ÉTUDES BALKANIQUES, LІХ, 2023, 4, 2023
Religion at the Service of Diplomacy: Lazarists during the Balkan Wars
(1912 – 1913)
Abstract: In... more Religion at the Service of Diplomacy: Lazarists during the Balkan Wars
(1912 – 1913)
Abstract: In the presented article the author researched the role and the position of catholic mission Lazarists based in Macedonia during the Balkan Wars (1912 – 1913). The articles explore the relations of Serbia toward this catholic community but take into consideration the entanglements of the other states involved in the Balkan Wars: Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire. Special attention is given to the mission’s humanitarian work conducted during the war operations, as well as its complex position during the Second Balkan war and the problems they have faced after the Wars in Serbia and Greece. A great part of the article is dedicated to France’s attitude and aims to protect Lazarists’ work in the Ottoman Empire and accordingly its religious diplomacy. For two centuries in the Ottoman Empire Lazarists had been closely tied with the French diplomatic network benefiting from diplomatic protection while working in promoting French culture along with Catholicism. France used all diplomatic resources to (re)assure the continuity of its cultural influence after 1913 and the decay of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. The article is based on documents from the Diplomatic archive and the Archives of Congregation of the Mission.
Keywords: Lazarists, Balkan Wars, Macedonia, Serbia, France
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(1912 – 1913)
Abstract: In the presented article the author researched the role and the position of catholic mission Lazarists based in Macedonia during the Balkan Wars (1912 – 1913). The articles explore the relations of Serbia toward this catholic community but take into consideration the entanglements of the other states involved in the Balkan Wars: Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire. Special attention is given to the mission’s humanitarian work conducted during the war operations, as well as its complex position during the Second Balkan war and the problems they have faced after the Wars in Serbia and Greece. A great part of the article is dedicated to France’s attitude and aims to protect Lazarists’ work in the Ottoman Empire and accordingly its religious diplomacy. For two centuries in the Ottoman Empire Lazarists had been closely tied with the French diplomatic network benefiting from diplomatic protection while working in promoting French culture along with Catholicism. France used all diplomatic resources to (re)assure the continuity of its cultural influence after 1913 and the decay of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. The article is based on documents from the Diplomatic archive and the Archives of Congregation of the Mission.
Keywords: Lazarists, Balkan Wars, Macedonia, Serbia, France
Mots-clés: Crise de Shkodër, Première guerre balkanique, Monténégro, France, roi Nikola, Paul Cambon, Raymond Poincaré.
Посебну пажњу у раду посвећујемо градњи прве српске железнице и учешћу француског банкара Ежена Бонтуа у подухвату и политичким последицама краха Генералне уније у јануару 1882. по политички живот Србије. Други аспект који разматрамо јесте дипломатска припрема проглашења Србије краљевином, на којој се интензивно радило од 1878, и ставу Француске према тој идеји. Рад је
написан на основу грађе француске и српске провенијенције и релевантне историографске литературе и периодике.
Кључне речи: Србија, Француска, кнез Милан, Јован Мариновић, Ежен Бонту, железничка конвенција, проглашење краљевине.
In the paper, we are dealing with social and national problems within
First Yugoslavia (1918–1941). We choose to closely examine
problems of nationalities and ethnic tension which caused political and
social instability during the entire period of the state’s existence. The
King and governments tried to overcome huge differences among
Yugoslav people imposed a centralized system which was replaced
with a dictatorship (1929–1935). From the beginning, First Yugoslavia
dealt with numerous interior and exterior enemies. Over the years
along with national tension they weaken the country, undermining its
foundation from inside and outside until finally succeeded to abolish
it in the Second World War.
Based on memoirs of two French officers – General Maurice Sarrail and Marshal Franchet D’Esperèy, the paper gives an overview of the Thessaloniki Front and the war in the Balkans from autumn 1915, when the front was established, until its breakthrough in September 1918. Maurice Sarrail was the first commander-in-chief of L’Armée d’Orient (July 1915 – December 1917) and Franchet D’Esperèy was its third and last commander (June 1918 – July 1920). These are two entirely different historical personalities and the comparative analysis of them will enable us to comprehensively examine the war in the Balkans and the Allies’ attitude towards this, in their view, second-rate front. Our research focuses on their relationship and cooperation with the Serbian army and their view of the role and importance of the Thessaloniki front in the Entente’s victory over the Central Powers in the First World War.
Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Portugal in Lisbon (Arquivo Diplomático do Ministério das Relações Exteriores) are presented and analysed in the paper. The fund contains 42 documents concerning the 1882–1924 period. This is protocol court correspondence which contains the letters of sovereigns, whereby they informed each
other about important dynastic and political changes in their respective states. The documents are dated 1882, 1903, 1912 and 1924. We singled out only these four documents as they testify not only to the beginnings of the diplomatic contacts between Serbia and Portugal but are also the best reflection of the historical development and major political changes in the two countries at the turn of the century. The first document is dated 1882 and represents the oldest testimony about the established diplomatic relations between the Obrenović and Bragança dynasties. The second document, dated 1903, was the first letter exchanged after the dynastic change in Serbia. The third document of 1912 testifies to the continuity of relations between the two states after the proclamation of the Portuguese Republic in 1910. The fourth document of 1924 contains news of the birth of Prince Petar and is the last document from this fund. The introductory study contains a short overview of the history of Serbian-Portuguese diplomatic relations through the prism of the entire Sérvia fund, records of the mission
of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in Lisbon from the Archive of Yugoslavia, and relevant historiographic literature and periodicals.
A focus is also placed on the origin of the idea, the ongoing war operations until the London Peace Conference (December 1912 – May 1913) and finally through the work of two international border demarcation commissions (October 1913 – June 1914). The facts presented in the paper rely on documents kept in Serbian and foreign archives, as well as on relevant literature.
In the paper, we have analyzed memoirs and war journals of four Frenchmen – General Maurice Sarrail, Marshal Franchet D’Espèrey, soldiers Constantin Photiadès and Louis Cordier. According to our opinion, this four characters through its works presented the most vivid picture of Thessaloniki font, war operations, the final operation at Dobro polje, collaboration with the Serbian army and reminiscence of the mutual war experience of Serbian and French armies. In reconstructing war strategies and operations at the front we relayed on comparative analysis of memoirs of Sarrail and D’Espèrey, the first and the last commander-in-chief of L’Armée D’Orient. The important part of the research was to learn how France has referred toward the Thessaloniki front and Balkan war experience in the post-war era. Thought memoirs
of Photiadès and Cordier we pointed out official standpoints and those unofficial represented by various associations which gathered former combatants. The most important of such association was Fédération national des Poilus d’Orient, founded 1921 in Marseille in which Cordier was one of the most important figures. The base of the paper are memoirs and studies of the abovementioned soldiers completed with journals of other contemporaries, documents stored in the Archive of Yugoslavia and the National Library of Serbia and relevant historiography.
Krakow – a volunteer in the Balkan Wars, an officer in the First World War, writer and journalist after the war. By all means, Krakow was an outstanding person with extraordinary war experience and almost movielike life. In the six years-long war period Krakow was injured 14 times and honoured with 18 Serbian and foreign decorations for bravery. In many war episodes, he played a very prominent role. He was in the unit that was first attacked by Bulgaria in autumn 1915 and participated in all battles at the Thessaloniki front in 1916–1918. When the Serbian and Allied army broke through the frontline, he was leading the unit that liberated Veles. The first unit, which crossed the Sava, liberated Ruma, Novi Sad and the entire Fruška Gora region, was under his command. He was in the division chosen to cross through Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia and finally reach the Adriatic Sea in Istria. With literary talent, Krakow was describing very meticulously the situation in Rijeka, tense relations with Italians and the outcome of that war adventure. Furthermore, he was a representative of the Serbian army within the Rijeka occupation corps under the command of French General Tranié. From Rijeka, he was transferred to Zagreb in the special military mission headed by Colonel Milan Pribićević. When the mission was disbanded in February 1919, he remained in Zagreb but now as part of a new mission under the command of his uncle Colonel Milan Nedić. In Zagreb, Krakow was the witness of a very tight antiYugoslav atmosphere, the disappointment of one part of Croats with the new state, their separatist feelings, etc. Retired from the Army in 1922, he turned to a career of a journalist and writer and achieved significant success. Despite the fact that published during one decade even today he is considered one of the most prominent representatives of Expressionism in Yugoslavia. His entire
literature relied on the war experience in 1912–1918. The research basis of this paper were documents, war journals and manuscripts stored in the Archive of Yugoslavia and the National Library of Serbia. Immense contributions to the research were Krakow’s novels and shorts stories. His role in the Second World War, mainly close cooperation with Milan Nedić and Dimitrije Ljotić, and his unambiguously pro-Nazi beliefs, are not examined in the paper. Krakow fled Yugoslavia in August 1944 and until its death in 1968 lived in France and Switzerland.
