"This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae ... more "This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae for the information they can provide about the organization of artists in the 21st Dynasty and 22nd Dynasty. It is an inquiry into the relationship between visual representations on funerary papyri of the 21st Dynasty and wooden funerary stelae of the 22nd Dynasty. An attempt is made to determine whether it is possible to identify the work of individual artists and workshops involved in producing the illustrated funerary papyri and wooden stelae, and in what way they may be related. This study covers a representative sample of workshops or individuals from about the middle 21st Dynasty to the early 22nd Dynasty.
Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible.
It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty.
From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five.
It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop."
"From the late 21st through the 22nd Dynasty there was a visible decrease in the quantity and det... more "From the late 21st through the 22nd Dynasty there was a visible decrease in the quantity and deterioration of quality of the funerary ensemble of private citizens in Thebes, Egypt. These changes correspond to the new rule by the Libyan-Bubastite kings of the 22nd Dynasty, and the imposition of tighter controls on the funerary ensemble for Theban citizens. This coincides with extensive transformations within the cult of the dead, such as, the abandonment of over-ground tomb structures, the
placement of stelae, changes in format and function of the stelae. The second section of this paper, deals with the grouping of stelae into workshops based on predetermined characteristics. The workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a standardization of format and style. The iconography is restricted to the employment of a few symbols. The stelae
from the late 22nd Dynasty display deterioration in the quality of
execution. However, there is a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire, and a shift back towards the emphasis on Osiris. This is in keeping with political changes of time, namely, the acceptance of the 23rd
Dynasty by the denizens of Thebes."
The 21st and 22nd Dynasties are characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, soc... more The 21st and 22nd Dynasties are characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, social, cultural and economic arenas. There appears to be a general improvement in the status of women within the Theban social structure during the 21st Dynasty. A relationship was noted between the representation of gender on the funerary ensemble and the prosperity of the women in the 21st and 22nd Dynasty. It was observed that during the 21st Dynasty, there does not appear to be any difference in funerary paraphernalia and decoration between males and females in the 21st Dynasty. However, by the 22nd Dynasty, it was seen that there was a trend back to the “traditional” canon of gender differentiation and representation, indicating a link to the declining importance and prosperity of the Theban priesthood of Amun as a result of the centralization of power by the ruling Libyan dynasty at Tanis.
""This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funer... more ""This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae for the information they can provide about the organization of artists in the 21st Dynasty and 22nd Dynasty. It is an inquiry into the relationship between visual representations on funerary papyri of the 21st Dynasty and wooden funerary stelae of the 22nd Dynasty. An attempt is made to determine whether it is possible to identify the work of individual artists and workshops involved in producing the illustrated funerary papyri and wooden stelae, and in what way they may be related. This study covers a representative sample of workshops or individuals from about the middle 21st Dynasty to the early 22nd Dynasty. Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible. It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty. From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five. It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop.""
The ichneumon, or Egyptian mongoose, has a long history of representation in the funerary context... more The ichneumon, or Egyptian mongoose, has a long history of representation in the funerary context, where, in the Old Kingdom, it was often depicted in marsh scenes clambering up papyrus stalks, hunting, and feeding. In several Twenty-First Dynasty papyri and coffins, there exists a unique scene of a male human-form ichneumon-headed deity accompanying the deceased, who is typically holding their eyes, mouth, and heart, to the Weighing of the Heart or Justification scene. Due to the association with Horus of Letopolis as the visual/solar aspect of the god, Seeber believes this motif indicates the deceased could expect to have their faculties of sight and speech restored in the next life. Greatly beneficial to humans, the ichneumon was highly valued by the Egyptians for its dexterity and uncanny ability to kill vermin, especially snakes. It is argued that in the Book of the Dead, the ichneumon also functioned as a guardian deity, often carrying a knife or knives. Furthermore, its burrowing nature, and the dangerous environment in which it thrived, suggests that it occupied an interstitial zone between this world and the next, functioning to ease the passage of the deceased from the temporal world to the afterlife. Additional attention will also be given to some unusual representations of nude ichneumon-headed deities in a funerary papyrus as a classic Twenty-First Dynasty twist on the theme.
The early Third Intermediate Period in Thebes is considered to be “the apogee of pictorial expres... more The early Third Intermediate Period in Thebes is considered to be “the apogee of pictorial expression of religious thought within the priesthood of Amun,” said Swart, an Egyptologist specializing in the Egyptian religion, the Third Intermediate Period, Egyptian art and iconography, and funerary customs. “The abundance of private coffins, funerary papyri, and accompanying objects from this period attest to a significant community of artists working near the Theban necropolis. Due to the absence of archaeological remains, texts, and monuments describing the occupation of artists, very little is known regarding the activities of artists during this period. Consequently we are in the dark concerning the existence of craft production centers in Thebes and their organizational structure at this time.”
The coffins, papyri, and other funerary objects offer crucial textual and artistic evidence for the existence of several distinct “workshops” operating in Thebes. Swart’s talk will examine the work of these artists, identifying the “hands” of individual artists and the workshops to which they belonged.
The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in te... more The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of scale, location, types of burials and the accompanying funerary goods. Within the iconographic repertoire of the coffins, papyri and stelae, there is a marked impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic ability. Together with the coffin and illustrated papyri, small wooden stelae become the primary receptacles for the deceased’s name and image. Thus, the stelae assume a more significant role in sustaining the deceased in the afterlife. This paper presents a detailed examination of the corpus of Third Intermediate Period wooden funerary stelae within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry. It will also provide a typology based on stylistic and iconographical analysis. In light of recent scholarship, a timeline of the development of the stelae will also be discussed.
The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in te... more The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of scale, location, types of burials and the accompanying assemblage. Within the iconographic repertoire of the funerary ensembles, there is a marked impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic proficiency. Together with the coffin, the wooden stelae become the primary receptacles for the deceased’s name and image. Thus, the stelae assume a more significant role in sustaining the deceased in the afterlife. This paper presents a detailed examination of the corpus of Third Intermediate Period wooden funerary stelae within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry. It will also provide a typology based on stylistic and iconographical analysis. In light of recent scholarship, a new chronology of the development of the stelae will also be discussed.
