2 AFRICA

NORTHEAST AFRICA

In the 16th century, a long-standing trading rivalry between Ethiopia and neighboring coastal states in the Horn of Africa escalated into a bitter conflict, fueled by religious and political tensions. The Muslim Sultan of Adal (located in present-day Somalia and Ethiopia), Ahmad Gran (1506-1543), launched an invasion of Ethiopia in the 1530s, backed by Somali nomadic warriors. In response, the Ethiopian Emperor, ruler of a nation that had adopted Christianity in the 4th century, sought military aid from the Christian Portuguese. The arrival of Portuguese soldiers in 1541 significantly bolstered Ethiopian resistance, enabling them to repel the invaders by 1543.

This conflict had far-reaching consequences, as Ethiopia came under Catholic influence for the first time, thanks to the Portuguese assistance. Jesuits accompanying the Portuguese attempted to convert Ethiopians from their traditional Coptic Christianity to Roman Catholicism, but their efforts ultimately failed, leading to the expulsion of all Catholic missionaries from Ethiopia in the 17th century.

Meanwhile, in another significant development, the Funj people established a powerful kingdom centered around Sennar on the Blue Nile, which emerged as a major economic and military force in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Ethiopian religious art depicting Mary and Jesus flanked by Archangels, Apostles and a Saint from the late 15th century. (Source: Khan Academy)

NORTH AFRICA

In Egypt, the last Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri (1441-1516), a scholarly man who rose to power late in life, focused on protecting his people from Ottoman attempts to seize control. However, his efforts ultimately failed when the Ottoman Sultan, Selim I (1465-1520), defeated the Mamluk army in Syria in 1516, establishing Ottoman control over Egypt and the Hejaz (present-day western Saudi Arabia).

As the Portuguese expanded their military and economic activities in the 16th century, they sought to control key ports in northwest Africa, specifically in modern-day Morocco. The Moroccans fiercely resisted, and in the Battle of Alcácer Quibir on August 4, 1578, they defeated the Portuguese army, preserving their independence for over 50 years. Morocco was the only North African state to remain free from European and Ottoman control in the 16th century.

Further east, in what is now Tunisia and Algeria, a band of pirates thrived until they were captured by Spanish forces using advanced artillery in 1509 and 1510. However, in 1516, a pirate named Khair ed-Din Khizr (also known as Barbarossa due to his red hair) led an insurrection against the Spanish, freeing both the pirates and the region from Spanish control. To secure support against potential Spanish retaliation, Barbarossa pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan, Selim I, who had recently defeated the Mamluks. Together, the Ottomans and Barbarossa’s pirates waged war across North Africa, becoming the dominant political and military force in the region.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

In the early 16th century, Askia Muhammad I, also known as Askia the Great (1493-1528), ruled the Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay), which had been significantly expanded by Sonni Ali in the 15th century. Askia Muhammad I both strengthened and expanded the empire, making it the largest in West African history. At its peak under his leadership, the Songhai Empire encompassed the Hausa states, reaching as far as Kano (in present-day Nigeria), and included much of the territory that had previously belonged to the Mali Empire in the west. The empire featured several large commercial cities, including the renowned city of Timbuktu. Timbuktu was a center of culture and diversity, where people from various regions of Africa lived harmoniously. Merchants from numerous cities throughout North Africa gathered there to trade gold, salt, cloth, and horses in its bustling markets.

A map shows the geographic expanse of the Songhai Empire under Askia (Source: Wikimedia)

One of Askia Muhammad I’s primary objectives was to control access to the major trade routes across the Sahara. The Songhai Empire’s wealth continued to rely heavily on agricultural production centered around the Niger floodplain and taxes on trade goods, especially gold and salt, both of which had also been vital to the economy of the Mali Empire. While gold remained the main commodity transported along the trans-Saharan trade routes, enslaved captives and kola nuts were also significant exports. The empire imported various goods, including Saharan salt, luxury items, horses, and cloth. Askia did more to regulate trans-Saharan trade than any of his predecessors by introducing standardized weights and measures and employing trade inspectors at each of the empire’s major trade centers.

Askia’s policies encouraged trade with both Europe and Asia, the building of schools, and the establishment of Islam as central to the empire’s political and cultural administration. He built religious schools, constructed mosques, and welcomed scholars and poets from across the Muslim world to his court. Many Islamic scholars lived and worked in the empire, making it an important center of learning. In Timbuktu, literacy and books were seen as symbols of wealth and power, and the acquisition of manuscripts became a major focus for scholars. Askia’s support led to the writing and distribution of thousands of manuscripts, which were spread from Timbuktu throughout North Africa. Despite his promotion of Islam, Askia was tolerant of other religions and did not impose Islam on his people, allowing many in rural areas to continue practicing their ancestral traditions.

Askia the Great also transformed Songhai governance by establishing an efficient bureaucracy responsible for tax collection and civil justice. He oversaw the construction of canals to enhance agriculture and moved away from relying on traditional rulers to administer the provinces. Instead, he appointed members of the royal family or trusted servants as provincial governors, making them entirely dependent on the king and ensuring their loyalty. This shift from traditional rulers strengthened the centralization of the state, reducing the risk of provincial officials exploiting dynastic struggles to assert their authority or form breakaway regions.

