29 EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

CHINA AND MANCHURIA

The Qing Dynasty, which remained in power from 1644 to 1912, was one of the greatest and most powerful Chinese dynasties in history. Under the Qing, China’s territories expanded to their greatest extent. The empire was a regional power and directed, or attempted to direct, the policy of nearby countries like Japan and Korea. The Chinese also controlled all interactions with Europeans. European consumers greatly desired Chinese goods and European traders wanted access to Chinese markets, but the Qing decided that, because there was little they wanted from the Europeans, they would greatly limit European access.

The Qing Dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1912, was one of the most powerful and influential Chinese dynasties in history. During its reign, China’s territories expanded to their greatest extent, encompassing present-day China, Tibet, Mongolia, and parts of Russia, Korea, and Central Asia. As a regional powerhouse, the Qing Dynasty directed the policies of neighboring countries, including Japan and Korea, and controlled all interactions with European nations. European consumers eagerly sought Chinese goods, such as silk, porcelain, and tea, but the Qing limited European access, restricting trade to the port city of Canton (now Guangzhou). This strategic move allowed China to maintain its economic and cultural dominance.

The Qing Dynasty’s Golden Age, which lasted from the late 17th to the mid-18th century, was marked by remarkable stability, territorial expansion, and imperial consolidation. The Kangxi emperor (1661-1722) inaugurated this period, ruling China for an unprecedented 65 years. His tenure saw significant advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, as well as the development of a comprehensive system of laws and administration. The Kangxi emperor’s legacy was built upon by his successors, including the Yongzheng emperor (1722-1735), who focused on strengthening imperial administration and rooting out corruption.

The Yongzheng emperor’s reforms aimed to restore the integrity of the Chinese bureaucracy, which had been a hallmark of the imperial system since the seventh century. He reformed the State Examinations, ensuring that only the most qualified scholars entered the civil service. Additionally, he standardized the imperial currency and imposed harsh penalties on those convicted of currency manipulation. These measures helped maintain the empire’s stability and facilitated its continued expansion.

The Qianlong emperor (1735-1796) built upon the achievements of his predecessors, further expanding China’s territories through military conquests in Tibet, Mongolia, and Central Asia. His reign also saw a massive cultural initiative, resulting in the production and reproduction of thousands of books, including the iconic “Siku Quanshu” encyclopedia. However, this cultural flowering was accompanied by increased censorship, with writers facing persecution for works deemed critical of the emperor or the dynasty. As the Qianlong emperor’s reign drew to a close, signs of decline began to emerge, including bureaucratic corruption and internal unrest.

A painting of the Qianlong Emperor in his study by Giuseppe Castiglione, 18th century (Source: Wikimedia)

Under the Qing Dynasty, Confucianism became the dominant ideology in Chinese society, shaping the imperial system, education, and daily life.  This complex system of thought, emphasizing moral values, social hierarchy, and respect for authority, profoundly impacted the imperial system, education, and daily life. Previously, Christian missionaries, particularly Jesuits, had introduced Western ideas and technological advancements to China in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, the emperor ultimately expelled them due to concerns that their presence would disrupt traditional values and social norms. The Kangxi emperor’s 1721 decree banning Christian missions reinforced this isolationist policy. Meanwhile, Buddhism and Daoism continued to coexist with Confucianism, often blending with it to create a rich and diverse cultural landscape. As a result, Confucian values became deeply ingrained in Chinese society, influencing art, literature, and intellectual discourse.

	IN THEIR OWN WORDS
	In the 17th century, the Chinese scholar Yang Guangxian wrote of the differences between Christianity and Chinese religious traditions. His explanation helps to explain Chinese rejection of Christianity and Christian missionaries: Confucian teaching is based on the Five Relationships (between parent and child, ruler and minister, husband and wife, older and younger brothers, and friends), whilst the Lord of Heaven Jesus was crucified because he plotted against his own country, showing that he did not recognize the relationship between ruler and subject. Mary, the mother of Jesus, had a husband named Joseph, but she said Jesus was not conceived by him. Those who follow this teaching [Christianity] are not allowed to worship their ancestors and ancestral tablets. They do not recognize the relationship of parent and child. Their teachers oppose the Buddhists and Daoists, who do recognize the relationship between ruler and subject and father and son. Jesus did not recognize the relationship between ruler and subject and parent and child, and yet the Christians speak of him as recognizing these relationships. What arrant nonsense! Read a longer excerpt of Guangxian’s writings.

