The Bronze and Early Iron Ages witnessed a significant increase in trade relations driven by the ... more The Bronze and Early Iron Ages witnessed a significant increase in trade relations driven by the search for valuable metals. This paper presents new insights into the use of galena from the Silesia and Krakow Upland region in southern Poland, known as the 'Olkusz ore deposits', within the context of metal ores in prehistoric Europe. Eleven lead-based ornaments from Lusatian Urnfield Culture cemeteries were examined using lead isotope analysis. The majority of these ornaments were found to be made from local ore, which provides evidence for the early exploitation of Olkusz lead deposits dating back 1,000 years earlier than previously known from archaeological artefacts.
E. Miśta-Jakubowska, W. Duczko , A. B. Kowalska , R. Czech- Błońska , R. Mathur, A. Gójska, D. R... more E. Miśta-Jakubowska, W. Duczko , A. B. Kowalska , R. Czech- Błońska , R. Mathur, A. Gójska, D. Rozmus , R. Siuda, D. Oleszak, A. Brojanowska, J. Klimaszewski, Amulets from Viking-age Baltic coast: A unique hoard from Piaski-Dramino (Poland) in the light of provenance and technological research of silvercraft art. [ in:] Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. Available online 21 December 2023 This technological and provenance analysis of metal artifacts from a unique Viking-age hoard found in Piaski-Dramino (NW Poland) reveals an expansive trade network. Particular attention was paid to kaptorga type amulets made in post-Great Moravian style. X-ray spectroscopy (XRF, EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for elemental composition and structural imagesto fingerprint the techniques used by silversmiths. Pb and Ag isotope analysis combined with trace element compositions show that high-quality silver bullion was obtained mainly from the resmelting of Asian dirhams. Silver and lead from the Upper Silesia and Krakow regions were also used in this period. Research results are confirmed by incomplete historical sources that the Krakow land and Upper Silesia from the 9th to the end of the 10th c. were under Czech rule. This can be associated with the Czech elite's desire to access the silver and lead sources.
Since the year 1989, the inventories of Jewish cemeteries in Pilica, Olkusz (two cemeteries), Dąb... more Since the year 1989, the inventories of Jewish cemeteries in Pilica, Olkusz (two cemeteries), Dąbrowa Górnicza, Sławków (now in the Krzykawka area, Bolesław municipality), Jaworzno, Chrzanów, Czeladź and Będzin have been carried out. In this article, the main issue will be the tombstones, which are called 'a small architecture'. Here we focus on the typologisation of the gravestones with the special consideration of the vertical gravestone stele, which are most often associated with the term 'matzeva'. The typologisation of the artwork material is an important preliminary work, whose goal is the complete monographic treatment of the necropolis. The chronology of the described cemeteries is the last 200 years. At the old cemetery in Olkusz there are single tombstones from the 17 th and 18 th centuries.
Since the 12th century in the Silesian-Cracovian area, lead, litharge, and silver have been produ... more Since the 12th century in the Silesian-Cracovian area, lead, litharge, and silver have been produced by the pyrometallurgical processing of Pb-Ag-Zn ore. Slags and soils contaminated with heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, Fe, Mn, As) were the subject of this research. Samples were collected during archaeological works in the area of early medieval metallurgical settlement. The main goals of the analyses (Scanning Electron Miscroscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Electron Probe Microanalyzer (EPMA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)) were the determination of the mineralogical composition of furnace batches and smelting temperatures and conditions. In soils, the anthropogenic phases enriched in Pb, Zn, Fe, Mn, P, and primary minerals like goethite, ferrihydrite, sphalerite, galena, smithsonite, minrecordite, cerussite, gypsum, anglesite, jarosite, and hemimorphite were identified. The soil from former metallurgical settlements contained up to 1106 mg•kg −1 Pb, 782 mg•kg −1 Zn, 4.7 mg•kg −1 Cd in the fine fraction. Much higher heavy metal concentrations were observed in the waste products of ore rinsing, up to 49,282 mg•kg −1 Pb, 64,408 mg•kg −1 Zn, and 287 mg•kg −1 Cd. The medieval smelting industry and Pb-Ag-Zn ore processing are marked by highly anomalous geochemical pollution (Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Mn, Ba) in the topsoil. The methods of mineralogical investigation, such as SEM-EDS or EMPA, can be used to identify mineralogical phases formed during metallurgical processes or ore processing. Based on these methods, the characteristic primary assemblage and synthetic phases were identified in the area polluted by medieval metallurgy and mining of Pb-Ag-Zn ores, including MVT (Mississippi Valley Type) deposits. The minerals distinguished in slags and the structural features of metal-bearing aggregates allow us to conclude that batches have included mostly oxidised minerals (PbCO 3 , ZnCO 3 , CaZn(CO 3) 2 , FeOOH), sulfides (PbS and ZnS) and quartz (SiO 2). The laboratory experiment of high-temperature heating of the examined slags showed that smelting temperatures used in the second half of 13th century were very high and could have reached up to 1550 • C. The results indicate, that geochemical and mineralogical methods can be used to obtain important information from archaeological sites, even after archaeological work has long ceased.
The article is devoted to the results of archaeological supervision conducted in 1988 after the d... more The article is devoted to the results of archaeological supervision conducted in 1988 after the discovery of mining shafts in Libiąż. This is one of the rare examples of archaeological studies in the relic of ore mining, in the border areas of Górny Śląsk and Zachodnia Małopolska. During the archaeological supervision and the construction work a vertical shaft was discovered, from which spread at least 3 horizontal drifts projected in a radial manner. The drifts were located at the depth of 2.5–3 m in a dolomite rock layer whose structure was of relatively poor density. The horizontal tunnels (adits) had a flat bottom, relatively straight lateral walls and an arched vault. Their width was about 100 cm and their height was about 80-100 cm. One of the tunnels bifurcated – there was a side tunnel, oriented at about 25 degrees. The chronology of the finds is a source of mystery. Most probably the finds are associated with early medieval ore mining. One may also venture a legitimate hypothesis that they may be associated with the Hallstatt period. Therefore they are the traces of the mining work which was conducted by the people who represented Lusatian culture and experimented with the technology of smelting lead from local ores and with the production (from this material) of ornaments found among the burial gifts in the region in question (a cremation grave in Żarki located about 5 km from the place where the shafts were discovered).
Danuta Makowicz‑Poliszot,
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sit... more Danuta Makowicz‑Poliszot,
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sites 2 and 8 in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień,
Śląskie
Voivodeship, in the light of archaeozoological analysis. Summary
The paper focuses on finds of animal burials discovered in four pits in two production
settlements in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień, Sites 2 and 8 (Fig. 1). The discussed
burials are the first finds of this kind which were discovered in the context of early
medieval specialised metallurgical production.