It has been duly noted in studies on the Third Intermediate Period that the 22nd -25th Dynasties ... more It has been duly noted in studies on the Third Intermediate Period that the 22nd -25th Dynasties are characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of the scale, location and types of burials and the accompanying assemblage. Within the iconographic repertoire of the funerary ensembles there is a general impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic proficiency. Modern scholars have conventionally attributed these changes to either tighter controls of theology by the kings of the 22nd Dynasty, or a shift in the emphasis on the mortuary theology by the ruling party. Proceeding from a review of recent interpretive studies, this paper seeks to re-examine the funerary practices of the 22nd -25th Dynasty, in light of recent scholarship, within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry.
At the ARCE meeting in April 2009, an announcement was made regarding the initiative to build an ... more At the ARCE meeting in April 2009, an announcement was made regarding the initiative to build an electronic database of Third Intermediate Period funerary artefacts. In this paper, I will provide a brief overview of this project, status of the project thus far, and will discuss the technical aspects of the database. The imminent application of the database as an authoritative, scholarly online research tool in which colleagues will be invited to provide feedback and input, support and contributions to enlarging the project will also be discussed.
The post-mortem judgment in Egyptian funerary beliefs played a crucial role in the deceased’s ent... more The post-mortem judgment in Egyptian funerary beliefs played a crucial role in the deceased’s entrance into the afterlife. This concept is most commonly represented by the weighing of the heart scene, which is loaded with symbols that focus explicitly on themes of rebirth, regeneration, and protection of the deceased. In ancient Egypt, symbol and reality were inextricably linked. For this reason, religion and magic relied greatly on symbolism to accomplish their ends, which give the image life, power and meaning. Thus, the texts and vignettes always represent the “justified” deceased as attaining a successful outcome. They are declared “true of voice”, because they have not sinned and can thus be admitted into the presence of Osiris. It is in this context that the paper will discuss and analyze the function of the supporting symbols in elevating the deceased to the hereafter, and the manner in which these symbols were represented.
The late Pharaonic period encompasses the four hundred year “Third Intermediate Period”, comprisi... more The late Pharaonic period encompasses the four hundred year “Third Intermediate Period”, comprising of the 21st to the 22nd Dynasty in ancient Egypt. This era is characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, social, cultural and economic arenas. Many scholars disagree to the extent of these changes in terms of violence, corruption, and political and economic stability, consequently, a short history of the time period will be presented. This will be followed by an in-depth examination of the transformation of the cult of the dead. The focus of the analysis will center on the funerary ensemble, tomb structures, and cult areas. The attitudes to the deceased will also be discussed.
In general, the theology of the early Third Intermediate Period forms a continuation of the late ... more In general, the theology of the early Third Intermediate Period forms a continuation of the late Ramesside Period, with many trends that originated as early as the 18th Dynasty reaching fruition. The primary characteristic and innovative feature of this era (specifically, the 21st and early 22nd Dynasty) is the development of iconographical means of expressing the current eschatology - representing a movement away from the classical New Kingdom literary style. This was achieved through the use of symbolic representations of mythical concepts and magical formulae, which were designed to function on a number of different levels in order to satisfy the requirements for a successful afterlife. Here, the emphasis of the texts appears to have shifted directly onto the individual, highlighting their safe journey through the afterlife, and their distinct relationship with the gods.
Due to the adverse economic and political circumstances of the late 20th to early 22nd Dynasty, the use of previously exclusive royal funerary texts were usurped by private individuals, resulting in a significant enrichment of the iconography. Thus, the early Third Intermediate Period is exemplified by the number of new theological compositions that were integrated into the current iconographical repertoire, evolving into a level of representation unsurpassed at any point in Egyptian history. These new compositions were represented in concert with selected traditional mortuary vignettes, and reflected in the coffins and papyri that now abound in museums around the world. The aim of this paper is two-fold: to analyze the new compositions that were created during this period, and investigate the extent to which they were utilized by the Theban scribes.
Meskhenet, the goddess associated with childbirth and fate, was often depicted as a brick with a ... more Meskhenet, the goddess associated with childbirth and fate, was often depicted as a brick with a woman’s head attached at one end – this has been associated with the “bricks of birth” upon which Egyptian women squatted when giving birth. She was also believed to appear at the time of the individual’s death, and may have presided over rebirth of the deceased in the afterlife. In ancient Egypt, as with many cultures, “there was an essential identity between cosmology and embryology, so that any birth (or rebirth) could be seen as a repetition of the creation of the universe” (Raven, 2005: 53). Meskhenet was mostly depicted in judgement scene of Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead. According to current scholarship, it is held that Meskhenet did not serve a supporting nor protective function, but only assisted the forty-two judges in deciding the outcome of the tribunal of Chapter 125. However, the entire corpus of Third Intermediate period texts, specifically those from the 21st Dynasty, focus explicitly on themes of rebirth, regeneration, and protection of the deceased. The texts and vignettes always represent the “justified” deceased as attaining a successful outcome. It is in this context that the paper will examine the role that Meskhenet plays within the Book of the Dead, and the manner in which she was represented.
Numerous papyri and coffins contain scenes of the goddess Hpt.t-Hr, “She Who Embraces Horus”, in ... more Numerous papyri and coffins contain scenes of the goddess Hpt.t-Hr, “She Who Embraces Horus”, in which she is predominantly portrayed holding two knives that indicate her role as both a door-keeper and a protector of the deceased. She is frequently shown before Osiris in the scene of the resurrection on the Double Stairway, and occasionally, she functions as a guide or escort for the deceased in the judgment scene (Book of the Dead, Chapter 125).
