18 EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

CHINA AND MANCHURIA

The Ming dynasty reached its lowest point in the early 17th century, as a period of cooling in the northern hemisphere, known as the Little Ice Age, brought severe temperatures and droughts to various regions. This phenomenon, which lasted from the 14th to the 19th century, caused global temperatures to drop, leading to crop failures, famines, and other natural disasters. In China, the effects were particularly devastating, with floods ravaging some areas while droughts and cold temperatures led to widespread famine in others. Farmers who suffered crop failures or inherited insufficient land struggled to pay taxes and rents, while those who could afford to pay faced difficulties in procuring the required silver.

To address the silver shortage, the emperor dispatched court officials to the provinces to inspect mines and confiscate silver from merchants. This exacerbated the situation and contributed to the unrest. The imperial government’s financial woes led to the dismissal of soldiers, who subsequently joined the growing ranks of discontented peasants. In 1627-1628, this volatile mix of hunger, poverty, and anger ignited a wave of revolts in northern China.

The aftermath of 1627 saw a surge in peasant uprisings, triggered by successive crop failures in the northwest. By 1636, a vast region of central, northern, and northwestern China was engulfed in rebellion. Li Zicheng, a rebel leader from Honan, breached Beijing’s defenses in 1644 and declared himself China’s ruler, marking the end of the Ming dynasty. However, his tenure was short-lived, as the Manchus ultimately succeeded him as China’s rulers.

The Manchus were members of an ethnic group that lived northeast of the Great Wall in southern Manchuria.  In the late sixteenth century, the Manchu leader Nurhaci formed the Manchu tribes into a state that paid tribute to the Ming emperor. In 1616, as the Ming dynasty began to collapse, the Manchus attacked Chinese settlements on the Liaodong Peninsula. They forced artisans to provide weapons for their army and farmers to provide food. Officials and army officers who were willing to submit to them were given positions in the Manchu administration. Those who rebelled were massacred.

Following Nurhaci’s death in 1626, his son Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the leader of the Qing (“pure,” “clear”) dynasty. As he expanded Manchu control over Chinese territory, he adopted Chinese forms of administration and incorporated greater numbers of Chinese officials in his government. Chinese bureaucrats and army officers, disgusted with the corruption of the Ming government and its inability to respond to the country’s problems, began to defect to the Manchus in large numbers. Fearing ongoing chaos following Li Zicheng’s capture of Beijing, Ming general Wu Sangui, who was charged with guarding the eastern end of the Great Wall, allowed the Manchu armies through. On May 27, 1644, Wu Sangui’s troops and Manchu forces defeated Li Zicheng’s army and took control of Beijing. The Manchu armies swept south, but Ming resistance there was fierce, and it was not until 1683 that all of China was brought under Manchu control.

Many Chinese people had feared that the Manchu conquerors would be ruthless rulers, but the early Qing emperors proved to be effective and fair administrators. Despite initial concerns among the Chinese population, the Manchus maintained their own identity while also embracing Chinese culture and traditions. However, they ensured their dominance by reserving key positions for Manchus, such as supervisory roles in government, while delegating local positions to Han Chinese bureaucrats. To demonstrate loyalty, all males, including Chinese citizens, were required to wear the distinctive Manchu hairstyle, known as the queue (a shaved forehead with a long-braided tail of hair at the back of the head), after 1645. Failure to comply was punishable by execution, causing concern among those who resisted the new rule.

The first Qing emperor, Kangxi (r. 1661-1722), embarked on a tour of China to familiarize himself with his new domain, alleviating concerns among the Chinese elite about the Manchus’ intentions. He adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system, appointing Manchu and Han Chinese co-administrators to lead each of the six major ministries, which reassured Chinese officials who had served under the Ming dynasty. Kangxi governed according to Confucian principles, maintaining the imperial examination system for government positions, which addressed concerns among Confucian scholars. Initially, the Manchus were hesitant to intermingle with their Chinese subjects, causing concern among those who feared cultural suppression. However, they eventually became culturally assimilated, presenting themselves as restorers of good Confucian rule and collaborating with local elites to form the Qing Dynasty.