Three of these (Features 8/1998, 19/2006 and 16/2007) share common traits, such
as E‑W alignment of grave pits and covering of grave pits with stones. A lead ornament and a human tooth were obtained from Feature 8/1998.
Bones found in Feature 8/1998 (Site 2) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) come from two cattle individuals: an adult one and a juvenile one. An incomplete skull, a mandible and a fragment of cervical vertebra II were identified among the bones of the adult individual. Concerning the skeleton of the juvenile individual, two fragments of hind limb bone (femur and tibia) were found. In Feature 19/2003 (Site 8) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) an almost complete skeleton of a medium‑ sized cow was found. Its withers height was 114.3–119.9 cm. On the basis of wear of the third molar tooth M3 from the mandible and ossification of limb bones it can be assumed that the animal lived until the age of 3.5 to 5 years. A characteristic trait of this cow was perhaps a delayed age of knitting of long bones with their shafts or a faster pace of tooth wear. Traces of breaking were found on two ribs of this cow (Fig. 8).
An almost complete skeleton of a cow was encountered in Feature 29/2005 (Site 8)
(Fig. 9). Its withers height was 119.9–121.2 cm, which is characteristic for medium‑
sized individuals. As it was the case with the cow from Feature 19/2003, the animal
died at the age of 3.5 to 5 years. On phalanges I and II of this skeleton pathological
changes (splints) (Fig. 10:a–c) and bends of shafts of phalanges I were observed (Fig.
10:d).
Feature 16/2007 (Site 8) (Figs. 11 and 12) contained a skeleton of a cow with a fetus.
The pregnant cow’s withers height was 99.5–102.3 cm. The age of the cow, assessed
on the basis of its teeth, was about 24–28 months. An assessment of the degree of
ossification of the skeleton implies an age between 2–2.5 and 3 years. Taking these
observations into consideration, it can be assumed that the age at death of this cow
was about 2.5 years. Of interest are the observed physical disabilities of the buried cows – the delayed age of knitting of epiphyses with their shafts (Features 19/2003 and 29/2005), or bent shafts of phalanges (Feature 29/2005). These traits can suggest that the animals lived in strongly polluted environment, which no question contributed to the observed malformations. Strong environment pollution caused by production activity in the settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień was testified to by specialist examinations. The discovered animal burials were related to production features, that is, metallurgical furnaces. Some researchers assume that animal blood may have been used for metallurgical purposes in the period preceding the Early Middle Ages. It cannot be excluded that this may have also been the case in the early medieval production settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień. It is also possible that the buried cows participated in magical rituals related to metallurgical production and work with fire. Metallurgy, due to the participation of fire in production cycles, is often associated with procreation processes. This is because fire caused a change of the old and evil into the new, and it announced the appearance of the new. The very furnace, it which transformation processes occurred, assumed mediation traits. Due to the presence of fire in it, the furnace may have been treated as a sacrum sphere and thus was subject to a taboo. Sacrifices of animals, especially of pregnant individuals or animals with physical disabilities, were supposed to obtain benevolence of fire in the course of work with metal ores.
In the areas of the present frontier between Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk) and Little Poland (Małop... more In the areas of the present frontier between Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk) and Little Poland (Małopolska) in remote geological eras, mainly in the Triassic period, an enrichment of geological layers with metal compounds such as lead and silver ores took place. The emergence of a raw materials base millions of years ago made possible the rapid development of an early medieval district of mining and metallurgy of lead ores, from which admixtures of silver were also retrieved. Even twenty years ago, the frontier areas of Little Poland and Silesia seemed to have little economic importance in the early stage of the existence of the Polish state. Archaeological research changed this opinion radically. The discovery of numerous early medieval settlements indicates that lead was melted and silver was extracted approximately in the areas stretching from Olkusz in the east to Bytom and Tarnowskie Góry in the west, and also in the area around Siewierz, Przeczyce, Jaworzno and Chrzanów. On-going archaeological excavations make our state of knowledge about the past of this area change constantly – new evidence allows for a revision of present theories in the field of Polish medieval and archaeological studies. The debate about the economic bases of the existence of the state of the first Piast rulers has been going on for decades or even longer. Silver played an important role in the formation of the Polish state. It was made into ornaments and first coins. It is also possible that lead shots and strips of silver were used in settling commercial transactions. Where did this metal originate? The answer to this question depends on the present state of our knowledge, that is on progress in archaeological research. Now one has to consider the possibility of acquiring silver not only through import (oriental silver) but also, from a certain point of time, from domestic sources. Thanks to the discovery of the remains of metallurgical furnaces we could increase our knowledge about their appearance. It enabled us to prepare for the first time a more comprehensive typology of this category of archeological finds. The discovery of other metals such as tin or lumps of alloys, brassware and bronze artifacts indicate that apart from metallurgical activities the craftsmen from these settlements also practiced goldsmithery. Apart from steelworks, there also existed goldsmith’s workshops which worked metals such as lead, silver, copper, zinc compounds (zinc ores), and tin. The production of glazed ceramics was an important economic enterprise in the lead smelting sites. The richness of form and ornament of ceramic vessels is unique on the scale of the whole country. “Lead gel – silica recipe”, which was procured on the spot, was used to decorate the sides of the vessels. Lead compounds were used to create multicoloured (mainly green and greenish-olive) ceramic enamels. Much seems to indicate that the vessels produced in the 11th-12th century in the Strzemieszyce-Łosień district and the area around Siewierz spread to large areas of Poland of that time and they constitute a slight part of glazed ceramics in units known from e.g. Kraków, Opole and other major urban centers. It is important to explain the sources of inspiration for such an engaging cultural phenomenon and a new technological skill.
Środowisko – Człowiek – Cywilizacja, tom 2 Seria wydawnicza Stowarzyszenia Archeologii Środowiskowej Środowiskowe uwarunkowania lokalizacji osadnictwa L. Domańska, P. Kittel, J. Forysiak (red.) Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009, 215-219
The Bronze and Early Iron Ages witnessed a significant increase in trade relations driven by the ... more The Bronze and Early Iron Ages witnessed a significant increase in trade relations driven by the search for valuable metals. This paper presents new insights into the use of galena from the Silesia and Krakow Upland region in southern Poland, known as the 'Olkusz ore deposits', within the context of metal ores in prehistoric Europe. Eleven lead-based ornaments from Lusatian Urnfield Culture cemeteries were examined using lead isotope analysis. The majority of these ornaments were found to be made from local ore, which provides evidence for the early exploitation of Olkusz lead deposits dating back 1,000 years earlier than previously known from archaeological artefacts.
