu yakufipa.
Ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kunyake. Charles Mungoshi wakumanyikwa chomene mu Zimbabwe chifukwa cha kulemba nkhani za mu Chingelezi na Chishona, ndipo mabuku ghake ghakuguliskika chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Catherine Buckle wali kuzomerezgeka pa caru cose na mabuku ghake ghaŵiri African Tears na Beyond Tears agho ghakulongosora masuzgo agho wakakumana nagho cifukwa ca kusintha kwa malo mu 2000. Mulara wa boma wakwamba wa Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wakalemba mabuku ghaŵiri, The Great Betrayal na Bitter Harvest. Buku la The House of Hunger la Dambudzo Marechera likapokera chawanangwa ku UK mu 1979 ndipo buku lakwamba la Doris Lessing la The Grass Is Singing, mabuku ghanayi ghakwambilira gha Children of Violence, kweniso buku la nkhani zicoko waka la African Stories ghakalembeka ku Rhodesia. Mu 2013, buku la NoViolet Bulawayo lakuti We Need New Names likaŵa pa chigaŵa cha mphotho ya Booker. Buku ili likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga na kusama chifukwa cha nkhaza izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachitiranga ŵanthu pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Gukurahundi.
Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ni Henry Mudzengerere na Nicolas Mukomberanwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikuyowoyeka kanandi waka mu luso lwa ku Zimbabwe njakuti ŵanthu ŵakusintha na kuŵa vinyama. Ŵakwimba ŵa ku Zimbabwe nga ni Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, Bhundu Boys; Stella Chiweshe, Alick Macheso na Audius Mtawarira ŵamanyikwa pa caru cose. Ŵazungu awo mbacoko ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero agha, ndipo pali magulu ghanandi agho ghakucita maseŵero agha.[134]
Vyakuphika
Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zimbabwe ŵakurya vyakurya vichoko waka. "Mealie meal", iyo yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti cornmeal, yikugwiliskirika nchito pakunozga sadza panji isitshwala, kweniso porridge yakucemeka bota panji ilambazi. Sadza wakupangika mwa kusanganiska tirigu na maji kuti wapangike. Para wakuphika kwa maminiti ghacoko waka, wakusazgako tirigu munyake kuti wakukore. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakurya nyama iyi pa nyengo ya chakurya cha muhanya panji chakurya cha mise. Sadza wakulyeka pamoza na mkaka wakukaŵa, uwo ukumanyikwa na zina lakuti "lacto" (mukaka wakakora), panji sardine wakomira wa ku Tanganyika. Bota ni chiŵiya chichoko chomene, icho chikuphika kwambura kusazgako tirigu.[135] Kanandi munthu wakurya Bota pa cakurya ca mulenji.
Para ŵanthu ŵakumalizga masambiro ghawo, para ŵakutora panji kutengwa, kweniso pa viphikiro vinyake vya mbumba, kanandi ŵakukoma mbuzi panji ng'ombe.
Viyuni vyambura kupangika
Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika mbachoko chomene (10%) mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa vyakurya vya ku Afrika. Cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene ni nyama yakuŵaŵa.[136] Ŵakupeleka chakurya cha Boerewors pamoza na sadza. Ni soseji yitali, iyo kanandi yikuŵa na vyakununkhira vinandi.
Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pasi pa Britain, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulondezga mitheto ya ku England. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakurya chiŵiya mulenji, kweniso ŵakumwa tiyi pa 10 koloko. Ŵakulya cakurya ca mise, ndipo kanandi ŵakurya vyakurya ivyo vyakhalapo pa zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Para ŵamara kurya, kanandi pa 4 koloko ŵakuŵa na tiyi. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakumwa tiyi para ŵamara kurya.
Mu vyakurya vya ku Zimbabwe muli mpunga, makaroni, na mbatata. Chakurya icho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi ni mpunga uwo ŵakuphika na batala wa mapayipi. Para munthu wakuphika mbuto iyi wakuŵa na mphangwe, mbuto yakuchemeka nzungu, mbuto yakuchemeka ng'ombe yakubiliŵira, mbuto yakuchemeka nyemba, na mbuto yakuchemeka nyimo. Mutakura nayo wangaŵa viŵiya ivyo vili pachanya apa.