The 18th century marked a significant artistic flowering in China, with the production of exquisite blue and white porcelain with transparent enamels that were highly sought after in European cities. This cultural zenith was accompanied by remarkable population growth, with numbers swelling from 130 million in 1700 to 313 million by 1794. The introduction of corn from the Americas helped restore demographic balance between northern and southern China, complementing traditional crops like millet and sorghum. Additionally, peanuts and sweet potatoes, also from the Americas, further expanded agricultural production. As a result, China’s economy experienced significant growth, with merchants and artisans establishing guilds that provided security funds, insurance plans, and entertainment programs.

Ordinary Chinese people in the 18th century lived in a society deeply rooted in traditional values and religious practices. Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism provided comfort and guidance, with many seeking solace in temples, shrines, and through local deities. Women’s roles were predominantly domestic, with limited access to formal education and economic opportunities. However, some women found ways to empower themselves through religious practices, such as joining female monasteries or participating in Daoist rituals. The economy was largely agrarian, with peasants working land owned by wealthy landlords. Despite facing poverty and social inequality, religious festivals and celebrations offered moments of joy and social cohesion. In times of drought, famine, or personal crisis, ordinary people turned to divination, astrology, and spiritual healing for guidance.

Intellectually, 18th-century China experienced significant scientific and cultural achievements. Scholars such as Dai Zhen (1724-1777) and Ji Yun (1724-1805) made notable contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy. The Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735-1796) sponsored the compilation of the “Siku Quanshu” encyclopedia (1773-1782), a monumental work that encompassed a vast array of knowledge. Ming Antu (1736-1807), an astronomer and mathematician, authored influential treatises on calendrical reform and spherical trigonometry. Scholars like Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801) and Ruan Yuan (1764-1849) advanced historical research and literary criticism, reflecting the vibrant cultural landscape of the time. These intellectual accomplishments demonstrate how scholars and officials sought to reconcile traditional knowledge with new ideas and discoveries.

China’s military expansion during the early Qing period led to significant territorial gains, particularly in Central Asia. The Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727 forced Russia to acknowledge Chinese jurisdiction over the region. Simultaneously, Russia consolidated control over the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands. This period also saw the emergence of tribal rebellions, including uprisings in Yunnan, Guizhou, Gansu, and Guangxi. However, the most significant challenge to Qing authority came from the White Lotus rebellion, which simmered in western Sichuan from 1746 to 1776. This rebellion, sparked by economic hardship and impoverishment, would eventually spread to Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Hubei in 1795.

The White Lotus rebellion holds significant importance due to its distinct characteristics, particularly its strong religious undertones. Named after the White Lotus Society, a Buddhist millenarian movement influenced by Daoist teachings, this uprising was driven by ethnic Chinese individuals who sought spiritual salvation and social change. The rebels drew inspiration from Buddhist and Daoist texts, promising followers enlightenment, redemption, and deliverance from suffering. Their leader, Zhang Shihai (1774-1795), claimed to be the reincarnation of the Buddha Maitreya, the Buddha of Compassion and Enlightenment, sent to usher in a new era of peace and prosperity. By tapping into these deep-seated religious aspirations, the rebellion resonated with impoverished settlers, many of whom felt disillusioned with the Qing dynasty’s handling of economic and social issues.

The Qing dynasty’s response to the White Lotus rebellion was marked by brutality, with tens of thousands of rebels and civilians killed during the decade-long conflict (1794-1804). Ultimately, imperial forces suppressed the rebellion, but not before it had exposed weaknesses in the Qing administration. The White Lotus rebellion serves as a critical turning point in Chinese history, highlighting the growing discontent among the population and the need for reform. Its legacy would continue to shape the course of Chinese history, influencing subsequent rebellions and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the Qing dynasty.