E. Miśta-Jakubowska, W. Duczko , A. B. Kowalska , R. Czech- Błońska , R. Mathur, A. Gójska, D. R... more E. Miśta-Jakubowska, W. Duczko , A. B. Kowalska , R. Czech- Błońska , R. Mathur, A. Gójska, D. Rozmus , R. Siuda, D. Oleszak, A. Brojanowska, J. Klimaszewski, Amulets from Viking-age Baltic coast: A unique hoard from Piaski-Dramino (Poland) in the light of provenance and technological research of silvercraft art. [ in:] Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. Available online 21 December 2023 This technological and provenance analysis of metal artifacts from a unique Viking-age hoard found in Piaski-Dramino (NW Poland) reveals an expansive trade network. Particular attention was paid to kaptorga type amulets made in post-Great Moravian style. X-ray spectroscopy (XRF, EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for elemental composition and structural imagesto fingerprint the techniques used by silversmiths. Pb and Ag isotope analysis combined with trace element compositions show that high-quality silver bullion was obtained mainly from the resmelting of Asian dirhams. Silver and lead from the Upper Silesia and Krakow regions were also used in this period. Research results are confirmed by incomplete historical sources that the Krakow land and Upper Silesia from the 9th to the end of the 10th c. were under Czech rule. This can be associated with the Czech elite's desire to access the silver and lead sources.
Since the year 1989, the inventories of Jewish cemeteries in Pilica, Olkusz (two cemeteries), Dąb... more Since the year 1989, the inventories of Jewish cemeteries in Pilica, Olkusz (two cemeteries), Dąbrowa Górnicza, Sławków (now in the Krzykawka area, Bolesław municipality), Jaworzno, Chrzanów, Czeladź and Będzin have been carried out. In this article, the main issue will be the tombstones, which are called 'a small architecture'. Here we focus on the typologisation of the gravestones with the special consideration of the vertical gravestone stele, which are most often associated with the term 'matzeva'. The typologisation of the artwork material is an important preliminary work, whose goal is the complete monographic treatment of the necropolis. The chronology of the described cemeteries is the last 200 years. At the old cemetery in Olkusz there are single tombstones from the 17 th and 18 th centuries.
Since the 12th century in the Silesian-Cracovian area, lead, litharge, and silver have been produ... more Since the 12th century in the Silesian-Cracovian area, lead, litharge, and silver have been produced by the pyrometallurgical processing of Pb-Ag-Zn ore. Slags and soils contaminated with heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cd, Fe, Mn, As) were the subject of this research. Samples were collected during archaeological works in the area of early medieval metallurgical settlement. The main goals of the analyses (Scanning Electron Miscroscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Electron Probe Microanalyzer (EPMA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)) were the determination of the mineralogical composition of furnace batches and smelting temperatures and conditions. In soils, the anthropogenic phases enriched in Pb, Zn, Fe, Mn, P, and primary minerals like goethite, ferrihydrite, sphalerite, galena, smithsonite, minrecordite, cerussite, gypsum, anglesite, jarosite, and hemimorphite were identified. The soil from former metallurgical settlements contained up to 1106 mg•kg −1 Pb, 782 mg•kg −1 Zn, 4.7 mg•kg −1 Cd in the fine fraction. Much higher heavy metal concentrations were observed in the waste products of ore rinsing, up to 49,282 mg•kg −1 Pb, 64,408 mg•kg −1 Zn, and 287 mg•kg −1 Cd. The medieval smelting industry and Pb-Ag-Zn ore processing are marked by highly anomalous geochemical pollution (Pb, Zn, Cd, Fe, Mn, Ba) in the topsoil. The methods of mineralogical investigation, such as SEM-EDS or EMPA, can be used to identify mineralogical phases formed during metallurgical processes or ore processing. Based on these methods, the characteristic primary assemblage and synthetic phases were identified in the area polluted by medieval metallurgy and mining of Pb-Ag-Zn ores, including MVT (Mississippi Valley Type) deposits. The minerals distinguished in slags and the structural features of metal-bearing aggregates allow us to conclude that batches have included mostly oxidised minerals (PbCO 3 , ZnCO 3 , CaZn(CO 3) 2 , FeOOH), sulfides (PbS and ZnS) and quartz (SiO 2). The laboratory experiment of high-temperature heating of the examined slags showed that smelting temperatures used in the second half of 13th century were very high and could have reached up to 1550 • C. The results indicate, that geochemical and mineralogical methods can be used to obtain important information from archaeological sites, even after archaeological work has long ceased.
The article is devoted to the results of archaeological supervision conducted in 1988 after the d... more The article is devoted to the results of archaeological supervision conducted in 1988 after the discovery of mining shafts in Libiąż. This is one of the rare examples of archaeological studies in the relic of ore mining, in the border areas of Górny Śląsk and Zachodnia Małopolska. During the archaeological supervision and the construction work a vertical shaft was discovered, from which spread at least 3 horizontal drifts projected in a radial manner. The drifts were located at the depth of 2.5–3 m in a dolomite rock layer whose structure was of relatively poor density. The horizontal tunnels (adits) had a flat bottom, relatively straight lateral walls and an arched vault. Their width was about 100 cm and their height was about 80-100 cm. One of the tunnels bifurcated – there was a side tunnel, oriented at about 25 degrees. The chronology of the finds is a source of mystery. Most probably the finds are associated with early medieval ore mining. One may also venture a legitimate hypothesis that they may be associated with the Hallstatt period. Therefore they are the traces of the mining work which was conducted by the people who represented Lusatian culture and experimented with the technology of smelting lead from local ores and with the production (from this material) of ornaments found among the burial gifts in the region in question (a cremation grave in Żarki located about 5 km from the place where the shafts were discovered).
Danuta Makowicz‑Poliszot,
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sit... more Danuta Makowicz‑Poliszot,
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sites 2 and 8 in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień,
Śląskie
Voivodeship, in the light of archaeozoological analysis. Summary
The paper focuses on finds of animal burials discovered in four pits in two production
settlements in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień, Sites 2 and 8 (Fig. 1). The discussed
burials are the first finds of this kind which were discovered in the context of early
medieval specialised metallurgical production.
Three of these (Features 8/1998, 19/2006 and 16/2007) share common traits, such
as E‑W alignment of grave pits and covering of grave pits with stones. A lead ornament and a human tooth were obtained from Feature 8/1998.
Bones found in Feature 8/1998 (Site 2) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) come from two cattle individuals: an adult one and a juvenile one. An incomplete skull, a mandible and a fragment of cervical vertebra II were identified among the bones of the adult individual. Concerning the skeleton of the juvenile individual, two fragments of hind limb bone (femur and tibia) were found. In Feature 19/2003 (Site 8) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) an almost complete skeleton of a medium‑ sized cow was found. Its withers height was 114.3–119.9 cm. On the basis of wear of the third molar tooth M3 from the mandible and ossification of limb bones it can be assumed that the animal lived until the age of 3.5 to 5 years. A characteristic trait of this cow was perhaps a delayed age of knitting of long bones with their shafts or a faster pace of tooth wear. Traces of breaking were found on two ribs of this cow (Fig. 8).