(1912 – 1913)
Abstract: In the presented article the author researched the role and the position of catholic mission Lazarists based in Macedonia during the Balkan Wars (1912 – 1913). The articles explore the relations of Serbia toward this catholic community but take into consideration the entanglements of the other states involved in the Balkan Wars: Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire. Special attention is given to the mission’s humanitarian work conducted during the war operations, as well as its complex position during the Second Balkan war and the problems they have faced after the Wars in Serbia and Greece. A great part of the article is dedicated to France’s attitude and aims to protect Lazarists’ work in the Ottoman Empire and accordingly its religious diplomacy. For two centuries in the Ottoman Empire Lazarists had been closely tied with the French diplomatic network benefiting from diplomatic protection while working in promoting French culture along with Catholicism. France used all diplomatic resources to (re)assure the continuity of its cultural influence after 1913 and the decay of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. The article is based on documents from the Diplomatic archive and the Archives of Congregation of the Mission.
Keywords: Lazarists, Balkan Wars, Macedonia, Serbia, France
Mots-clés: Crise de Shkodër, Première guerre balkanique, Monténégro, France, roi Nikola, Paul Cambon, Raymond Poincaré.
Посебну пажњу у раду посвећујемо градњи прве српске железнице и учешћу француског банкара Ежена Бонтуа у подухвату и политичким последицама краха Генералне уније у јануару 1882. по политички живот Србије. Други аспект који разматрамо јесте дипломатска припрема проглашења Србије краљевином, на којој се интензивно радило од 1878, и ставу Француске према тој идеји. Рад је
написан на основу грађе француске и српске провенијенције и релевантне историографске литературе и периодике.
Кључне речи: Србија, Француска, кнез Милан, Јован Мариновић, Ежен Бонту, железничка конвенција, проглашење краљевине.
In the paper, we are dealing with social and national problems within
First Yugoslavia (1918–1941). We choose to closely examine
problems of nationalities and ethnic tension which caused political and
social instability during the entire period of the state’s existence. The
King and governments tried to overcome huge differences among
Yugoslav people imposed a centralized system which was replaced
with a dictatorship (1929–1935). From the beginning, First Yugoslavia
dealt with numerous interior and exterior enemies. Over the years
along with national tension they weaken the country, undermining its
foundation from inside and outside until finally succeeded to abolish
it in the Second World War.
Based on memoirs of two French officers – General Maurice Sarrail and Marshal Franchet D’Esperèy, the paper gives an overview of the Thessaloniki Front and the war in the Balkans from autumn 1915, when the front was established, until its breakthrough in September 1918. Maurice Sarrail was the first commander-in-chief of L’Armée d’Orient (July 1915 – December 1917) and Franchet D’Esperèy was its third and last commander (June 1918 – July 1920). These are two entirely different historical personalities and the comparative analysis of them will enable us to comprehensively examine the war in the Balkans and the Allies’ attitude towards this, in their view, second-rate front. Our research focuses on their relationship and cooperation with the Serbian army and their view of the role and importance of the Thessaloniki front in the Entente’s victory over the Central Powers in the First World War.
Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Portugal in Lisbon (Arquivo Diplomático do Ministério das Relações Exteriores) are presented and analysed in the paper. The fund contains 42 documents concerning the 1882–1924 period. This is protocol court correspondence which contains the letters of sovereigns, whereby they informed each
other about important dynastic and political changes in their respective states. The documents are dated 1882, 1903, 1912 and 1924. We singled out only these four documents as they testify not only to the beginnings of the diplomatic contacts between Serbia and Portugal but are also the best reflection of the historical development and major political changes in the two countries at the turn of the century. The first document is dated 1882 and represents the oldest testimony about the established diplomatic relations between the Obrenović and Bragança dynasties. The second document, dated 1903, was the first letter exchanged after the dynastic change in Serbia. The third document of 1912 testifies to the continuity of relations between the two states after the proclamation of the Portuguese Republic in 1910. The fourth document of 1924 contains news of the birth of Prince Petar and is the last document from this fund. The introductory study contains a short overview of the history of Serbian-Portuguese diplomatic relations through the prism of the entire Sérvia fund, records of the mission
of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in Lisbon from the Archive of Yugoslavia, and relevant historiographic literature and periodicals.