This map shows the growth of the Qing Empire. (Source: Wikimedia)

JAPAN

Throughout the 18th century, Japan remained under the feudal rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate, with the Tokugawa line holding actual power. The Emperor, who was theoretically the head of the nation, had a largely ceremonial role and received a yearly stipend from the Shogun. In practice, the Shogun wielded substantial control, maintaining a large personal retinue to deter potential rivals. The Shogun was advised by a council of senior officials, and a Board of Censors monitored administrative offices and supervised the feudal lords, known as the Daimyo. This administrative structure ensured the Shogun’s dominance and the maintenance of the feudal hierarchy. The Shogun’s wealth and influence grew alongside Japan’s economic expansion.

Over a million samurai, the warrior caste, served the Shogun and Daimyo lords. Exempt from taxation, samurai received stipends from their lords and adhered to a strict code emphasizing bravery, asceticism, and self-discipline. As warfare diminished, the samurai’s role evolved, and they increasingly engaged in administrative, judicial, and intellectual tasks. Some samurai pursued careers in medicine, teaching, and scholarship, bridging the gap between military and civilian life. This transformation reflected Japan’s shifting needs as the nation transitioned from a primarily martial society to one requiring administrative and intellectual expertise.

During the 18th century, Japan’s shoguns increasingly embraced Confucianism, seeking to instill loyalty and obedience across society. However, this adoption of Chinese philosophical ideals sparked resistance from traditionalists who sought to revive native Japanese values. Scholars like Motoori Norinaga and Hirata Atsutane pioneered the field of kokogaku, or “National Learning,” which emphasized the Emperor’s divine authority and Japan’s mythic past, known as the “Age of the Gods.” This intellectual movement offered an alternative to Confucianism, promoting a distinct Japanese identity. Meanwhile, a small group of innovators began exploring Western civilization through Dutch language and literature, broadening Japan’s cultural horizons.

Urban centers such as Osaka, with over 500,000 inhabitants by 1783, and Edo (Tokyo), which was considerably larger than Paris, became major hubs of merchant activity. Craft guilds, officially recognized since 1721, expanded their networks and monopolies, resembling Western trading companies in their structure and influence. Japan’s growing economy and urbanization spurred increased social mobility and cultural exchange. Merchants gained social prestige through associations with samurai families, and the spread of education and scholarship contributed to a more literate and informed populace. Despite the persistence of feudal institutions, 18th-century Japan demonstrated signs of dynamism and adaptability, setting the stage for future transformations.

A map of Edo in the early 19th century (Source: Wikimedia)

Japan’s population remained relatively stable at 30 million during this peaceful century. However, the country faced significant challenges, including the devastating famine of 1732, which reduced nearly three million people to near starvation and claimed thousands of lives, as well as countless horses and cattle. Despite such setbacks, Japan’s agricultural sector experienced significant advancements. Improved seeds, irrigation systems, tools, and fertilizers made from natural materials like sardines, colza, soya, and cotton cake led to increased rice production. These innovations helped mitigate the effects of natural disasters and ensured a more stable food supply, contributing to Japan’s overall economic growth and development.

Economic life for ordinary Japanese in the 18th century was largely agrarian, with most people living in rural villages. Men worked as farmers, artisans, or merchants, while women managed household chores, raised children, and contributed to family industries like textile production. Family life was patriarchal, with the eldest son inheriting property and social status. Women’s roles were restricted, but some gained influence through managing household finances or participating in local festivals. The majority of the population lived in poverty, with limited access to education and social mobility. However, the urban centers of Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka offered opportunities for commerce and cultural exchange. Merchants and artisans formed guilds to protect their interests, and some women worked as entertainers, tea servants, or midwives.

Religion played a vital role in ordinary Japanese life. Buddhism and Shintoism coexisted, with many practicing both. Shintoism, the indigenous faith of the Japanese, emphasized harmony with nature and reverence for kami (spirits or deities). Shinto rituals focused on purification, fertility, and protection. At home, families honored ancestors and kami with daily offerings and prayers. Publicly, festivals like the Cherry Blossom Viewing (Hanami) and Star Festival (Tanabata) brought communities together. Shinto priests (kannushi) performed ceremonies, such as the New Year’s (Oshogatsu) ritual, to ensure prosperity and good fortune. Buddhist temples, meanwhile, offered spiritual guidance, education, and social services. Many Japanese incorporated Buddhist practices, like meditation and sutra recitation, into daily life. This blend of Shinto and Buddhist traditions provided a rich spiritual framework for navigating life’s challenges and celebrating its joys.