A portrait of the Emperor Kangxi in Court Dress by an anonymous court painter. (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

Kangxi, like his Chinese predecessors, supported Buddhism and tolerated other religions, including Christianity, as long as they respected authority and ancestral traditions. He and his successors, Yongzheng and Qianlong, believed that by emphasizing traditional Confucian values and moral standards, they could secure China’s financial future by promoting social stability, encouraging hard work and frugality, and ensuring a well-ordered society. Qing scholars believed that the Ming dynasty’s downfall was due to its lax morality, brought on by wealth and luxury, which had led to corruption and mismanagement. By stressing the importance of Confucian principles, such as ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), and li (etiquette), they aimed to create a more disciplined and responsible elite, which would in turn manage the economy effectively and maintain social harmony. This focus on traditional values shaped the Qing dynasty’s approach to governance and society.

In 17th-century China, agriculture was the primary occupation, but the country was also renowned for its highly skilled artisans. The cotton industry, centered in Songjiang, employed a staggering 200,000 workers, excluding tailors and dressmakers. By the late 1600s, China’s population had surged to 130 million, leading to increased competition for land and resources among peasants. As trade flourished, the wealth gap between the merchant and elite classes and the peasants widened, perpetuating the difficulties faced by rural communities. Furthermore, the economy relied heavily on silver, with China absorbing significant amounts of American silver between 1527 and 1821. This influx of silver facilitated foreign trade, which remained a crucial component of China’s economy during the Qing dynasty.

For ordinary Chinese, life in the 17th century was marked by rigid social hierarchies and gender roles. Men were expected to work outside the home, either in agriculture or artisanal trades, while women were confined to domestic duties, such as spinning, weaving, and childcare. Women’s feet were often bound, limiting their mobility and opportunities. Social mobility was limited, and education was reserved for the elite. Most people practiced a blend of Buddhism, Daoism, and ancestor worship, with many visiting local temples and making offerings to ensure good fortune and prosperity. Despite these difficulties, ordinary Chinese people found ways to express themselves, such as through the popular folk art of paper cutting, which allowed them to create intricate designs and tell stories. For example, peasant women would create elaborate paper cutouts to decorate their homes and share with neighbors during festivals, showcasing their creativity and community spirit.

The Qing dynasty expanded China’s borders, gaining control over vast non-ethnic Chinese territories, including the Manchu homelands, northern and western regions, and Central Asia. This expansion transformed Central Asia, a historic hub of Eurasian trade, as merchants traversed the Silk Road. Under Chinese rule, Central Asia’s significance diminished, a trend continued by subsequent Russian rule. By extending its borders, the Qing dynasty solidified its position as a dominant power in the region, while also minimizing contact with Europeans, much like the Japanese. The Qing’s expansionist policies allowed them to assert control over a vast and diverse territory, shaping the course of Chinese history.

JAPAN

As the 17th century began, Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated his rival generals and became the new shogun in 1603. To consolidate power, Ieyasu established a kind of stable, centralized feudalism in which subdued regional warriors kept top status but were now subordinate to overall Tokugawa dominance. Thus, the leader (daimyo) of each regional realm (han) was expected to spend significant time in attendance to the Tokugawa shoguns at Edo, and when back in their hans, to leave wives and heirs in Edo as hostages. Although in theory Japan’s ancient imperial family was the source of ultimate authority, in reality the shoguns (which, roughly translated, means hereditary military dictators) of the Tokugawa family held dominant ruling power until 1868, when they were overthrown in the Meiji Restoration. Their rule was characterized by peace, but also by the development of rigid class distinctions and isolation from outsiders.