A focus is also placed on the origin of the idea, the ongoing war operations until the London Peace Conference (December 1912 – May 1913) and finally through the work of two international border demarcation commissions (October 1913 – June 1914). The facts presented in the paper rely on documents kept in Serbian and foreign archives, as well as on relevant literature.
In the paper, we have analyzed memoirs and war journals of four Frenchmen – General Maurice Sarrail, Marshal Franchet D’Espèrey, soldiers Constantin Photiadès and Louis Cordier. According to our opinion, this four characters through its works presented the most vivid picture of Thessaloniki font, war operations, the final operation at Dobro polje, collaboration with the Serbian army and reminiscence of the mutual war experience of Serbian and French armies. In reconstructing war strategies and operations at the front we relayed on comparative analysis of memoirs of Sarrail and D’Espèrey, the first and the last commander-in-chief of L’Armée D’Orient. The important part of the research was to learn how France has referred toward the Thessaloniki front and Balkan war experience in the post-war era. Thought memoirs
of Photiadès and Cordier we pointed out official standpoints and those unofficial represented by various associations which gathered former combatants. The most important of such association was Fédération national des Poilus d’Orient, founded 1921 in Marseille in which Cordier was one of the most important figures. The base of the paper are memoirs and studies of the abovementioned soldiers completed with journals of other contemporaries, documents stored in the Archive of Yugoslavia and the National Library of Serbia and relevant historiography.
Krakow – a volunteer in the Balkan Wars, an officer in the First World War, writer and journalist after the war. By all means, Krakow was an outstanding person with extraordinary war experience and almost movielike life. In the six years-long war period Krakow was injured 14 times and honoured with 18 Serbian and foreign decorations for bravery. In many war episodes, he played a very prominent role. He was in the unit that was first attacked by Bulgaria in autumn 1915 and participated in all battles at the Thessaloniki front in 1916–1918. When the Serbian and Allied army broke through the frontline, he was leading the unit that liberated Veles. The first unit, which crossed the Sava, liberated Ruma, Novi Sad and the entire Fruška Gora region, was under his command. He was in the division chosen to cross through Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia and finally reach the Adriatic Sea in Istria. With literary talent, Krakow was describing very meticulously the situation in Rijeka, tense relations with Italians and the outcome of that war adventure. Furthermore, he was a representative of the Serbian army within the Rijeka occupation corps under the command of French General Tranié. From Rijeka, he was transferred to Zagreb in the special military mission headed by Colonel Milan Pribićević. When the mission was disbanded in February 1919, he remained in Zagreb but now as part of a new mission under the command of his uncle Colonel Milan Nedić. In Zagreb, Krakow was the witness of a very tight antiYugoslav atmosphere, the disappointment of one part of Croats with the new state, their separatist feelings, etc. Retired from the Army in 1922, he turned to a career of a journalist and writer and achieved significant success. Despite the fact that published during one decade even today he is considered one of the most prominent representatives of Expressionism in Yugoslavia. His entire
literature relied on the war experience in 1912–1918. The research basis of this paper were documents, war journals and manuscripts stored in the Archive of Yugoslavia and the National Library of Serbia. Immense contributions to the research were Krakow’s novels and shorts stories. His role in the Second World War, mainly close cooperation with Milan Nedić and Dimitrije Ljotić, and his unambiguously pro-Nazi beliefs, are not examined in the paper. Krakow fled Yugoslavia in August 1944 and until its death in 1968 lived in France and Switzerland.
The contributions in this book are based on extensive archival research and span Europe and North America over the past 500 years. They provide fresh historical perspectives on the various regimes of coercion, mobility, and immobility as constituent parts of the political economy of labour.
Moving Workers shows that all struggles relating to the mobility of workers or its restriction have the potential to reveal complex configurations of hierarchies, dependencies, and diverging conceptions of work and labour relations that continuously make and remake our world.