Maseŵera
Mpira (uno ukuchemekaso kuti soccer) ndiwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Zimbabwe. Gulu la Warriors lafika ku Africa Cup of Nations kankhondi (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), ndipo lapambana mpikisano wa South Africa kankhondi (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) na East Africa cup kamoza (1985). Gulu ili lili pa malo 68 mu 2022. Mpira wa rugby ni maseŵero ghakuzirwa comene mu Zimbabwe. Gulu la chalo likayimilira chalo mu viphalizgano viŵiri vya Rugby World Cup mu 1987 na 1991. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha cricket mbazungu. Ni yimoza mwa vyaru 12 ivyo vikuseŵera maseŵero gha Test cricket ndipo ni chiŵaro cha ICC. Ŵaseŵera ŵa cricket ŵakufuma ku Zimbabwe ni Andy Flower, Heath Streak na Brendan Taylor.
Zimbabwe yikasanga mendulo 8 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki, yimoza pa maseŵero gha hockey na timu ya ŵanakazi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ku Moscow, na 7 ya Kirsty Coventry, zitatu pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2004 na zinayi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2008. Dziko la Zimbabwe lachita bwino pa maseŵera a Commonwealth Games ndi All-Africa Games pa kusambira ndipo Coventry watenga mendulo 11 za golide mu maseŵera ghakupambanapambana.[137][138][139][140] Zimbabwe yikwimila pa Wimbledon na Davis Cup mu tennis, chomenechomene na banja la Black, ilo lili na Wayne Black, Byron Black na Cara Black. Nick Price wa ku Zimbabwe wakaŵa na malo gha nambara yimoza pa maseŵero gha gofu pa caru cose kwa nyengo yitali kuluska woseŵero waliyose wa ku Africa.
Maseŵero ghanyake agho ghakuchitika mu Zimbabwe ni basketball, volleyball, netball, na water polo, kweniso squash, motorsport, martial arts, chess, cycling, polocrosse, kayaking na kuphalizgana pa mahachi. Ndipouli, mitundu yinandi ya maseŵero agha yikuŵa na ŵimiliri pa caru cose yayi, kweni yikuŵa pa caru cose.
Ŵaseŵero ŵa mpira wa rugby ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakuseŵera ku vyaru vinyake ni Masimbaashe Motongo na Judah Mazive.[141][142] Ŵasepuka ŵakale bakusazgapo sono CEO wa SANZAAR Andy Marinos uyo wakawonekera ku South Africa pa Super League World Nines ndipo wakawonekeranga ku Sydney Bulldogs kweniso uyo wakababika ku Zimbabwe uyo wakababika ku Scotland Scott Gray, uyo wakachitako ku Brisbane Broncos.
Charu cha Zimbabwe chawina mu karate apo Samson Muripo wa ku Zimbabwe wakaba chiphalizgano cha Kyokushin world champion ku Osaka, Japan mu 2009. Muripo ni nkhwantha ya Kyokushi Karate pa charu chose ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakuda wakwamba wa ku Africa kuŵa nkhwantha ya Kyokushin Karate pa charu chose.[143]
Media
Ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Zimbabwe sono ŵali na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana, chifukwa boma likaŵakanizga chomene kupharazga pakati pa 2002 na 2008. Dango la Zimbabwe likulayizga wanangwa wa vyakupharazga. Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo nduna yiphya ya vya mdauko mu 2013, ŵapharazgi ŵakusuzgika viŵi yayi na ndyali ndipo khoti likuru chomene la charu ichi lazomerezga kuti malango ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na vya mdauko ghakususkana na dango. Mu Julayi 2009, BBC na CNN ŵakambaso kwendeska mauthenga mu Zimbabwe. Unduna wa vya Mtima, Uthenga na Kupharazga wa ku Zimbabwe ukati, "boma la Zimbabwe likakanizgapo yayi kuti BBC yichitenge vinthu ivyo vikukolerana na dango mu Zimbabwe". BBC yikakondwa chomene na ivyo vikachitika, yikati: "Tili ŵakukondwa kuti tikwaniskaso kugwira ntchito mu Zimbabwe".