Iconographically, she can assume many forms, and there is significant variation in the way that she is depicted, most commonly as an anthropomorphic lion-headed deity with the head of a crocodile extending from the back of her neck, or as an anthropomorphic snake-headed deity. Along with her various forms, she is known by several names: “She Who Embraces the Netherworld”, “the Lady of the West', and 'the Eye of Re'. It is also not uncommon for her to be depicted several times in different forms within a single papyrus or coffin.
The variations in the iconographic representation will form the point of discussion within this paper, as well as the many depictions of synthesis with other deities. Synchronization in this case, often involves the assumption of what appears to be contrasting characteristics, such as masculinity, and solar and Osirian aspects.
During the last half of the 21st Dynasty, women gained increasing prominence within the Theban so... more During the last half of the 21st Dynasty, women gained increasing prominence within the Theban social structure, the general increase in status of women has been attributed to the importance of women in the temple cult. Women became increasingly powerful within the temple, adopting titles such as the “First Great Chief of the Musical Troupe of Amun”. The wives and daughters of the high priests at Thebes were employed in these positions. Thus, through strategic marriages within the Theban bureaucracy, the power structure of the ruling families was strengthened and maintained. This corresponds to the observation that by the last half of the 21st Dynasty, there are significant changes within the representation of gender and the status of women in the funerary ensemble. These positions culminated into the position of “God’s Wife of Amun” in the 22nd Dynasty, usually held by the king’s daughter. However, by the 22nd Dynasty, there is a shift back to the traditional canon of gender representation that coincides with the imposition of authority by the kings of the 22nd Dynasty. This paper thus, serves to examine these changes in the status of women and their representation in the funerary ensemble of the 21st and 22nd Dynasty
The idea of punishment of the enemies of Re and Osiris, (chaos and disorder versus structure and ... more The idea of punishment of the enemies of Re and Osiris, (chaos and disorder versus structure and order) is a consistent motif all through the ancient Egyptian funerary texts.
The hellish representations and incantations serve the purpose of the complete destruction of everyone and everything hostile to Osiris, Re and the divine order. The central idea in both the texts and representations is the total annihilation of the enemies by way of the all-consuming fire. For the ancient Egyptians, the worst conceivable fate was to have the physical body destroyed by fire. As this, essentially, resulted in the complete negation of existence in the afterlife, the denial of the blessed life in the realm of the dead. This paper forms an enquiry into specifically who or what these enemies were, what constituted their offences, the forms of punishment meted out, who the judges and executioners were, and how these were all depicted iconographically within the texts (artistic canons, specific sequence of actions). This will be followed by a brief discussion on the trends in representation over time.
"This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae ... more "This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae for the information they can provide about the organization of artists in the 21st Dynasty and 22nd Dynasty. It is an inquiry into the relationship between visual representations on funerary papyri of the 21st Dynasty and wooden funerary stelae of the 22nd Dynasty. An attempt is made to determine whether it is possible to identify the work of individual artists and workshops involved in producing the illustrated funerary papyri and wooden stelae, and in what way they may be related. This study covers a representative sample of workshops or individuals from about the middle 21st Dynasty to the early 22nd Dynasty.
Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible.
It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty.
From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five.
It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop."
"From the late 21st through the 22nd Dynasty there was a visible decrease in the quantity and det... more "From the late 21st through the 22nd Dynasty there was a visible decrease in the quantity and deterioration of quality of the funerary ensemble of private citizens in Thebes, Egypt. These changes correspond to the new rule by the Libyan-Bubastite kings of the 22nd Dynasty, and the imposition of tighter controls on the funerary ensemble for Theban citizens. This coincides with extensive transformations within the cult of the dead, such as, the abandonment of over-ground tomb structures, the
placement of stelae, changes in format and function of the stelae. The second section of this paper, deals with the grouping of stelae into workshops based on predetermined characteristics. The workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a standardization of format and style. The iconography is restricted to the employment of a few symbols. The stelae
from the late 22nd Dynasty display deterioration in the quality of
execution. However, there is a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire, and a shift back towards the emphasis on Osiris. This is in keeping with political changes of time, namely, the acceptance of the 23rd
Dynasty by the denizens of Thebes."
The 21st and 22nd Dynasties are characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, soc... more The 21st and 22nd Dynasties are characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, social, cultural and economic arenas. There appears to be a general improvement in the status of women within the Theban social structure during the 21st Dynasty. A relationship was noted between the representation of gender on the funerary ensemble and the prosperity of the women in the 21st and 22nd Dynasty. It was observed that during the 21st Dynasty, there does not appear to be any difference in funerary paraphernalia and decoration between males and females in the 21st Dynasty. However, by the 22nd Dynasty, it was seen that there was a trend back to the “traditional” canon of gender differentiation and representation, indicating a link to the declining importance and prosperity of the Theban priesthood of Amun as a result of the centralization of power by the ruling Libyan dynasty at Tanis.
""This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funer... more ""This dissertation is intended to examine illustrated funerary papyri and wooden funerary stelae for the information they can provide about the organization of artists in the 21st Dynasty and 22nd Dynasty. It is an inquiry into the relationship between visual representations on funerary papyri of the 21st Dynasty and wooden funerary stelae of the 22nd Dynasty. An attempt is made to determine whether it is possible to identify the work of individual artists and workshops involved in producing the illustrated funerary papyri and wooden stelae, and in what way they may be related. This study covers a representative sample of workshops or individuals from about the middle 21st Dynasty to the early 22nd Dynasty. Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible. It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty. From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five. It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop.""