An almost complete skeleton of a cow was encountered in Feature 29/2005 (Site 8)
(Fig. 9). Its withers height was 119.9–121.2 cm, which is characteristic for medium‑
sized individuals. As it was the case with the cow from Feature 19/2003, the animal
died at the age of 3.5 to 5 years. On phalanges I and II of this skeleton pathological
changes (splints) (Fig. 10:a–c) and bends of shafts of phalanges I were observed (Fig.
10:d).
Feature 16/2007 (Site 8) (Figs. 11 and 12) contained a skeleton of a cow with a fetus.
The pregnant cow’s withers height was 99.5–102.3 cm. The age of the cow, assessed
on the basis of its teeth, was about 24–28 months. An assessment of the degree of
ossification of the skeleton implies an age between 2–2.5 and 3 years. Taking these
observations into consideration, it can be assumed that the age at death of this cow
was about 2.5 years. Of interest are the observed physical disabilities of the buried cows – the delayed age of knitting of epiphyses with their shafts (Features 19/2003 and 29/2005), or bent shafts of phalanges (Feature 29/2005). These traits can suggest that the animals lived in strongly polluted environment, which no question contributed to the observed malformations. Strong environment pollution caused by production activity in the settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień was testified to by specialist examinations. The discovered animal burials were related to production features, that is, metallurgical furnaces. Some researchers assume that animal blood may have been used for metallurgical purposes in the period preceding the Early Middle Ages. It cannot be excluded that this may have also been the case in the early medieval production settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień. It is also possible that the buried cows participated in magical rituals related to metallurgical production and work with fire. Metallurgy, due to the participation of fire in production cycles, is often associated with procreation processes. This is because fire caused a change of the old and evil into the new, and it announced the appearance of the new. The very furnace, it which transformation processes occurred, assumed mediation traits. Due to the presence of fire in it, the furnace may have been treated as a sacrum sphere and thus was subject to a taboo. Sacrifices of animals, especially of pregnant individuals or animals with physical disabilities, were supposed to obtain benevolence of fire in the course of work with metal ores.
In the areas of the present frontier between Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk) and Little Poland (Małop... more In the areas of the present frontier between Upper Silesia (Górny Śląsk) and Little Poland (Małopolska) in remote geological eras, mainly in the Triassic period, an enrichment of geological layers with metal compounds such as lead and silver ores took place. The emergence of a raw materials base millions of years ago made possible the rapid development of an early medieval district of mining and metallurgy of lead ores, from which admixtures of silver were also retrieved. Even twenty years ago, the frontier areas of Little Poland and Silesia seemed to have little economic importance in the early stage of the existence of the Polish state. Archaeological research changed this opinion radically. The discovery of numerous early medieval settlements indicates that lead was melted and silver was extracted approximately in the areas stretching from Olkusz in the east to Bytom and Tarnowskie Góry in the west, and also in the area around Siewierz, Przeczyce, Jaworzno and Chrzanów. On-going archaeological excavations make our state of knowledge about the past of this area change constantly – new evidence allows for a revision of present theories in the field of Polish medieval and archaeological studies. The debate about the economic bases of the existence of the state of the first Piast rulers has been going on for decades or even longer. Silver played an important role in the formation of the Polish state. It was made into ornaments and first coins. It is also possible that lead shots and strips of silver were used in settling commercial transactions. Where did this metal originate? The answer to this question depends on the present state of our knowledge, that is on progress in archaeological research. Now one has to consider the possibility of acquiring silver not only through import (oriental silver) but also, from a certain point of time, from domestic sources. Thanks to the discovery of the remains of metallurgical furnaces we could increase our knowledge about their appearance. It enabled us to prepare for the first time a more comprehensive typology of this category of archeological finds. The discovery of other metals such as tin or lumps of alloys, brassware and bronze artifacts indicate that apart from metallurgical activities the craftsmen from these settlements also practiced goldsmithery. Apart from steelworks, there also existed goldsmith’s workshops which worked metals such as lead, silver, copper, zinc compounds (zinc ores), and tin. The production of glazed ceramics was an important economic enterprise in the lead smelting sites. The richness of form and ornament of ceramic vessels is unique on the scale of the whole country. “Lead gel – silica recipe”, which was procured on the spot, was used to decorate the sides of the vessels. Lead compounds were used to create multicoloured (mainly green and greenish-olive) ceramic enamels. Much seems to indicate that the vessels produced in the 11th-12th century in the Strzemieszyce-Łosień district and the area around Siewierz spread to large areas of Poland of that time and they constitute a slight part of glazed ceramics in units known from e.g. Kraków, Opole and other major urban centers. It is important to explain the sources of inspiration for such an engaging cultural phenomenon and a new technological skill.
Środowisko – Człowiek – Cywilizacja, tom 2 Seria wydawnicza Stowarzyszenia Archeologii Środowiskowej Środowiskowe uwarunkowania lokalizacji osadnictwa L. Domańska, P. Kittel, J. Forysiak (red.) Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań 2009, 215-219
Oddawana do rąk Czytelników publikacja jest poświęcona problematyce prawnej poszukiwania zabytków... more Oddawana do rąk Czytelników publikacja jest poświęcona problematyce prawnej poszukiwania zabytków oraz obrotu nimi. Uwaga skupiona została w szczególności na niepokojącym zjawisku nielegalnego poszukiwania i wydobywania zabytków, co czyni książ-kę jednym z nielicznych, na polskim rynku, opracowań poświęconych temu zagadnieniu. Przestępczość przeciwko zabytkom archeologicznym, metody działania nielegalnych poszukiwaczy i stosowane przez nich strategie obrony przed odpowiedzialnością z art. 111 ustawy o ochronie zabytków i opiece nad zabytkami, postawa urzędów konserwatorskich wobec działalności poszukiwaczy zabytków, konserwatorskie uwarunkowania poszukiwania zabytków, ustrojowe zagadnienia pozycji prawnej niemieckich stowarzyszeń archeologicznych, aspekty prawne znalezienia zabytku w świetle ustawy o rzeczach znalezionych, księgi ewidencyjne jako element kontroli obrotu zabytkami – to jedynie wybrane zagadnienia, które przedstawione zostały w niniejszej książce. W niektórych przypadkach nie podano jeszcze gotowych rozwiązań dostrzeżonych, skomplikowanych problemów, ale co istotne, zwrócono uwagę na ich występowanie i stopień natężenia, który jest bardzo niepokojący i który wymaga uwagi ustawodawcy. Przeprowadzone rozważania pozwoliły także na zgłoszenie kilku propozycji wprowadzenia nowych rozwiązań do systemu prawa polskiego. Książka adresowana jest do szerokiego grona odbiorców: archeologów, konserwatorów zabytków, muzealników, pracowników administracji rządowej i samorządowej, prawników praktyków, nauczycieli akademickich, a wreszcie także do samych poszukiwaczy zabytków oraz do wszystkich osób, którym na sercu leży zachowanie dziedzictwa kulturowego.