Watch and Learn

Learn more about the traditional Japanese Shinto Religion (its history, practices, and beliefs) in this short video by the Asian History Museum.

KOREA

During the 18th century, Korea, then under the Joseon Dynasty, continued to deal with the aftermath of the Japanese invasions of the 1590s. This period of turmoil left a lasting impact on Korean policy and identity. The Joseon Dynasty, which had adopted elements of Confucianism and Chinese bureaucratic structures since the 10th century, used these frameworks to govern, educate, and maintain social order. The traumatic experience of the Japanese invasions, however, reinforced Korea’s isolationist stance, leading to its characterization as the “Hermit Kingdom.” The Joseon rulers sought to protect sovereignty and preserve traditional values by limiting foreign contact.

Intellectual and cultural life thrived in Korea during the 17th and 18th centuries. Scholars like Yi Ik (1681-1763) and Kim Yuk (1570-1655) contributed significantly to moral philosophy and the application of Confucian principles in Korean society. The construction of the Hyeonchungsa Shrine in 1706, dedicated to Admiral Yi Sun-sin, exemplified Korea’s reverence for national heroes. Yi Sun-sin, honored as “Yi Chungmu Gong” (Loyalty and Martial Virtue Lord), was celebrated for his resistance against Japanese invasions, reflecting Korea’s deep-seated values of loyalty and honor.

Korea’s isolationist policies persisted throughout the 18th century, limiting trade and cultural exchange with Western nations. Despite this, the era saw significant advancements in agriculture, literature, and art. Innovations in farming techniques and tools improved rice production, helping to alleviate famines and stabilize the population. Korean literature flourished with notable works such as “The Tale of Chunhyang,” a classic story of romance and loyalty, which became widely recognized during this period. These cultural achievements highlighted Korea’s resilience and creativity despite its self-imposed isolation. As the 19th century approached, Korea faced increasing pressures from Western powers and the encroaching influence of imperialism.

MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA

Buddhism was at the heart of both Myanmar and Thai ethnic identities, so that the fate of the religion was intertwined with the fate of these two nations. In Myanmar (also referred to as Burma), the Mons rebelled in 1740, setting up their own kingdom at Pegu and capturing the Myanmar capital, Ava, in 1752. A new Myanmar leader, Alaungpaya (1714-1760), defeated the Mons, founding Rangoon in 1755 and re-uniting Myanmar. In 1759, his forces defeated the British East India Company on the island of Negrais forcing them to leave Myanmar. Between 1760 and 1769, the Chinese invaded four times in an unsuccessful attempt to control the territory. They finally succeeded in making Myanmar a vassal state in 1771. Myanmar warred with Thailand (also referred to as Siam) late in the 18th century in an attempt to expand their territory. Thailand continued to be a large country and extended down the Malay peninsula almost to Penang.

The 18th century was a transformative period for Thailand, marked by turmoil and cultural resurgence. In 1767, the Thai capital of Ayudhya suffered devastating destruction at the hands of Myanmar forces, who ravaged buildings, artwork, and claimed the lives or captivity of royal family members. However, this dark chapter gave way to a new era of prosperity with the expulsion of the Myanmar in 1782 and the establishment of the Chakri dynasty. King Rama I (1730-1809), the dynasty’s founder, spearheaded a cultural revival, exemplified by the construction of Wat Phra Kaew, a majestic Theravada Buddhist temple, in 1785. This iconic temple housed the revered Emerald Buddha, a sacred symbol of Thai identity and Buddhism.

A view of Wat Phra Kaew from the outer courtyard (Source: Wikimedia)

Under Rama I’s rule, Thai art, literature, and music flourished, with influences from Ayudhya’s rich cultural heritage and neighboring kingdoms. Classical Thai dance, music, and theater, such as the Ramakien (Thai Ramayana), experienced a resurgence, while artisans refined traditional crafts like woodcarving, silk weaving, and ceramics. As the Chakri dynasty took root, Thailand began to reassert its position as a major power in Southeast Asia, laying the groundwork for its future growth and cultural evolution.