The ichneumon, or Egyptian mongoose, has a long history of representation in the funerary context... more The ichneumon, or Egyptian mongoose, has a long history of representation in the funerary context, where, in the Old Kingdom, it was often depicted in marsh scenes clambering up papyrus stalks, hunting, and feeding. In several Twenty-First Dynasty papyri and coffins, there exists a unique scene of a male human-form ichneumon-headed deity accompanying the deceased, who is typically holding their eyes, mouth, and heart, to the Weighing of the Heart or Justification scene. Due to the association with Horus of Letopolis as the visual/solar aspect of the god, Seeber believes this motif indicates the deceased could expect to have their faculties of sight and speech restored in the next life. Greatly beneficial to humans, the ichneumon was highly valued by the Egyptians for its dexterity and uncanny ability to kill vermin, especially snakes. It is argued that in the Book of the Dead, the ichneumon also functioned as a guardian deity, often carrying a knife or knives. Furthermore, its burrowing nature, and the dangerous environment in which it thrived, suggests that it occupied an interstitial zone between this world and the next, functioning to ease the passage of the deceased from the temporal world to the afterlife. Additional attention will also be given to some unusual representations of nude ichneumon-headed deities in a funerary papyrus as a classic Twenty-First Dynasty twist on the theme.
The early Third Intermediate Period in Thebes is considered to be “the apogee of pictorial expres... more The early Third Intermediate Period in Thebes is considered to be “the apogee of pictorial expression of religious thought within the priesthood of Amun,” said Swart, an Egyptologist specializing in the Egyptian religion, the Third Intermediate Period, Egyptian art and iconography, and funerary customs. “The abundance of private coffins, funerary papyri, and accompanying objects from this period attest to a significant community of artists working near the Theban necropolis. Due to the absence of archaeological remains, texts, and monuments describing the occupation of artists, very little is known regarding the activities of artists during this period. Consequently we are in the dark concerning the existence of craft production centers in Thebes and their organizational structure at this time.”
The coffins, papyri, and other funerary objects offer crucial textual and artistic evidence for the existence of several distinct “workshops” operating in Thebes. Swart’s talk will examine the work of these artists, identifying the “hands” of individual artists and the workshops to which they belonged.
The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in te... more The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of scale, location, types of burials and the accompanying funerary goods. Within the iconographic repertoire of the coffins, papyri and stelae, there is a marked impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic ability. Together with the coffin and illustrated papyri, small wooden stelae become the primary receptacles for the deceased’s name and image. Thus, the stelae assume a more significant role in sustaining the deceased in the afterlife. This paper presents a detailed examination of the corpus of Third Intermediate Period wooden funerary stelae within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry. It will also provide a typology based on stylistic and iconographical analysis. In light of recent scholarship, a timeline of the development of the stelae will also be discussed.
The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in te... more The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of scale, location, types of burials and the accompanying assemblage. Within the iconographic repertoire of the funerary ensembles, there is a marked impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic proficiency. Together with the coffin, the wooden stelae become the primary receptacles for the deceased’s name and image. Thus, the stelae assume a more significant role in sustaining the deceased in the afterlife. This paper presents a detailed examination of the corpus of Third Intermediate Period wooden funerary stelae within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry. It will also provide a typology based on stylistic and iconographical analysis. In light of recent scholarship, a new chronology of the development of the stelae will also be discussed.
It has been duly noted in studies on the Third Intermediate Period that the 22nd -25th Dynasties ... more It has been duly noted in studies on the Third Intermediate Period that the 22nd -25th Dynasties are characterized by significant changes in funerary practices in terms of the scale, location and types of burials and the accompanying assemblage. Within the iconographic repertoire of the funerary ensembles there is a general impoverishment in the selection of iconography and decoration, which is coupled with an increasing lack of artistic proficiency. Modern scholars have conventionally attributed these changes to either tighter controls of theology by the kings of the 22nd Dynasty, or a shift in the emphasis on the mortuary theology by the ruling party. Proceeding from a review of recent interpretive studies, this paper seeks to re-examine the funerary practices of the 22nd -25th Dynasty, in light of recent scholarship, within the context of the political and theological changes that led to the transformation of the funerary industry.
At the ARCE meeting in April 2009, an announcement was made regarding the initiative to build an ... more At the ARCE meeting in April 2009, an announcement was made regarding the initiative to build an electronic database of Third Intermediate Period funerary artefacts. In this paper, I will provide a brief overview of this project, status of the project thus far, and will discuss the technical aspects of the database. The imminent application of the database as an authoritative, scholarly online research tool in which colleagues will be invited to provide feedback and input, support and contributions to enlarging the project will also be discussed.
The post-mortem judgment in Egyptian funerary beliefs played a crucial role in the deceased’s ent... more The post-mortem judgment in Egyptian funerary beliefs played a crucial role in the deceased’s entrance into the afterlife. This concept is most commonly represented by the weighing of the heart scene, which is loaded with symbols that focus explicitly on themes of rebirth, regeneration, and protection of the deceased. In ancient Egypt, symbol and reality were inextricably linked. For this reason, religion and magic relied greatly on symbolism to accomplish their ends, which give the image life, power and meaning. Thus, the texts and vignettes always represent the “justified” deceased as attaining a successful outcome. They are declared “true of voice”, because they have not sinned and can thus be admitted into the presence of Osiris. It is in this context that the paper will discuss and analyze the function of the supporting symbols in elevating the deceased to the hereafter, and the manner in which these symbols were represented.
The late Pharaonic period encompasses the four hundred year “Third Intermediate Period”, comprisi... more The late Pharaonic period encompasses the four hundred year “Third Intermediate Period”, comprising of the 21st to the 22nd Dynasty in ancient Egypt. This era is characterized by major changes within the Egyptian political, social, cultural and economic arenas. Many scholars disagree to the extent of these changes in terms of violence, corruption, and political and economic stability, consequently, a short history of the time period will be presented. This will be followed by an in-depth examination of the transformation of the cult of the dead. The focus of the analysis will center on the funerary ensemble, tomb structures, and cult areas. The attitudes to the deceased will also be discussed.