Uwagi wstępne Czy badania archeologiczne i opieka nad zabytkami to zagadnienia, które interesują ... more Uwagi wstępne Czy badania archeologiczne i opieka nad zabytkami to zagadnienia, które interesują współczesne media? Zależy to zarówno od archeologów czy kon-serwatorów zabytków, którzy przekazują informacje mediom, jak i od sa-mych dziennikarzy. Można zaryzykować twierdzenie, że te dwie grupy mają nieco odmienne interesy, ale chcąc zainteresować odbiorców tematyką ba-dań i odkryć archeologicznych, muszą się porozumieć. W wielkim skrócie-naukowcom zależy (choć niekiedy można odnieść inne wrażenie) na przed-stawieniu szerokiemu odbiorcy badań, które prowadzą. Niekiedy przekazy-wane przez nich informacje prezentowane są dość hermetycznym językiem, niezrozumiałym dla laików. Z kolei dziennikarzom zależy na ciekawym, no-śnym temacie i (może nieco upraszczając) oczekują od archeologów infor-macji, czy udało im się odnaleźć skarby 1. W grupie naukowców i dziennika-* historyk, regionalista, dziennikarz. ** dr hab., prof. WSH; Wyższa Szkoła Humanitas; ORCID 0000-0002-3264-8923. 1 Poszukiwania "skarbów" i ewentualny komercyjny "obrót" znaleziskami to działania wiążą-ce się na ogół z nielegalnymi praktykami. Są one zmorą współczesnej archeologii, a także ludzi zajmujących się profesjonalnie ochroną dziedzictwa kulturowego, w tym oczywiście służb kon-serwatorskich i policji. Na ten temat por. m.in.: Legalne/nielegalne poszukiwanie zabytków i obrót zabytkami. Na styku archeologii i prawa, red. I. Gredka-Ligarska, D. Rozmus, Sosnowiec 2017; J. Schuster, Sypiając z wrogiem? Potencjał badawczy amatorskiej "archeologii detektorystycznej" na przykładzie zabytków z okresu wpływów rzymskich i okresu wędrówek ludów z lat 2006-2014, odkrytych w kraju związkowym Szlezwik-Holsztyn, "Wiadomości Archeologiczne" 2017, vol. LXVIII, s. 11-31; D. Rozmus, O zaklętych skarbach, czyli jak się można szybko i łatwo dorobić, [w:] Legalne/nielegalne poszukiwanie…, s. 11-19. M. Trzciński, Raz jeszcze o poszukiwaniu zabytków w Polsce. Między teorią i praktyką, "Wiadomości Archeologiczne" 2017, vol. LXVIII, s. 33-45; C. von Carnap-Bornheim, U. Ickerodt, E. Siegloff, Archeologia landu Szlezwik-Holsztyn a arche-ologia detektorystyczna, "Wiadomości Archeologiczne" 2017, vol. LXVIII, s. 13-18.
W programie:
– Joanna Tokaj Monety Władysława Wygnańca
i Bolesława Kędzierzawego w świetle badań
... more W programie: – Joanna Tokaj Monety Władysława Wygnańca i Bolesława Kędzierzawego w świetle badań - dr hab. Dariusz Rozmus - Wczesnośredniowieczne hutnictwo srebra i ołowiu –perspektywy badawcze - Anna Sadło-Ostafin Nowożytny skarb z Czyżówki – krótki komunikat - Marek Szymaszkiewicz Późnohalsztackie wyroby ołowiane ze zbiorów Muzeum w Chrzanowie Dyskusja Wystawa czynna od 24 stycznia do 26 lutego 2018 r.
Geochemical, geophysical and historical research in the area of the former drainage gallery (buil... more Geochemical, geophysical and historical research in the area of the former drainage gallery (built since 1529 by the Turzon brothers) of the lead ore mine in Jaworzno-Długoszyn (Southern Poland) Since the Middle Ages lead was a significant raw material used for the production of silver from copper ores, but it also had many other applications. In the 15th and 16th century lead was imported to Slovakia from deposits in the region of Olkusz and Jaworzno. High demand for this raw material in Slovak smelters e.g. in Banská Bystrica was covered by import from Poland. Therefore, investments in Polish lead mines (on the basis of the contracts with the bishops of Cracow) were financed in the first half of the 16th century by Turzon brothers from the Spiš region. The exact course of the drainage gallery, built from 1529, was not known. Analyses of terrain morphology using geodetic and Lidar methods, as well as geophysical and geochemical studies made it possible to identify the location of the watercourse draining the former gallery. The results of geoelectrical surveys and analysis of historical sources made it possible to identify the location of the water outflow from the former drainage gallery. Deep excavations were made in the place of the anomaly identified by geophysical methods in order to identify the lithological profile of the layers. Deep excavations made it possible to collect samples for geochemical (AAS) and mineralogical studies. Microscopic analysis (SEM/EDS) of sediments from different layers of the historic watercourse confirmed the presence of oxidized metal-bearing minerals containing Zn (up to 1708 ppm), Pb (up to 543 ppm), Fe (2.78%), Mn (1093 ppm), Ag (up to 1973 ppb) in their structure.
Streszczenie: Nowelizacja ustawy o ochronie zabytków uchwalona w 2023 r. nie rozwiązuje problemu ... more Streszczenie: Nowelizacja ustawy o ochronie zabytków uchwalona w 2023 r. nie rozwiązuje problemu sporu pomiędzy archeologami, merytorycznymi pracownikami muzeów, urzędnikami odpowiedzialnymi za ochronę zabytków a środowiskiem użytkowników wykrywaczy metali. Nowelizacja nie bierze pod uwagę ograniczonych możliwości kadrowych, logistycznych i technicznych regionalnych delegatur Państwowej Służby Ochrony Zabytków. Rozwiązanie widzę w edukacji użytkowników detektorów metali, wydawaniu licencji oraz poszerzeniu operacyjnych możliwości działania archeologów pełniących funkcję inspektorów ochrony zabytków archeologicznych.