In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu emerged victorious over his rival generals and seized the position of shogun, marking the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To solidify his control, Ieyasu implemented a centralized feudal system, where regional warriors retained their elite status but were now subordinate to the Tokugawa regime. This system required regional leaders, known as daimyos, to spend considerable time attending to the Tokugawa shoguns in Edo, leaving their wives and heirs behind as hostages. Although the ancient imperial family was theoretically the ultimate authority, the Tokugawa shoguns wielded actual power, ruling with an iron fist until their overthrow in 1868 during the Meiji Restoration. Their reign was characterized by a period of relative peace, but also by the entrenchment of rigid social hierarchies and a policy of isolationism, shutting Japan off from the outside world.

A 17th portrait of Tokuwaga Ieyasu (Source: Wikimedia)

The Tokugawa Shogunate perpetuated the rigid class system established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, solidifying the elite status of warriors and restricting social mobility. The traditional Confucian classes – warriors, merchants, artisans, and peasants – were legally fixed, with little to no opportunity for advancement. Daimyos and samurai, comprising only one percent of the population, held the highest social positions, while the majority were relegated to lower classes. Despite their secondary status, merchants experienced growing prosperity due to increased travel requirements and peace.

The Tokugawa era saw a cultural renaissance, with daimyos establishing schools for their vassals’ sons, teaching Chinese classics, Confucianism, and military skills. Temple schools educated artisans’ and merchants’ children, contributing to Japan’s high literacy rate and thriving publishing industry. People from all walks of life enjoyed leisure activities like dining, theater, and travel to Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. Religion played a significant role in everyday life, providing comfort, community, and moral guidance. However, it also perpetuated social hierarchies and gender roles, with certain sects, such as the Shinzei branch of Pure Land Buddhism, restricting women’s participation and reinforcing patriarchal norms. Despite these complexities, religion remained a vital aspect of Japanese culture, shaping art, literature, and spirituality.

As the Tokugawa regime solidified its power, Japan’s interactions with European powers increased, leading to a growing presence of Christian missionaries. While some Japanese embraced Christianity, others saw it as a threat to traditional values and the established order. Tokugawa Ieyasu’s concern about Christianity was primarily political, not religious. He feared that Christian converts could become loyal to European powers rather than the Tokugawa regime, potentially threatening his control. This concern was exacerbated by European colonial expansion in Asia and the potential for Christian daimyos to conspire against him. In 1614, Ieyasu banned Christianity, expelled missionaries, and threatened Japanese Christians with death if they didn’t renounce their faith. By doing so, he aimed to prevent political subversion and maintain control. To further secure his rule, Ieyasu also prohibited foreigners from entering Japan and Japanese from leaving, effectively isolating the country from external influences.

The Edo period, spanning from 1603 to 1867, was a time of relative peace and stability in Japan under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate. During this era, Japan’s population shifted as cities grew, and more people entered the artisanal and merchant classes. However, the restrictive Tokugawa regime limited women’s rights, stripping them of property ownership and the ability to initiate divorce. This was part of a broader societal shift that reinforced patriarchal norms and gender hierarchies, influenced by a complex mix of factors, including Confucianism, Shintoism, and existing social customs. Meanwhile, the Tokugawa Shogunate maintained a unique balance of power, concentrating authority at the top while allowing daimyos some autonomy and their own armies. Unlike European absolute monarchies, which centralized power and encouraged commercial growth, the Tokugawa Shogunate balanced power between the shogun and daimyos, and restricted commercial development to maintain control.

The Tokugawa regime distinctively blended warrior ideals with civilian-based governance, banning war and emphasizing isolationism. Christianity was prohibited, and contact with Western powers was severely restricted, with only limited Dutch trade allowed. Japanese citizens were forbidden from leaving the country, and diplomatic relations were solely maintained with Korea. This isolationist policy allowed the Tokugawa Shogunate to maintain control and minimize external influences, setting Japan apart from European absolute monarchies, which engaged in international trade and diplomacy.