In general, the theology of the early Third Intermediate Period forms a continuation of the late ... more In general, the theology of the early Third Intermediate Period forms a continuation of the late Ramesside Period, with many trends that originated as early as the 18th Dynasty reaching fruition. The primary characteristic and innovative feature of this era (specifically, the 21st and early 22nd Dynasty) is the development of iconographical means of expressing the current eschatology - representing a movement away from the classical New Kingdom literary style. This was achieved through the use of symbolic representations of mythical concepts and magical formulae, which were designed to function on a number of different levels in order to satisfy the requirements for a successful afterlife. Here, the emphasis of the texts appears to have shifted directly onto the individual, highlighting their safe journey through the afterlife, and their distinct relationship with the gods.
Due to the adverse economic and political circumstances of the late 20th to early 22nd Dynasty, the use of previously exclusive royal funerary texts were usurped by private individuals, resulting in a significant enrichment of the iconography. Thus, the early Third Intermediate Period is exemplified by the number of new theological compositions that were integrated into the current iconographical repertoire, evolving into a level of representation unsurpassed at any point in Egyptian history. These new compositions were represented in concert with selected traditional mortuary vignettes, and reflected in the coffins and papyri that now abound in museums around the world. The aim of this paper is two-fold: to analyze the new compositions that were created during this period, and investigate the extent to which they were utilized by the Theban scribes.
Meskhenet, the goddess associated with childbirth and fate, was often depicted as a brick with a ... more Meskhenet, the goddess associated with childbirth and fate, was often depicted as a brick with a woman’s head attached at one end – this has been associated with the “bricks of birth” upon which Egyptian women squatted when giving birth. She was also believed to appear at the time of the individual’s death, and may have presided over rebirth of the deceased in the afterlife. In ancient Egypt, as with many cultures, “there was an essential identity between cosmology and embryology, so that any birth (or rebirth) could be seen as a repetition of the creation of the universe” (Raven, 2005: 53). Meskhenet was mostly depicted in judgement scene of Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead. According to current scholarship, it is held that Meskhenet did not serve a supporting nor protective function, but only assisted the forty-two judges in deciding the outcome of the tribunal of Chapter 125. However, the entire corpus of Third Intermediate period texts, specifically those from the 21st Dynasty, focus explicitly on themes of rebirth, regeneration, and protection of the deceased. The texts and vignettes always represent the “justified” deceased as attaining a successful outcome. It is in this context that the paper will examine the role that Meskhenet plays within the Book of the Dead, and the manner in which she was represented.
Numerous papyri and coffins contain scenes of the goddess Hpt.t-Hr, “She Who Embraces Horus”, in ... more Numerous papyri and coffins contain scenes of the goddess Hpt.t-Hr, “She Who Embraces Horus”, in which she is predominantly portrayed holding two knives that indicate her role as both a door-keeper and a protector of the deceased. She is frequently shown before Osiris in the scene of the resurrection on the Double Stairway, and occasionally, she functions as a guide or escort for the deceased in the judgment scene (Book of the Dead, Chapter 125).
Iconographically, she can assume many forms, and there is significant variation in the way that she is depicted, most commonly as an anthropomorphic lion-headed deity with the head of a crocodile extending from the back of her neck, or as an anthropomorphic snake-headed deity. Along with her various forms, she is known by several names: “She Who Embraces the Netherworld”, “the Lady of the West', and 'the Eye of Re'. It is also not uncommon for her to be depicted several times in different forms within a single papyrus or coffin.
The variations in the iconographic representation will form the point of discussion within this paper, as well as the many depictions of synthesis with other deities. Synchronization in this case, often involves the assumption of what appears to be contrasting characteristics, such as masculinity, and solar and Osirian aspects.
During the last half of the 21st Dynasty, women gained increasing prominence within the Theban so... more During the last half of the 21st Dynasty, women gained increasing prominence within the Theban social structure, the general increase in status of women has been attributed to the importance of women in the temple cult. Women became increasingly powerful within the temple, adopting titles such as the “First Great Chief of the Musical Troupe of Amun”. The wives and daughters of the high priests at Thebes were employed in these positions. Thus, through strategic marriages within the Theban bureaucracy, the power structure of the ruling families was strengthened and maintained. This corresponds to the observation that by the last half of the 21st Dynasty, there are significant changes within the representation of gender and the status of women in the funerary ensemble. These positions culminated into the position of “God’s Wife of Amun” in the 22nd Dynasty, usually held by the king’s daughter. However, by the 22nd Dynasty, there is a shift back to the traditional canon of gender representation that coincides with the imposition of authority by the kings of the 22nd Dynasty. This paper thus, serves to examine these changes in the status of women and their representation in the funerary ensemble of the 21st and 22nd Dynasty
The idea of punishment of the enemies of Re and Osiris, (chaos and disorder versus structure and ... more The idea of punishment of the enemies of Re and Osiris, (chaos and disorder versus structure and order) is a consistent motif all through the ancient Egyptian funerary texts.
The hellish representations and incantations serve the purpose of the complete destruction of everyone and everything hostile to Osiris, Re and the divine order. The central idea in both the texts and representations is the total annihilation of the enemies by way of the all-consuming fire. For the ancient Egyptians, the worst conceivable fate was to have the physical body destroyed by fire. As this, essentially, resulted in the complete negation of existence in the afterlife, the denial of the blessed life in the realm of the dead. This paper forms an enquiry into specifically who or what these enemies were, what constituted their offences, the forms of punishment meted out, who the judges and executioners were, and how these were all depicted iconographically within the texts (artistic canons, specific sequence of actions). This will be followed by a brief discussion on the trends in representation over time.
This paper presents a detailed examination of the relationship and interaction between private in... more This paper presents a detailed examination of the relationship and interaction between private individuals and deities in the funerary iconography of the 21st Dynasty in Thebes. In the representations of this period, the non-royal deceased become active participants in the afterlife. They are constantly represented in the company of gods, a prerogative that was previously retained strictly for royalty. In these scenes, they are no longer the humble, passive bystanders of the earlier periods relying on the intercession of the king, here, the deceased place themselves in the direct presence of the gods. They are often represented with a divine escort who leads them by the hand towards an enthroned Osiris. Thus, making the deity directly responsible for their regeneration and well being in the afterlife. During the 21st Dynasty, the monarchy had become a completely political organisation that was required to concentrate all its efforts on maintaining power. The king was no longer a mediator between the gods and the people, which meant that private individuals were required to address the deity directly, or a lesser-known god as the intermediary. Therefore, the power over the fate of the deceased lay in the hands of the deities, representing a shift of authority away from the pharaoh, whose clergy stripped the king of an ever-increasing number of rights.