Spory i starania o odzyskanie dzieł sztuki zarówno na płaszczyźnie państwowej, jak i prywatnej to... more Spory i starania o odzyskanie dzieł sztuki zarówno na płaszczyźnie państwowej, jak i prywatnej to ważna dziedzina działalności prawniczej. Możemy tym sporom prawnym przyglądać się zarówno od strony teoretycznej, jak i praktycznej. W artykule poruszono kwestię odzyskania od Wielkiej Brytanii marmurów z Partenonu wywiezionych przez lorda Elgina na początku XIX w. z Grecji. Jest to jeden z najdłuższych sporów o dzieła sztuki toczonych w nowożytnej Europie. Rozwiązanie może nie tkwić w prawie sensu stricto, ale być może w prostszych fundamentach nawiązujących do elementarnej moralności, na bazie której to prawo tworzono. Słowa kluczowe: marmury z Partenonu, spór o odzyskanie dziel sztuki Summary: Disputes and efforts to recover works of art, on the state and private levels, are important areas of legal activity. We can look at these legal disputes both from theoretical and practical points of view. The article deals with the issue of recovering from Great Britain the Parthenon marbles taken by Lord Elgin from Greece at the beginning of the 19th century. It is one of the longest disputes over works of art in modern Europe. The solution may not lie in the law in the strict sense, but perhaps in simpler foundations referring to the elementary morality on the basis of which this law was created.
Czy można kupić Grenlandię, zamorskie terytorium Królestwa Danii? Odpowiedź na to pytanie nie jes... more Czy można kupić Grenlandię, zamorskie terytorium Królestwa Danii? Odpowiedź na to pytanie nie jest prosta, a samo pytanie bynajmniej nie jest żartem. W przeszłości pomysłów i prób w tej materii nie brakowało. Klientem w ewentualnej transakcji są Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki. Nie byłby to zresztą pierwszy zakup terytorialny dokonany przez USA od Królestwa Danii. Podczas pierwszej wojny światowej w 1917 r. USA zakupiły od Danii tzw. Duńskie Indie Zachodnie-czyli część dzisiejszych Wysp Dziewiczych. USA kilkakrotnie rozważało możliwość zakupu tej największej na świecie wyspy. Pierwsze takie plany pojawiły się już w XIX w. W 1946 r. prezydent Harry Truman bezskutecznie złożył Danii ofertę zakupu Grenlandii za 100 mln ówczesnych dolarów. Rozważania w tej kwestii snuła również administracja prezydenta Donalda Trumpa. Aktywność gospodarcza (a także ewentualnie wojskowa) Rosji i Chin wymusza szczególne zainteresowanie USA tą wyspą. Ameryka posiada na Grenlandii bazy wojskowe i jest zobowiązana traktatem z 1951 r. wraz z Danią do jej obrony. USA musi prowadzić aktywną politykę w tym rejonie Arktyki, nie mogąc dopuścić do oskrzydlenia od wschodu kontynentu amerykańskiego przez konkurencyjne (oby nie wrogie) supermocarstwa. W opinii prawników przeważają opinie, że zakupy lądów są długą, umocowaną w historii i ugruntowaną w prawie międzynarodowym praktyką. Praktyka ta może jednak stać w sprzeczności z wolą mieszkańców zbywanych bądź zakupywanych lądów. W przypadku Grenlandii poza kwestiami związanymi z szeroko pojętymi prawami człowieka zakres autonomii posiadanej przez tę wyspę dodatkowo uniemożliwia taką transakcję. Sami zaś Grenlandczycy dążą do niepodległości.
For thousands of years, we can observe that the donkey, an animal commonly used in the Mediterran... more For thousands of years, we can observe that the donkey, an animal commonly used in the Mediterranean world and Asia as a beast of burden, has a rich symbolism associated with religion. It was ridden by ancient heroes, prophets, patriarchs and gods. In the Judaic and Christian traditions, there are positive aspects of this animal that are associated with messianic symbolism. The donkey was also used in the legal practices of the ancient East. Phrase to kill a donkey used in the existing in the second millennium BC in the present territory of Syria and Iraq, the city and the country of Mary, has become a technical term meaning the conclusion of the covenant.
Sulh is the form of custom law which refers to an amicable agreement between parties. Generally s... more Sulh is the form of custom law which refers to an amicable agreement between parties. Generally speaking, it is an agreement which refers to people or, in a broader context, tribal groups who are in conflict with each other or who are neutral to each other or who look forward to future collaboration. The agreement, sulh, which is an institution of custom law which has existed for centuries, has its ritualised forms. One of these forms was described on the basis of the agreements concluded in the Tobruk area in Libya.
Leff is the institution of custom law which was applied to conclude political partnerships and al... more Leff is the institution of custom law which was applied to conclude political partnerships and alliances. It is assumed that it was established in the early Middle Ages in the 11th c. AD.The author of the article demonstrates that thanks to an analysis of a source text from al-Bakri one may find traces of the use of this law of concluding alliances as early as in the 9th c. AD in the Nekôr emirate that existed in the early Middle Ages.
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Papers by Dariusz Rozmus
This technological and provenance analysis of metal artifacts from a unique Viking-age hoard found in Piaski-Dramino (NW Poland) reveals an expansive trade network. Particular attention was paid to kaptorga type amulets made in post-Great Moravian style. X-ray spectroscopy (XRF, EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for elemental composition and structural imagesto fingerprint the techniques used by silversmiths. Pb and Ag isotope analysis combined with trace element compositions show that high-quality silver bullion was obtained mainly from the resmelting of Asian dirhams. Silver and lead from the Upper Silesia and Krakow regions were also used in this period. Research results are confirmed by incomplete historical sources that the Krakow land and Upper Silesia from the 9th to the end of the 10th c. were under Czech rule. This can be associated with the Czech elite's desire to access the silver and lead sources.
of ore mining, in the border areas of Górny Śląsk and Zachodnia Małopolska. During the archaeological supervision and the construction work a vertical shaft was discovered, from which spread at least
3 horizontal drifts projected in a radial manner. The drifts were located at the depth of 2.5–3 m in a dolomite rock layer whose structure was of relatively poor density. The horizontal tunnels (adits) had
a flat bottom, relatively straight lateral walls and an arched vault. Their width was about 100 cm and their height was about 80-100 cm. One of the tunnels bifurcated – there was a side tunnel, oriented
at about 25 degrees. The chronology of the finds is a source of mystery. Most probably the finds are associated with early medieval ore mining. One may also venture a legitimate hypothesis that they
may be associated with the Hallstatt period. Therefore they are the traces of the mining work which was conducted by the people who represented Lusatian culture and experimented with the technology
of smelting lead from local ores and with the production (from this material) of ornaments found among the burial gifts in the region in question (a cremation grave in Żarki located about 5 km from
the place where the shafts were discovered).
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sites 2 and 8 in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień,
Śląskie
Voivodeship, in the light of archaeozoological analysis. Summary
The paper focuses on finds of animal burials discovered in four pits in two production
settlements in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień, Sites 2 and 8 (Fig. 1). The discussed
burials are the first finds of this kind which were discovered in the context of early
medieval specialised metallurgical production.
Three of these (Features 8/1998, 19/2006 and 16/2007) share common traits, such
as E‑W alignment of grave pits and covering of grave pits with stones. A lead ornament and a human tooth were obtained from Feature 8/1998.