In the 18th century, the Kingdom of Luang Prabang (now part of modern Laos) was a significant power in the region, although it was often overshadowed by its southern neighbor, Vientiane, which became an independent entity in 1707. Laotian culture thrived with the strong influence of Theravada Buddhism, which shaped daily life and interacted with animist and Hindu traditions. Festivals such as Boun Bang Fai (Rocket Festival) and Boun Suang Heua (Boat Racing Festival) celebrated local traditions, while art forms like woodcarving and silk weaving were highly developed. Scholars focused on Buddhist scriptures, the Pali language, and traditional literature, including the epic poem “Phra Lak Phra Lam.” Notable architectural achievements included Vientiane’s Pha That Luang and Luang Prabang’s Wat Xieng Thong. Politically, Luang Prabang maintained relations with its neighbors, while Vietnam to the east had a different trajectory, with the Nguyễn Lords expanding their influence.

Vietnam was politically divided between the Trịnh Lords in the north and the Nguyễn Lords in the south in the 18th century. Vietnamese culture flourished with a blend of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, influencing intellectual and spiritual life. Scholars studied classical Chinese texts and produced significant works like Nguyễn Trãi’s “Bình Ngô Đại Cáo.” The rich artistic heritage included silk painting, woodblock printing, and ceramics. The Nguyễn Lords expanded Vietnam’s borders, conquering the Mekong Delta and establishing trade relations with European powers. However, internal conflicts and external pressures from China and Siam (Thailand) were significant challenges. By 1788, the Tây Sơn Dynasty briefly unified Vietnam, but the Nguyễn Dynasty ultimately established dominance in 1802.

In Cambodia, the 18th century was marked by decline and fragmentation. The once-mighty Khmer Empire had broken into smaller kingdoms, vulnerable to encroachment by neighboring powers. The Ayutthaya Kingdom (Thailand) exerted significant influence over western Cambodia, while the Nguyen Lords of Vietnam controlled the eastern regions. In 1760, the Cambodian king, Ang Bor, sought Chinese protection, leading to a brief period of tributary status. However, Cambodia’s strategic location along the Mekong River ensured its continued importance as a trade hub. Despite internal turmoil and external pressures, Cambodian culture persevered, with artisans continuing to produce exquisite works of art, and Theravada Buddhism remaining a unifying force.

Thus, in the 18th century, the cultural and intellectual life of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar reflected a vibrant exchange of traditions and ideas, despite regional challenges. In Thailand, the establishment of the Chakri dynasty under King Rama I (1730-1809) marked a renaissance in cultural and artistic endeavors. The construction of the Wat Phra Kaew and the promotion of Thai literature and art underscored a period of cultural flourishing and national pride. In Myanmar, the rise of Alaungpaya (1714-1760) and the subsequent consolidation of the kingdom led to a revival in the study of Pali literature and Theravada Buddhism, which influenced both local practices and regional interactions. Cambodia, during a period of relative instability, continued to embrace its rich Angkor heritage, with scholars and artisans maintaining traditional Khmer art and literature. This cultural continuity, coupled with the influx of new ideas from neighboring regions and trading partners, created a dynamic intellectual environment that shaped the region’s cultural landscape.

INDONESIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS

In the 18th century, Indonesians actively shaped their archipelago through vibrant cultural, trade, and political activities. The region was home to diverse kingdoms and sultanates, each enriching the cultural tapestry. Notable centers of culture and learning included the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, which preserved and advanced Javanese traditions, and the Bugis and Makassarese peoples of Sulawesi, who maintained their cultural and political autonomy. These kingdoms engaged in intricate trade networks and regional alliances, highlighting Indonesia’s strategic significance. The archipelago’s location facilitated connections with markets in China, India, and the Middle East, positioning Indonesian merchants as crucial players in global trade.