The iconography and accompanying text indicates further that the deceased viewed themselves as deities, and after death became identified with Osiris. The act of creation was also no longer deemed off limits to private individuals. To mention a few examples, the deceased took a fully functional role as one of the occupants in the solar barque, travelling in the company of gods such as Thoth and Khepri, and in the scene with the Great Serpent on the Double Stairway; they became the great god emerging from primeval chaos. In the papyri that represent the Litany of Re from the 18th Dynasty royal tombs, the newly regenerated deceased passed through an endless number of transformations that were understood as multiple creations of the great god, Osiris and Re. In certain examples, the deceased themselves are literally depicted as one of these mummiform transformations of the great god.
It is noted that there is a propensity to amass a large number of divine symbols and actions that fulfilled a need for protection and support. For example, the deceased are represented being lustrated by one or more deities. In one manuscript, the flanking deities, Thoth and Re-Horakhty pour ankh-signs over the deceased. Here it is evident that the private individuals explicitly appropriated cult acts that belonged solely to royalty. Finally, it can be seen how the interaction and relationship between the private individuals and deities is reinforced by the method of representation whereby the age-old artistic canons dealing with status, scale, proximity and gender differentiation were discarded. This is especially evident in the representation of the deceased on the same scale, baseline and hairline as the deities, and in one specific case, is depicted larger.
The period from c. 1080 – 880 B. C. E refers to the period of martial law resulting from an accum... more The period from c. 1080 – 880 B. C. E refers to the period of martial law resulting from an accumulation of adverse circumstances in the late 20th Dynasty, as well as the 21st and early 22nd Dynasties. Control of Egypt during this period was firmly divided between a line of kings in the north and army commanders in the south, who functioned simultaneously as the high priests of Amun.
The 21st Dynasty forms the pinnacle of the development of pictorial means of religious thought of the Theban priesthood. Theological ideas were integrated into iconographic compositions, and reflected in the numerous papyri and coffins of the period. The political situation between Thebes and the north facilitated the use of previously exclusive royal funerary compositions in private burials, and incorporation of old royal doctrine into the current theological system. This resulted in the extensive enrichment of the iconography of the period with many royal motifs.
By the early 22nd Dynasty, the variety and quality of the funerary ensemble are dramatically reduced and manufacture appears to have ceased. Around this time, the production of small wooden funerary stelae increased and replaced the papyri in the tombs of the Theban citizenry. The subsequent change in funerary practice coincided with the new rule of the Libyan-Bubastite kings of the 22nd Dynasty, who appear to have held greater power over the denizens of Thebes, and may have influenced their choices pertaining to their funerary ensemble.
The stelae workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a strong tendency toward standardization of format and style. In these, the use of iconography is restricted to the employment of a few selected symbols. The stelae from the later part of the 22nd Dynasty display a visible deterioration in quality of execution and skill level. These are characterized by the apparent disregard for any previous canon of proportion possibly due to the lack of skilled artists and /or the deregulation of figural proportions or representation. Owing to the variation of representation, there is a distinct feeling of experimentation within the figural forms. However, what is lacking in proficiency is made up for with a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire. In the latest stelae there are once again direct representations of Osiris, indicating a shift from Re-Horakhty as the sole deity in the stelae.
These changes coincide with the acceptance of the 23rd Dynasty by the Theban citizens, in retaliation to the kings of the 22nd Dynasty. The overlapping of the 23rd Dynasty commences with the rule of Pedubast I in c. 818 B. C. E. during the reign of Shoshenq III (c. 825 – 773 B. C. E). Once the reign of Shoshenq III is reached, there is almost no further mention of any 22nd Dynasty kings at Thebes”. As soon as the independence of the 23rd Dynasty was established, the Thebans dated their kings exactly. Hence, it may be construed that the regulation of representation during the early 22nd Dynasty reflects strong control of the religious/funerary practices as a political tool. Consequently, with the recognition of an additional dynasty, the central authority was divided in two, as both dynasties were in power enjoying similar status throughout Egypt. Therefore, the citizenry of Thebes may have regained former privileges that were unavailable to them during the earlier 22nd Dynasty.
This paper serves as an examination of the trends that developed within the illustrated funerary ... more This paper serves as an examination of the trends that developed within the illustrated funerary papyri of the early 21st and 22nd Dynasty. These observations were taken from the findings of my dissertation that dealt with a stylistic comparison of selected visual representations on Egyptian funerary papyri of the 21st Dynasty and wooden funerary stelae of the 22nd Dynasty.
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Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible.
It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty.
From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five.
It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop."
Papers by Lisa Swart
placement of stelae, changes in format and function of the stelae. The second section of this paper, deals with the grouping of stelae into workshops based on predetermined characteristics. The workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a standardization of format and style. The iconography is restricted to the employment of a few symbols. The stelae
from the late 22nd Dynasty display deterioration in the quality of
execution. However, there is a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire, and a shift back towards the emphasis on Osiris. This is in keeping with political changes of time, namely, the acceptance of the 23rd
Dynasty by the denizens of Thebes."
Talks by Lisa Swart
In several Twenty-First Dynasty papyri and coffins, there exists a unique scene of a male human-form ichneumon-headed deity accompanying the deceased, who is typically holding their eyes, mouth, and heart, to the Weighing of the Heart or Justification scene. Due to the association with Horus of Letopolis as the visual/solar aspect of the god, Seeber believes this motif indicates the deceased could expect to have their faculties of sight and speech restored in the next life.