Bones found in Feature 8/1998 (Site 2) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) come from two cattle individuals: an adult one and a juvenile one. An incomplete skull, a mandible and a fragment of cervical vertebra II were identified among the bones of the adult individual. Concerning the skeleton of the juvenile individual, two fragments of hind limb bone (femur and tibia) were found. In Feature 19/2003 (Site 8) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) an almost complete skeleton of a medium‑ sized cow was found. Its withers height was 114.3–119.9 cm. On the basis of wear of the third molar tooth M3 from the mandible and ossification of limb bones it can be assumed that the animal lived until the age of 3.5 to 5 years. A characteristic trait of this cow was perhaps a delayed age of knitting of long bones with their shafts or a faster pace of tooth wear. Traces of breaking were found on two ribs of this cow (Fig. 8).
An almost complete skeleton of a cow was encountered in Feature 29/2005 (Site 8)
(Fig. 9). Its withers height was 119.9–121.2 cm, which is characteristic for medium‑
sized individuals. As it was the case with the cow from Feature 19/2003, the animal
died at the age of 3.5 to 5 years. On phalanges I and II of this skeleton pathological
changes (splints) (Fig. 10:a–c) and bends of shafts of phalanges I were observed (Fig.
10:d).
Feature 16/2007 (Site 8) (Figs. 11 and 12) contained a skeleton of a cow with a fetus.
The pregnant cow’s withers height was 99.5–102.3 cm. The age of the cow, assessed
on the basis of its teeth, was about 24–28 months. An assessment of the degree of
ossification of the skeleton implies an age between 2–2.5 and 3 years. Taking these
observations into consideration, it can be assumed that the age at death of this cow
was about 2.5 years. Of interest are the observed physical disabilities of the buried cows – the delayed age of knitting of epiphyses with their shafts (Features 19/2003 and 29/2005), or bent shafts of phalanges (Feature 29/2005). These traits can suggest that the animals lived in strongly polluted environment, which no question contributed to the observed malformations. Strong environment pollution caused by production activity in the settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień was testified to by specialist examinations. The discovered animal burials were related to production features, that is, metallurgical furnaces. Some researchers assume that animal blood may have been used for metallurgical purposes in the period preceding the Early Middle Ages. It cannot be excluded that this may have also been the case in the early medieval production settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień. It is also possible that the buried cows participated in magical rituals related to metallurgical production and work with fire. Metallurgy, due to the participation of fire in production cycles, is often associated with procreation processes. This is because fire caused a change of the old and evil into the new, and it announced the appearance of the new. The very furnace, it which transformation processes occurred, assumed mediation traits. Due to the presence of fire in it, the furnace may have been treated as a sacrum sphere and thus was subject to a taboo. Sacrifices of animals, especially of pregnant individuals or animals with physical disabilities, were supposed to obtain benevolence of fire in the course of work with metal ores.
retrieved. Even twenty years ago, the frontier areas of Little Poland and Silesia seemed to have little economic importance in the early stage of the existence of the Polish state. Archaeological research changed this opinion radically. The discovery of numerous early medieval settlements indicates that lead was melted and silver was extracted approximately in the areas stretching from Olkusz in the east to Bytom and Tarnowskie Góry in the west, and also in the area around Siewierz, Przeczyce, Jaworzno and Chrzanów. On-going archaeological excavations make our state of knowledge about the past of this area change constantly – new evidence allows for a revision of present theories in the field of
Polish medieval and archaeological studies. The debate about the economic bases of the existence of the state of the first
Piast rulers has been going on for decades or even longer. Silver played an important role in the formation of the Polish state. It was made into ornaments and first coins. It is also possible that lead shots and strips of silver were used in settling commercial transactions. Where did this metal originate? The answer to this question depends on the present state of our knowledge, that is on progress in archaeological research. Now one has to consider the possibility of acquiring silver not only through import (oriental silver) but also, from a certain point of time, from domestic sources. Thanks to the discovery of the remains of metallurgical furnaces we could increase our knowledge about their appearance. It enabled us to prepare for the first time a more comprehensive typology of this category of archeological finds. The discovery of other metals such as tin or lumps of alloys, brassware and bronze artifacts indicate that apart from metallurgical activities the craftsmen from these settlements also practiced goldsmithery. Apart from steelworks, there
also existed goldsmith’s workshops which worked metals such as lead, silver, copper, zinc compounds (zinc ores), and tin.
The production of glazed ceramics was an important economic enterprise in the lead smelting sites. The richness of form and ornament of ceramic vessels is unique on the scale of the whole country. “Lead gel – silica recipe”, which was procured on the spot, was used to decorate the sides of the vessels. Lead compounds were used to create multicoloured (mainly green and greenish-olive) ceramic enamels. Much seems to indicate that the vessels produced in the 11th-12th century in the Strzemieszyce-Łosień district and the area around Siewierz spread to large areas of Poland of that time and they constitute a slight part of glazed ceramics in units known from e.g. Kraków, Opole and other major
urban centers. It is important to explain the sources of inspiration for such an engaging cultural phenomenon and a new technological skill.
This technological and provenance analysis of metal artifacts from a unique Viking-age hoard found in Piaski-Dramino (NW Poland) reveals an expansive trade network. Particular attention was paid to kaptorga type amulets made in post-Great Moravian style. X-ray spectroscopy (XRF, EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used for elemental composition and structural imagesto fingerprint the techniques used by silversmiths. Pb and Ag isotope analysis combined with trace element compositions show that high-quality silver bullion was obtained mainly from the resmelting of Asian dirhams. Silver and lead from the Upper Silesia and Krakow regions were also used in this period. Research results are confirmed by incomplete historical sources that the Krakow land and Upper Silesia from the 9th to the end of the 10th c. were under Czech rule. This can be associated with the Czech elite's desire to access the silver and lead sources.
of ore mining, in the border areas of Górny Śląsk and Zachodnia Małopolska. During the archaeological supervision and the construction work a vertical shaft was discovered, from which spread at least
3 horizontal drifts projected in a radial manner. The drifts were located at the depth of 2.5–3 m in a dolomite rock layer whose structure was of relatively poor density. The horizontal tunnels (adits) had
a flat bottom, relatively straight lateral walls and an arched vault. Their width was about 100 cm and their height was about 80-100 cm. One of the tunnels bifurcated – there was a side tunnel, oriented
at about 25 degrees. The chronology of the finds is a source of mystery. Most probably the finds are associated with early medieval ore mining. One may also venture a legitimate hypothesis that they
may be associated with the Hallstatt period. Therefore they are the traces of the mining work which was conducted by the people who represented Lusatian culture and experimented with the technology
of smelting lead from local ores and with the production (from this material) of ornaments found among the burial gifts in the region in question (a cremation grave in Żarki located about 5 km from
the place where the shafts were discovered).
