3 THE MIDDLE EAST

PERSIA

As the 16th century began, Persia was fragmented following the Timurid Empire’s collapse. However, by 1502, Shah Ismail I (1487-1524) had unified the country and founded the Safavid Dynasty, a pivotal event in Persian history. The Safavid Dynasty (1501-1722) established control over a vast territory, including modern-day Iran, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Armenia, eastern Georgia, Iraq, Kuwait, Afghanistan, and parts of Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. They developed a strong military, centralized government, and flourishing artistic and intellectual culture, introducing Shi‘ism as the state religion. The Safavid introduction of Shi’ism as the state religion in Persia (modern-day Iran) had far-reaching consequences, contributing to the complex and often tense relationships between Iran and other Islamic countries in the region, many of which are predominantly Sunni, a dynamic that continues to shape geopolitical and sectarian tensions in the Middle East to this day.

The most notable Safavid ruler was Shah Abbas I the Great (1571-1629), who moved the capital to Isfahan and commissioned numerous architectural projects, including palaces, mosques, gardens, and bridges. He implemented military and civil service reforms, and his reign marked the zenith of Safavid power. Abbas I relocated the capital to Isfahan in 1598, designing the city as a showcase of Persian Islamic art and architecture, with the Naqsh-e Jahan Square at its center.

Under Abbas’s patronage, Persian arts flourished, with carpet weaving, textiles, manuscript illumination, and ceramics becoming significant exports. He was known for his compassion, sense of justice, and tolerance towards non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their faith freely. Abbas regularly interacted with ordinary people to ensure they were not mistreated by officials and punished extortion and oppression. His legacy continues to influence Iranian national identity and Islamic relations today.

A 16th Persian painting entitled “Woman with a Spray of Flowers” (Source: Wikimedia)

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

A portrait of Suleiman attributed to Titian, 1530 (Source: Wikimedia)

Suleiman treated the non-Muslim communities within the Ottoman Empire with considerable fairness. He reduced the taxes paid by Christians and established legal protections to prevent abuses by wealthy landowners. He also defended the Jewish population by publicly denouncing false accusations against them, known as blood libels. Additionally, he introduced new criminal and judicial policies, setting fixed fines for various offenses and limiting the use of capital punishment.

Suleiman was particularly renowned for his legal reforms. Before his reign, the empire’s subjects were often unaware of their legal rights, and the laws varied widely and could be contradictory, as different sultans issued different decrees over the centuries. Suleiman reviewed and harmonized these laws, creating a unified legal code based on Islamic principles that remained in effect for three centuries. He ensured that this code was widely publicized so that every Ottoman subject knew their rights and could seek justice in a court of law. These reforms earned him the title “the Lawgiver” and made him widely respected as a ruler who prioritized the welfare of his people.

Suleiman died in 1566 while leading a military campaign in Hungary. His death was kept secret for two months to maintain troop morale, and it was only announced after the army’s return to Istanbul, just in time for the coronation of his successor, Selim II.

Sultan Suleiman’s leadership significance extends beyond his military and administrative accomplishments. His ability to govern a diverse population, fostering a culture of coexistence and mutual respect, demonstrates exceptional intercultural competency. By allowing religious minorities to practice their faiths and govern their communities, Suleiman promoted a culture of tolerance and inclusivity, setting a high standard for future leaders. His legacy continues to inspire leaders seeking to balance competing interests and values in diverse societies.

At its peak in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire spanned a vast and diverse territory, encompassing Muslims and various non-Muslim communities, including Christians and Jews. The European territories, such as the Balkans, were densely populated with Christians, making large-scale conversion to Islam unlikely. To manage this diversity, the Ottomans implemented the millet system, a term that comes from the Arabic word millah, meaning nation. The millet system was organized around religious communities: Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians, and Jews each constituted a separate millet. Over time, other groups such as Syriac Christians and Coptic Christians were also granted their own millets.  This system provided non-Muslims with a degree of autonomy and allowed them to manage their affairs according to their own customs.