Greatly beneficial to humans, the ichneumon was highly valued by the Egyptians for its dexterity and uncanny ability to kill vermin, especially snakes. It is argued that in the Book of the Dead, the ichneumon also functioned as a guardian deity, often carrying a knife or knives. Furthermore, its burrowing nature, and the dangerous environment in which it thrived, suggests that it occupied an interstitial zone between this world and the next, functioning to ease the passage of the deceased from the temporal world to the afterlife.
Additional attention will also be given to some unusual representations of nude ichneumon-headed deities in a funerary papyrus as a classic Twenty-First Dynasty twist on the theme.
The coffins, papyri, and other funerary objects offer crucial textual and artistic evidence for the existence of several distinct “workshops” operating in Thebes. Swart’s talk will examine the work of these artists, identifying the “hands” of individual artists and the workshops to which they belonged.
Due to the adverse economic and political circumstances of the late 20th to early 22nd Dynasty, the use of previously exclusive royal funerary texts were usurped by private individuals, resulting in a significant enrichment of the iconography. Thus, the early Third Intermediate Period is exemplified by the number of new theological compositions that were integrated into the current iconographical repertoire, evolving into a level of representation unsurpassed at any point in Egyptian history. These new compositions were represented in concert with selected traditional mortuary vignettes, and reflected in the coffins and papyri that now abound in museums around the world. The aim of this paper is two-fold: to analyze the new compositions that were created during this period, and investigate the extent to which they were utilized by the Theban scribes.
Iconographically, she can assume many forms, and there is significant variation in the way that she is depicted, most commonly as an anthropomorphic lion-headed deity with the head of a crocodile extending from the back of her neck, or as an anthropomorphic snake-headed deity. Along with her various forms, she is known by several names: “She Who Embraces the Netherworld”, “the Lady of the West', and 'the Eye of Re'. It is also not uncommon for her to be depicted several times in different forms within a single papyrus or coffin.
The variations in the iconographic representation will form the point of discussion within this paper, as well as the many depictions of synthesis with other deities. Synchronization in this case, often involves the assumption of what appears to be contrasting characteristics, such as masculinity, and solar and Osirian aspects.
The hellish representations and incantations serve the purpose of the complete destruction of everyone and everything hostile to Osiris, Re and the divine order. The central idea in both the texts and representations is the total annihilation of the enemies by way of the all-consuming fire. For the ancient Egyptians, the worst conceivable fate was to have the physical body destroyed by fire. As this, essentially, resulted in the complete negation of existence in the afterlife, the denial of the blessed life in the realm of the dead. This paper forms an enquiry into specifically who or what these enemies were, what constituted their offences, the forms of punishment meted out, who the judges and executioners were, and how these were all depicted iconographically within the texts (artistic canons, specific sequence of actions). This will be followed by a brief discussion on the trends in representation over time.
Methodology involved undertaking the research on a descriptive and interpretative/comparative level. Panofsky’s (1972: passim) model for describing pictorial works was used to interpret the various symbols on three levels, and the comparisons of the papyri and stelae were based on a combination of the model of comparison developed by Freed (1996: passim) and Niwiński (1989a: passim). By using these models, they have functioned as a control or corrective in order to make each interpretation as objective as possible.
It was possible to definitively place 208 manuscripts out of 214 papyri into seven individual workshops. This was based upon their stylistic similarities and corresponding content. Furthermore, several sub-groups are evident in the workshops, especially those that span many decades, such as Papyri Workshop 1 and 3. Papyri Workshop 1 is comprised of fifty-six manuscripts, and constitutes the largest group; Papyri Workshop 2 is by far the smallest consisting only of seven members. Workshop 3 contains the second largest grouping with fifty-two, Papyri Workshop 4 has eleven, Papyri Workshop 5 contains twenty-five, Papyri Workshop 6, thirty, and Papyri Workshop 7 has twenty.
From a comprehensive examination of 103 stelae, it was possible to group 100 into nine workshops. Stelae Workshop 1 is, in fact, Papyri Workshop 1, and thirteen stelae can be attributed to this workshop. Stelae Workshop 2 consists of fifteen stelae, Stelae Workshop 3 comprises of fourteen, Stelae Workshop 4 has five, Stelae Workshop 5 has nine, Stelae Workshop 6 has six, Stelae Workshop 7 and 8 are two of the largest workshops, each containing sixteen, and Stelae Workshop 9 has five.
It is possible for one to observe the hand of individual artists or a master and student in the study, even within one workshop."
placement of stelae, changes in format and function of the stelae. The second section of this paper, deals with the grouping of stelae into workshops based on predetermined characteristics. The workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a standardization of format and style. The iconography is restricted to the employment of a few symbols. The stelae
from the late 22nd Dynasty display deterioration in the quality of
execution. However, there is a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire, and a shift back towards the emphasis on Osiris. This is in keeping with political changes of time, namely, the acceptance of the 23rd
Dynasty by the denizens of Thebes."
In several Twenty-First Dynasty papyri and coffins, there exists a unique scene of a male human-form ichneumon-headed deity accompanying the deceased, who is typically holding their eyes, mouth, and heart, to the Weighing of the Heart or Justification scene. Due to the association with Horus of Letopolis as the visual/solar aspect of the god, Seeber believes this motif indicates the deceased could expect to have their faculties of sight and speech restored in the next life.
Greatly beneficial to humans, the ichneumon was highly valued by the Egyptians for its dexterity and uncanny ability to kill vermin, especially snakes. It is argued that in the Book of the Dead, the ichneumon also functioned as a guardian deity, often carrying a knife or knives. Furthermore, its burrowing nature, and the dangerous environment in which it thrived, suggests that it occupied an interstitial zone between this world and the next, functioning to ease the passage of the deceased from the temporal world to the afterlife.
Additional attention will also be given to some unusual representations of nude ichneumon-headed deities in a funerary papyrus as a classic Twenty-First Dynasty twist on the theme.