Dariusz Rozmus, Bartłomiej Szymon Szmoniewski
Animal burials from Sites 2 and 8 in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień,
Śląskie
Voivodeship, in the light of archaeozoological analysis. Summary
The paper focuses on finds of animal burials discovered in four pits in two production
settlements in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień, Sites 2 and 8 (Fig. 1). The discussed
burials are the first finds of this kind which were discovered in the context of early
medieval specialised metallurgical production.
Three of these (Features 8/1998, 19/2006 and 16/2007) share common traits, such
as E‑W alignment of grave pits and covering of grave pits with stones. A lead ornament and a human tooth were obtained from Feature 8/1998.
Bones found in Feature 8/1998 (Site 2) (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) come from two cattle individuals: an adult one and a juvenile one. An incomplete skull, a mandible and a fragment of cervical vertebra II were identified among the bones of the adult individual. Concerning the skeleton of the juvenile individual, two fragments of hind limb bone (femur and tibia) were found. In Feature 19/2003 (Site 8) (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) an almost complete skeleton of a medium‑ sized cow was found. Its withers height was 114.3–119.9 cm. On the basis of wear of the third molar tooth M3 from the mandible and ossification of limb bones it can be assumed that the animal lived until the age of 3.5 to 5 years. A characteristic trait of this cow was perhaps a delayed age of knitting of long bones with their shafts or a faster pace of tooth wear. Traces of breaking were found on two ribs of this cow (Fig. 8).
An almost complete skeleton of a cow was encountered in Feature 29/2005 (Site 8)
(Fig. 9). Its withers height was 119.9–121.2 cm, which is characteristic for medium‑
sized individuals. As it was the case with the cow from Feature 19/2003, the animal
died at the age of 3.5 to 5 years. On phalanges I and II of this skeleton pathological
changes (splints) (Fig. 10:a–c) and bends of shafts of phalanges I were observed (Fig.
10:d).
Feature 16/2007 (Site 8) (Figs. 11 and 12) contained a skeleton of a cow with a fetus.
The pregnant cow’s withers height was 99.5–102.3 cm. The age of the cow, assessed
on the basis of its teeth, was about 24–28 months. An assessment of the degree of
ossification of the skeleton implies an age between 2–2.5 and 3 years. Taking these
observations into consideration, it can be assumed that the age at death of this cow
was about 2.5 years. Of interest are the observed physical disabilities of the buried cows – the delayed age of knitting of epiphyses with their shafts (Features 19/2003 and 29/2005), or bent shafts of phalanges (Feature 29/2005). These traits can suggest that the animals lived in strongly polluted environment, which no question contributed to the observed malformations. Strong environment pollution caused by production activity in the settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień was testified to by specialist examinations. The discovered animal burials were related to production features, that is, metallurgical furnaces. Some researchers assume that animal blood may have been used for metallurgical purposes in the period preceding the Early Middle Ages. It cannot be excluded that this may have also been the case in the early medieval production settlement in Dąbrowa Górnicza‑Łosień. It is also possible that the buried cows participated in magical rituals related to metallurgical production and work with fire. Metallurgy, due to the participation of fire in production cycles, is often associated with procreation processes. This is because fire caused a change of the old and evil into the new, and it announced the appearance of the new. The very furnace, it which transformation processes occurred, assumed mediation traits. Due to the presence of fire in it, the furnace may have been treated as a sacrum sphere and thus was subject to a taboo. Sacrifices of animals, especially of pregnant individuals or animals with physical disabilities, were supposed to obtain benevolence of fire in the course of work with metal ores.
retrieved. Even twenty years ago, the frontier areas of Little Poland and Silesia seemed to have little economic importance in the early stage of the existence of the Polish state. Archaeological research changed this opinion radically. The discovery of numerous early medieval settlements indicates that lead was melted and silver was extracted approximately in the areas stretching from Olkusz in the east to Bytom and Tarnowskie Góry in the west, and also in the area around Siewierz, Przeczyce, Jaworzno and Chrzanów. On-going archaeological excavations make our state of knowledge about the past of this area change constantly – new evidence allows for a revision of present theories in the field of
Polish medieval and archaeological studies. The debate about the economic bases of the existence of the state of the first
Piast rulers has been going on for decades or even longer. Silver played an important role in the formation of the Polish state. It was made into ornaments and first coins. It is also possible that lead shots and strips of silver were used in settling commercial transactions. Where did this metal originate? The answer to this question depends on the present state of our knowledge, that is on progress in archaeological research. Now one has to consider the possibility of acquiring silver not only through import (oriental silver) but also, from a certain point of time, from domestic sources. Thanks to the discovery of the remains of metallurgical furnaces we could increase our knowledge about their appearance. It enabled us to prepare for the first time a more comprehensive typology of this category of archeological finds. The discovery of other metals such as tin or lumps of alloys, brassware and bronze artifacts indicate that apart from metallurgical activities the craftsmen from these settlements also practiced goldsmithery. Apart from steelworks, there
also existed goldsmith’s workshops which worked metals such as lead, silver, copper, zinc compounds (zinc ores), and tin.
The production of glazed ceramics was an important economic enterprise in the lead smelting sites. The richness of form and ornament of ceramic vessels is unique on the scale of the whole country. “Lead gel – silica recipe”, which was procured on the spot, was used to decorate the sides of the vessels. Lead compounds were used to create multicoloured (mainly green and greenish-olive) ceramic enamels. Much seems to indicate that the vessels produced in the 11th-12th century in the Strzemieszyce-Łosień district and the area around Siewierz spread to large areas of Poland of that time and they constitute a slight part of glazed ceramics in units known from e.g. Kraków, Opole and other major
urban centers. It is important to explain the sources of inspiration for such an engaging cultural phenomenon and a new technological skill.
– Joanna Tokaj Monety Władysława Wygnańca
i Bolesława Kędzierzawego w świetle badań
- dr hab. Dariusz Rozmus - Wczesnośredniowieczne hutnictwo srebra i ołowiu –perspektywy badawcze
- Anna Sadło-Ostafin
Nowożytny skarb z Czyżówki – krótki komunikat
- Marek Szymaszkiewicz Późnohalsztackie wyroby ołowiane
ze zbiorów Muzeum w Chrzanowie
Dyskusja
Wystawa czynna
od 24 stycznia do 26 lutego 2018 r.
Summary: Disputes and efforts to recover works of art, on the state and private levels, are important areas of legal activity. We can look at these legal disputes both from theoretical and practical points of view. The article deals with the issue of recovering from Great Britain the Parthenon marbles taken by Lord Elgin from Greece at the beginning of the 19th century. It is one of the longest disputes over works of art in modern Europe. The solution may not lie in the law in the strict sense, but perhaps in simpler foundations referring to the elementary morality on the basis of which this law was created.
one may find traces of the use of this law of concluding alliances as early as in the 9th c. AD in the Nekôr emirate that existed in the early Middle Ages.