One notable aspect of Ottoman rule was the devshirme system, which involved recruiting Christian boys from their families in the Balkans and Caucasus, converting them to Islam, and training them as elite soldiers or administrators.  They were selected for both their physical attributes and their intelligence. The training was strict and emphasized discipline, endurance, and loyalty to the sultan. Most became part of an elite corps of soldiers known as the Janissaries (from the Turkish words yeni cheri, meaning “new soldier”). Janissaries were expected to serve as bodyguards to the sultan, to whom they were fiercely loyal and who paid them directly.

A small number of exceptional boys from the devshirme system, chosen for their intellectual abilities, were sent to the palace school to receive advanced education in preparation for roles as high-ranking administrators or military leaders. This training aimed to create a loyal and self-perpetuating class of elite officials who owed their allegiance solely to the sultan and the Ottoman state, rather than to their families or ethnic groups. By removing them from their familial and ethnic backgrounds, the system sought to minimize political infighting and nepotism. The devshirme system, including this elite training component, continued until the late 17th century.

Most Ottomans were illiterate, and primary education was primarily provided by religious institutions rather than the state, though schools were often funded by the sultan’s family. Basic education focused on Quranic recitation, and each millet organized its own educational system in its local language. Turkish was required mainly for those interacting with the state. This multilingualism allowed diverse local languages to persist and facilitated trade and communication. For instance, Jewish immigrants from Spain continued to speak Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) in Ottoman cities like Izmir, Salonica, and Istanbul.  Advanced education was generally reserved for the wealthy. While some boys from poorer families could attend local schools, many children were needed for work. Wealthy families sent their sons to private schools and educated their daughters at home. Bright children from lower classes might receive sponsorship from local patrons but often had to work for the patron afterward.

Ottoman society was stratified by occupation and residence. The ruling class held the highest status, with four main occupational groups below them: peasants, artisans, merchants, and nomadic farmers. Peasants worked the land leased to them by the state, artisans were organized into guilds, and merchants, exempt from many regulations, accumulated great wealth. Nomadic farmers, while enjoying autonomy, were taxed specially.  Women had limited political roles but significant social and legal rights, including the ability to own property, inherit wealth, and seek legal redress. Unlike their European counterparts before the 19th century, Ottoman women, whether married or unmarried, could own property, inherit wealth, and engage in financial transactions. Marriages were typically arranged by parents, but women had to consent and could obtain divorces. Elite and middle-class women managed households, raised children, and socialized in urban settings, often meeting at bathhouses and wearing veils in public. Working-class women could produce goods, invest in businesses, and work in female-dominated trades such as nursing and dancing. Though excluded from the official guild system, they contributed to the economy and were involved in Sufi orders. The experiences of women varied widely based on their social status and location, with rural peasant women often assisting with farm work in addition to managing their households.

The synthesis of the Ottoman Empire’s diverse cultural base is perhaps most evident in its cuisine, which incorporated cooking styles and ingredients from places all over the world including Greece, Iran, the Balkans, the Arabian Peninsula, and central Asia. Following the discovery of the Americas, Ottoman cooks were among the first to incorporate ingredients from there, such as maize, peppers, tomatoes, and pumpkins, into their dishes. The Ottomans also introduced foods from elsewhere in Asia, like sesame, into the kitchens of the Middle East. Many dishes, such as rice pilafs from Egypt, Iran, and central Asia and Indian tandoori casseroles, were elegantly re-created for the imperial court in the kitchens of Topkapi Palace and then adopted in less extravagant versions by people throughout the empire.

Coffee drinking occupied a position in Ottoman life that was on par with—indeed, perhaps more important than—feasting, and the Ottomans first introduced it to Europe. The practice began in Arabia and spread to other places in the Islamic world. The first coffeehouses were established in the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, where they provided spaces for men to socialize, do business, and exchange news. Men of all social classes frequented coffeehouses, and men of little education could listen to literate men reading aloud from books, hear poets recite their newest works, and watch scholars engage in debates. Political discussions were common, and the Ottoman government often sent spies to listen for signs of dissent or potential rebellion.

The major artistic contribution of the Ottoman Empire to world art was its architecture as many magnificent mosques were built in the second half of the 16^th century. The architect, Mimar Sinan, began to build the first of his eighty-one mosques in 1543. His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in the city of Edirne (northwest Turkey). He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves as architects.

A statute of Mimar Sinan with the Selimiye Mosque in the background (Source: Wikimedia)