Mu 2010, boma la Zimbabwe Media Commission likakhazikiskika. Mu Meyi 2010, wupu uwu ukazomerezga nyuzipepara zitatu za ŵanthu ŵekha, kusazgapo nyuzipepara yakuchemeka Daily News. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati fundo izi ni "vinthu vikuru comene". Mu Juni 2010, NewsDay yikaŵa nyuzipepara yakwamba yakujiyimira payekha mu Zimbabwe mu vyaka 7. Mu 2012, ZBC yikamazga wanangwa wake wa kupharazga na kupeleka malayisensi ku mawayilesi ghaŵiri.
Kufuma waka apo dango la 2002 la Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act likakhazikiskikira, boma likajara manyuzipepara ghanandi, kusazgapo Daily News.[144][145]Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵali kwambiska mawupu gha nyuzipepara mu vyaru vya ŵazengezgani na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chifukwa chakuti Intaneti njambura kukanizgika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuzomerezgeka kusanga nkhani pa Intaneti izo ŵalembi ŵa nyuzipepara awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵakulemba. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati mu Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵakwendera chomene nkhani za mu manyuzipepara. Manyuzipepara agho ghakusindikizgika comene ni The Herald na The Chronicle agho ghakusindikizgika mu Harare na Bulawayo. Kwamba mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa yayi kuyowoya vya nkhani mu manyuzipepara.
Mu lipoti lake la mu 2021, wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukalemba vyalo vya Zimbabwe pa 130 pa vyalo 180, ndipo ukalemba kuti "mauthenga ghafika pa malo ghakwenelera ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujikora yayi, kweni ŵapharazgi ŵachali kukomeka".[144]Boma la Zimbabwe likukanizgaso mawayilesi ghanandi ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni CBC, Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, na Fox News. Mabungwe gha nkhani na manyuzipepara ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku South Africa nagho ghakanizgika kunjira mu caru ici.
National symbols
Mbalame ya ku Zimbabwe yikuwoneka pa ndembera za charu cha Zimbabwe na Rhodesia, kweniso pa ndalama za ku Rhodesia. Panyake ni nombo panji nombo ya ku Africa.[146][147] Mu msumba wakale wa Great Zimbabwe mukaŵa vithuzithuzi vya viyuni vyakutowa chomene.[148]
Malibwe agho ghakukolerana ni malo agho ghakusangika mu charu chose cha Zimbabwe. Malibwe agha ghakukolerana makora kwambura kukhozgeka na vinthu vinyake. Vinthu ivi vikupangika para miyala yakukhoma iyo yili pafupi na malo agha yikusongonoka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵalongosora ndipo ŵali kuŵalongosora pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe na za ku Rhodesia. Malibwe agha ghakusangika pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti Banknote Rocks. Malibwe agha ghakupangika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo ghakukolerana na malibwe ghatatu panji kujumpha apa. Vinthu ivi vikusangika kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, kufuma kumpoto kwa South Africa m'paka ku Sudan. Vinthu vyakuzizwiska chomene mu charu cha Zimbabwe vili ku Matobo National Park ku Matabeleland.
Nyimbo ya fuko la Zimbabwe ni "Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Shona: Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe; Template:Lang-nd). Sumu iyi yikamba kwimbika mu Malichi 1994 pamanyuma pa chiphambano cha pa charu chose kuti yisinthe Ishe Komborera Africa kuŵa sumu ya ku Zimbabwe. Sumu iyo yikaluska yikaŵa sumu yakulembeka na Pulofesa Solomon Mutswairo ndipo yikapangika na Fred Changundega. Baibolo ili lang'anamulika mu viyowoyero vitatu vikuruvikuru vya ku Zimbabwe.[149]
Wonaniso
Ukaboni
Vinyake vyakuona
- ↑ After the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009, Euro, United States dollar, Pound sterling, South African rand, Botswana pula, Australian dollar, Chinese yuan, Indian rupee and Japanese yen are used as legal tender.