The significance of Askia the Great’s leadership cannot be overstated. His visionary approach to governance and trade helped solidify the Songhai Empire as a dominant force in West Africa, making it a center of economic, cultural, and intellectual activity. By fostering education, supporting Islamic scholarship, and promoting religious tolerance, Askia set a precedent for cultural flourishing that would influence the region for generations. His administrative reforms and emphasis on centralized power not only stabilized the empire during his reign but also left a lasting legacy of effective governance. Although the empire eventually declined after his rule, the achievements of Askia the Great continue to be celebrated as a high point in African history.

As Askia the Great aged, his power began to decline. In 1528, his sons revolted and declared their brother Musa as king. However, Musa’s leadership was short-lived, as he was overthrown just three years later in 1531. This internal strife marked the beginning of the Songhai Empire’s decline. Askia’s sons and grandsons were unable to govern effectively, leading to political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire. This instability weakened the Songhai Empire and provided an opportunity for Morocco to invade. The Moroccans seized control of the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold, and by 1591, the once-unified Songhai Empire had fallen to the Moroccans and was politically fragmented.

Africa’s trade network extended beyond the Sahara Desert. The east coast was home to prosperous city-states that engaged in maritime trade with the Arabian Peninsula, India, and regions farther east. These coastal city-states, like those in the Songhai Empire, connected Africa to global trade networks, facilitating the exchange of highly valued goods across three continents.

The people of the coast spoke Swahili, a language blending Bantu grammar and Arabic vocabulary, enabling diverse ethnic groups to trade and communicate effectively. Many converted to Islam, which eased interactions with Arab and Persian merchants and sailors, and facilitated trade with Muslim merchants in North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Swahili coast’s version of Islam was unique, incorporating pre-Islamic African traditions, such as ancestor veneration and rituals to ward off spirits, alongside Islamic practices. This blending of traditions allowed for a distinct cultural identity to flourish.

Women in Swahili society played a significant role in trade and commerce, often managing households and overseeing the distribution of goods. For example, Fatima al-Mashati (fl. 16th century), a wealthy merchant and landowner from Kilwa, was known for her extensive trade networks and her influence on the island’s politics. Women also participated in the production of textiles, pottery, and other crafts, which were highly valued in the regional trade networks. In addition, women in Swahili society generally held higher social status than in other Muslim societies, with more freedom to move about and engage in public life. This relative autonomy allowed them to play a crucial role in shaping the cultural and economic landscape of the Swahili coast.

A variety of goods were traded in Swahili cities, including gold, iron, copper, salt, valuable hardwoods, ivory, tortoise shells, and animal hides. These products were transported from the African interior and used locally or traded across Africa, Arabia, Persia, and India, with some reaching Southeast Asia or China. Artisans produced pottery and textiles that entered trade networks within Africa and beyond. Goods from Asia, like Indian glass beads, Chinese silks, and porcelain, were highly prized by Swahili elites, who incorporated them into their daily lives.

In the early 16th century, Portugal sought to control the wealth of the Swahili coast. The Swahili city-states had long been rivals in trade, and their history of competition prevented them from unifying against the threat of Portuguese domination. Portugal expanded its influence along the Swahili coast, establishing trading posts and exerting control over key ports. The coastal city-states, having never before faced significant attacks from the sea, were unprepared for the Portuguese assaults, as their ports were not fortified for defense. Both the Ottomans and the Somalis from the Mogadishu region resented Portuguese intrusion into East Africa. Beginning in the second half of the 1500s, joint Somali-Ottoman attacks severely disrupted Portuguese efforts to maintain control over the region.

Further south, the collapse of Great Zimbabwe in the 15th century led to the rise of the Kingdom of Mutapa as a powerful political force. Archaeological evidence indicates that Great Zimbabwe had been a significant center of trade, with connections to eastern Africa and as far away as China. Excavations have uncovered Chinese pottery shards, Arabian coins, glass beads, and other non-local items. International trade, especially in gold and ivory, was vital to the region. Some estimates suggest that over 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from Zimbabwean mines. Local trade, particularly in cattle, was also important for the economy.

Great Zimbabwe is notable for its advanced masonry techniques. (Source: Wikimedia)

Scholars have debated the reasons for Great Zimbabwe’s decline, with most agreeing that it resulted from a combination of economic challenges, including the depletion of gold mines, political instability, famine, and drought. In the mid-1400s, Prince Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe in search of salt among the Shona-Tavara. He defeated the Tonga and Tavara and established the Kingdom of Mutapa. By the beginning of the 16th century, Mutapa had eclipsed Great Zimbabwe as the dominant economic and political power in the region. In the 16th century, the king of Mutapa, Mwenemutapa I (c. 1500-1560), expanded his territory, establishing a new capital on the northern edge of the Rhodesian plateau.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish trading relationships with the peoples of sub-Saharan Africa. Between 1505 and 1507, they established significant outposts in the trading centers of Sofala and Kilwa Kisiwani and began exploring the Zambezi River in 1513. The Portuguese were primarily focused on capturing and transporting slaves.

The arrival of Europeans in Africa in the 16th century marks a significant transition in African history. Before this period, African communities were vibrant centers of cultural and technological development. These communities had established extensive trade networks, developed iron-smelting technology, and utilized plow agriculture and irrigation systems to support large populations. Direct contact with Europe brought profound changes as Africans became enmeshed in the Columbian Exchange. Scholars estimate that between the 15th and 19th centuries, 13 million Africans were forcibly taken from their homes and communities and transported to the Americas as part of the transatlantic slave trade. This trade shifted the locus of power in Africa from the interior to the coastal regions. Africans also participated in the Columbian Exchange by adopting new crops, such as maize, and developing varieties adapted to local environments.