The coffins, papyri, and other funerary objects offer crucial textual and artistic evidence for the existence of several distinct “workshops” operating in Thebes. Swart’s talk will examine the work of these artists, identifying the “hands” of individual artists and the workshops to which they belonged.
Due to the adverse economic and political circumstances of the late 20th to early 22nd Dynasty, the use of previously exclusive royal funerary texts were usurped by private individuals, resulting in a significant enrichment of the iconography. Thus, the early Third Intermediate Period is exemplified by the number of new theological compositions that were integrated into the current iconographical repertoire, evolving into a level of representation unsurpassed at any point in Egyptian history. These new compositions were represented in concert with selected traditional mortuary vignettes, and reflected in the coffins and papyri that now abound in museums around the world. The aim of this paper is two-fold: to analyze the new compositions that were created during this period, and investigate the extent to which they were utilized by the Theban scribes.
Iconographically, she can assume many forms, and there is significant variation in the way that she is depicted, most commonly as an anthropomorphic lion-headed deity with the head of a crocodile extending from the back of her neck, or as an anthropomorphic snake-headed deity. Along with her various forms, she is known by several names: “She Who Embraces the Netherworld”, “the Lady of the West', and 'the Eye of Re'. It is also not uncommon for her to be depicted several times in different forms within a single papyrus or coffin.
The variations in the iconographic representation will form the point of discussion within this paper, as well as the many depictions of synthesis with other deities. Synchronization in this case, often involves the assumption of what appears to be contrasting characteristics, such as masculinity, and solar and Osirian aspects.
The hellish representations and incantations serve the purpose of the complete destruction of everyone and everything hostile to Osiris, Re and the divine order. The central idea in both the texts and representations is the total annihilation of the enemies by way of the all-consuming fire. For the ancient Egyptians, the worst conceivable fate was to have the physical body destroyed by fire. As this, essentially, resulted in the complete negation of existence in the afterlife, the denial of the blessed life in the realm of the dead. This paper forms an enquiry into specifically who or what these enemies were, what constituted their offences, the forms of punishment meted out, who the judges and executioners were, and how these were all depicted iconographically within the texts (artistic canons, specific sequence of actions). This will be followed by a brief discussion on the trends in representation over time.
The iconography and accompanying text indicates further that the deceased viewed themselves as deities, and after death became identified with Osiris. The act of creation was also no longer deemed off limits to private individuals. To mention a few examples, the deceased took a fully functional role as one of the occupants in the solar barque, travelling in the company of gods such as Thoth and Khepri, and in the scene with the Great Serpent on the Double Stairway; they became the great god emerging from primeval chaos. In the papyri that represent the Litany of Re from the 18th Dynasty royal tombs, the newly regenerated deceased passed through an endless number of transformations that were understood as multiple creations of the great god, Osiris and Re. In certain examples, the deceased themselves are literally depicted as one of these mummiform transformations of the great god.
It is noted that there is a propensity to amass a large number of divine symbols and actions that fulfilled a need for protection and support. For example, the deceased are represented being lustrated by one or more deities. In one manuscript, the flanking deities, Thoth and Re-Horakhty pour ankh-signs over the deceased. Here it is evident that the private individuals explicitly appropriated cult acts that belonged solely to royalty. Finally, it can be seen how the interaction and relationship between the private individuals and deities is reinforced by the method of representation whereby the age-old artistic canons dealing with status, scale, proximity and gender differentiation were discarded. This is especially evident in the representation of the deceased on the same scale, baseline and hairline as the deities, and in one specific case, is depicted larger.
The 21st Dynasty forms the pinnacle of the development of pictorial means of religious thought of the Theban priesthood. Theological ideas were integrated into iconographic compositions, and reflected in the numerous papyri and coffins of the period. The political situation between Thebes and the north facilitated the use of previously exclusive royal funerary compositions in private burials, and incorporation of old royal doctrine into the current theological system. This resulted in the extensive enrichment of the iconography of the period with many royal motifs.
By the early 22nd Dynasty, the variety and quality of the funerary ensemble are dramatically reduced and manufacture appears to have ceased. Around this time, the production of small wooden funerary stelae increased and replaced the papyri in the tombs of the Theban citizenry. The subsequent change in funerary practice coincided with the new rule of the Libyan-Bubastite kings of the 22nd Dynasty, who appear to have held greater power over the denizens of Thebes, and may have influenced their choices pertaining to their funerary ensemble.
The stelae workshops from the early 22nd Dynasty exhibit a strong tendency toward standardization of format and style. In these, the use of iconography is restricted to the employment of a few selected symbols. The stelae from the later part of the 22nd Dynasty display a visible deterioration in quality of execution and skill level. These are characterized by the apparent disregard for any previous canon of proportion possibly due to the lack of skilled artists and /or the deregulation of figural proportions or representation. Owing to the variation of representation, there is a distinct feeling of experimentation within the figural forms. However, what is lacking in proficiency is made up for with a noticeable enrichment of the iconographic repertoire. In the latest stelae there are once again direct representations of Osiris, indicating a shift from Re-Horakhty as the sole deity in the stelae.
These changes coincide with the acceptance of the 23rd Dynasty by the Theban citizens, in retaliation to the kings of the 22nd Dynasty. The overlapping of the 23rd Dynasty commences with the rule of Pedubast I in c. 818 B. C. E. during the reign of Shoshenq III (c. 825 – 773 B. C. E). Once the reign of Shoshenq III is reached, there is almost no further mention of any 22nd Dynasty kings at Thebes”. As soon as the independence of the 23rd Dynasty was established, the Thebans dated their kings exactly. Hence, it may be construed that the regulation of representation during the early 22nd Dynasty reflects strong control of the religious/funerary practices as a political tool. Consequently, with the recognition of an additional dynasty, the central authority was divided in two, as both dynasties were in power enjoying similar status throughout Egypt. Therefore, the citizenry of Thebes may have regained former privileges that were unavailable to them during the earlier 22nd Dynasty.