Mazgo
- ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe 2013, as amended to 2017". constitutions.unwomen.org. Retrieved 26 Novembala 2022.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe". The Beaver County Times. 13 Sekutembala 1981. Retrieved 2 Novembala 2011.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 "The World Factbook – Zimbabwe". Central Intelligence Agency. 2 Disembala 2021.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft)" (PDF). Government of Zimbabwe. Janyuwale 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 Okutobala 2013 – via Kubatana.net.
- ↑ Longola ivyo vyabudika: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedzimstat.co.zw - ↑ Developments in English. Cambridge University Press. 31 Okutobala 2014. ISBN 9781107038509 – via Google Books.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ↑ "Zimbabwe". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 24 Sekutembala 2022. (Archived 2022 edition)
- ↑ "2022 Population and Housing Census - Preliminary Report - Zimbabwe Data Portal". zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org. Retrieved 27 Julayi 2022.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Epulelo 2023. Retrieved 24 Epulelo 2023.
- ↑ "GINI Index". World Bank. Retrieved 16 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF) (in English). United Nations Development Programme. 8 Sekutembala 2022. Retrieved 30 Sekutembala 2022.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Zimbabwe adopts new inflation rate based on U.S. dollar, local currency". Reuters. Harare. 3 Malichi 2023. Retrieved 25 Malichi 2023.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe Time". Greenwich Mean Time. Greenwich 2000. Archived from the original on 19 Julayi 2011. Retrieved 17 Novembala 2017.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe Population 1950-2021". macrotrends.net. Retrieved 29 Juni 2021.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "Who built Great Zimbabwe? And why? - Breeanna Elliott". TED-Ed (in English). Retrieved 13 Malichi 2022.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report". United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2015. Retrieved 6 Meyi 2016.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe – big house of stone". Somali Press. Archived from the original on 3 Meyi 2011. Retrieved 14 Disembala 2008.
- ↑ Lafon, Michel (1994). "Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix" (PDF). Zambezia. 21: 51–80.
- ↑ Vale, Lawrence J. (1999). "Mediated monuments and national identity". Journal of Architecture. 4 (4): 391–408. doi:10.1080/136023699373774.
- ↑ Garlake, Peter (1973). Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8128-1599-3.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. (2009). Do "Zimbabweans" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State (First ed.). Bern: Peter Lang AG. pp. 113–14. ISBN 978-3-03911-941-7.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Fontein, Joost (Sekutembala 2006). The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage (First ed.). London: University College London Press. pp. 119–20. ISBN 978-1844721238.
- ↑ Mlambo, Alois S. (2013). "Becoming Zimbabwe or Becoming Zimbabwean: Identity, Nationalism and State-building". Africa Spectrum. 48 (1): 49–70. doi:10.1177/000203971304800103. ISSN 0002-0397. JSTOR 43941319. S2CID 127302759.
- ↑ "From a kingdom to a nation: A Shona awakening". Trad Magazine (in English). 29 Novembala 2020. Retrieved 10 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ "Pre-colonial history of SA". South African History Online. Archived from the original on 2 Julayi 2016. Retrieved 17 Julayi 2016.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe". South African History Online. Archived from the original on 7 Janyuwale 2019. Retrieved 19 Janyuwale 2019.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Hall, Martin; Stephen W. Silliman (2005). Historical Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 241–44. ISBN 978-1-4051-0751-8.
- ↑ Nelson, Harold (1983). Zimbabwe: A Country Study. The Studies. pp. 1–317.
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- ↑ Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."
- ↑ Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect
- ↑ Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia by Vera Gowlland-Debbas
- ↑ Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645
- ↑
Moorcraft, Paul (31 Ogasiti 1990). "Rhodesia's War of Independence". History Today. 40 (9).
[P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.
- ↑ Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, Infobase Publishing, p. 537; ISBN 143810989X.