The introduction of coffee cultivation and other cash crops in the 18th century revolutionized Indonesia’s economy.  Indonesian merchants had already woven the archipelago into global trade networks, with the Dutch East India Company (VOC), established in 1602, playing a significant but not exclusive role. Indonesian traders and their networks were crucial in expanding the region’s economic connections, trading spices, textiles, and other commodities. This vibrant exchange of goods not only bolstered economic ties but also facilitated a rich cultural dialogue, as the flow of ideas and Islamic intellectual currents contributed to the development of unique Indonesian traditions.

Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, profoundly influenced ordinary Indonesians during this period. Sufi practices and teachings provided spiritual guidance and community cohesion across the archipelago. Orders such as the Naqshbandi and Qadiri adapted Islamic teachings to local contexts, blending spirituality with traditional practices. Sufi rituals and festivals became integral to social and spiritual life, with Sufi leaders serving as mediators, educators, and custodians of cultural heritage. Through Sufism, Indonesians navigated colonial pressures while preserving their cultural and spiritual identities.

Indonesia’s cultural landscape thrived with significant artistic and literary achievements. Traditional art forms like batik, woodcarving, and puppetry flourished. The Wayang Wong, a traditional Javanese dance, and the Angklung, a Sundanese instrument, exemplified the region’s rich heritage. Literary works, including the Syair and Babad, showcased Indonesian storytelling and poetic traditions, reflecting a blend of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Indonesian artisans adapted their crafts to changing market demands and cultural exchanges.

At the same time, Indonesians made progress in science and technology. Scholars like Yasadipura I (1723-1803), who wrote extensively on innovative irrigation techniques, crop rotation, and soil conservation in his agricultural treatise “Serat Kalatidha”, contributed significantly to agricultural advancements. Administrators like Raden Adipati Danureja (1730-1805) implemented irrigation systems, introduced double-cropping techniques, and developed infrastructure, increasing rice production in Central Java. Maritime trade facilitated the transfer of knowledge and innovations, such as navigation and shipbuilding, with sailors like Haji Ibrahim (mid-18th century) mapping trade routes between Indonesia and the Middle East and introducing Arabic navigation techniques. Local healers, including traditional medicine experts like Syekh Muhammad Arsyad al-Banjari (1710-1812), advanced traditional medicine systems, integrating Islamic and indigenous knowledge.

In 18th-century Indonesia, everyday life was shaped by a rich tapestry of religious, economic, and social forces. Islam was prominent in many regions, including Java, Sumatra, and Malay-speaking areas, where it had a strong influence on daily life and governance. Christianity had established a presence in parts of the archipelago, such as Ambon and Minahasa in the Moluccas and in Portuguese-influenced regions of East Nusa Tenggara, including Timor and Flores. Indigenous religions continued to thrive in areas like Bali, Kalimantan, Papua, and Sulawesi, where traditional practices and beliefs remained integral to community life. Hindu-Buddhist traditions also persisted, particularly in Bali and Lombok, reflecting the region’s historical religious diversity.

This rich religious diversity influenced daily life, with many communities blending elements from multiple faiths, creating unique local practices. Economically, villagers engaged in subsistence farming, fishing, and artisanal crafts, with women playing crucial roles in textile production and trade. Gender roles varied significantly across regions; while women enjoyed relative autonomy in some areas, in others they faced more restrictions. Family life was often extended, with multiple generations living together in close-knit communities. Social hierarchy was influenced by Islamic, aristocratic, and indigenous traditions, with roles of authority held by nobles, Islamic scholars, village elders, and Christian clergy.

By the late 18th century, Indonesia’s strategic importance had drawn European powers, including the Dutch, British, and French, setting the stage for colonial domination. The Dutch East India Company’s (VOC) expanding influence paved the way for increased colonial control, foreshadowing the Dutch colonization that would soon envelop the archipelago. Yet, Indonesians continued to resist and adapt, with local leaders and communities preserving their cultural heritage and autonomy. As the 18th century drew to a close, Indonesia’s complex history was shaped by remarkable cultural achievements, scientific advancements, and the enduring challenges of colonialism. Despite impending foreign domination, the resilience and diversity of Indonesia’s people ensured that their cultural identity and spirit of independence would endure, setting the stage for Indonesia’s long struggle for independence, which would last until the 20th century.