- ↑ Preston, Matthew (2004). Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective. p. 25; ISBN 1850435790.
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- ↑ Smith, Ian (2008). Bitter Harvest. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. p. 367. ISBN 978-1-85782-604-3.
- ↑ Johnson, Boris (15 Novembala 2017). "Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 Janyuwale 2022 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
- ↑ Lessing, Doris (10 Epulelo 2003). "The Jewel of Africa". The New York Review of Books.
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- ↑ "Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections". EISA. Archived from the original on 5 Disembala 2008. Retrieved 9 Disembala 2008.
- ↑ Moyo, Jonathon N. "Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe". University of Zimbabwe. Archived from the original on 2 Sekutembala 2009. Retrieved 9 Disembala 2008.
- ↑ Polgreen, Lydia (20 Julayi 2012). "In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 Julayi 2012.
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- ↑ "Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International". 9 Ogasiti 2006. Archived from the original on 10 Okutobala 2006. Retrieved 30 Disembala 2013.
- ↑ Kenneth Ingham; Clyde William Sanger; Kenneth Bradley. "Zimbabwe - 2008 elections and aftermath | Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 Janyuwale 2023. Retrieved 15 Janyuwale 2023.
{{cite web}}:|archive-date=/|archive-url=timestamp mismatch; 16 Janyuwale 2023 suggested (help) - ↑ Nasaw, Daniel (11 Julayi 2008). "China and Russia veto Zimbabwe sanctions". The Guardian (in British English). ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 9 Juni 2019.
- ↑ "Mugabe wants sanctions removed". United Press International. 18 Disembala 2010. Retrieved 21 Ogasiti 2011.
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- ↑ "Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control". The Guardian. 15 Novembala 2017. Retrieved 15 Novembala 2017.
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- ↑ "Top Zimbabwe court confirms Mnangagwa's presidential election victory". Reuters (in English). 25 Ogasiti 2018. Retrieved 17 Janyuwale 2019.
- ↑ "Former Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe dies – DW – 09/06/2019". dw.com (in English).
- ↑ Helicon, ed. (2018). The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide – via Credo Reference.
- ↑ "Victoria Falls". Victoria Falls Tourism. 2019. Retrieved 3 Disembala 2019.
- ↑ Moore, A E; et al. (2009). "Landscape evolution in Zimbabwe from the Permian to present, with implications for kimberlite prospecting" (PDF). Geological Society of South Africa. 112 (1): 65. Bibcode:2009SAJG..112...65M. doi:10.2113/gssajg.112.1.65.
- ↑ Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; ISBN 1590848101.
- ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
- ↑ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
- ↑ "Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book". Archived from the original on 27 Disembala 2007. Retrieved 6 Janyuwale 2008.
- ↑ Mugabe, Robert. (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite, Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ↑ Frankel, Matthew (26 Meyi 2010). "Myanmar boycott is misguided". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 23 Febuluwale 2021.
- ↑ Makgetlaneng, Sehlare. "ZIMBABWE'S 2005 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS: Lessons for the Movement for Democratic Change" (PDF). Africa Institute of South Africa: 124.
- ↑ "Zimbabwe's MDC factions reunite". Archived from the original on 2 Meyi 2008. Retrieved 13 Febuluwale 2009., SABC News, 28 April 2008.
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{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ↑ 100.0 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.4 100.5 Lemarchand, Guillermo A.; Schneegans, Susan, eds. (2014). Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. pp. Volume 2. GO–SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation. ISBN 978-92-3-100034-8.
- ↑ 101.0 101.1 101.2 101.3 101.4 101.5 101.6 UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2015. pp. 535–555. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1.
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<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs named2017survey - ↑ "Table: Religious Composition by Country" (PDF). pewforum.org. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 Malichi 2016.
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An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim.
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- ↑ Manyonganise, Molly (2015). "Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu". Verbum et Ecclesia. 36 (2): 1–7. doi:10.4102/VE.V36I2.1438. ISSN 2074-7705.
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zimbabwe shona.
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Vinyake
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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, UNESCO.
Wonani vinadi
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