"What are the borders of the Promised Land in the Hebrew Bible? What drives and characterizes the... more "What are the borders of the Promised Land in the Hebrew Bible? What drives and characterizes the descriptions given of them? The starting point for this research lies in the premise that, despite their detailed geographical nature, the biblical texts are not genuinely geographical documents. They are more appropriately to be understood and examined as literary texts composed in the service of an ideological agenda. In order to comprehend properly the idea of the Promised Land presented in the Hebrew Bible—its definitions, dimensions, and significance—we must understand that the descriptions belong to diverse literary genres, were composed according to various literary devices that require decoding, and that reflect a range of perspectives, outlooks, and notions.
All the Boundaries of the Land provides engaging fresh perspectives on the variant views of the Promised Land in the interface between literature, history, geography, and ideology. It does not intend to answer the question of how the borders of the land altered throughout the course of history. The reader will find no maps or outlines in this book. The emphasis is on the literary tools that were employed by the biblical authors who described the borders, and the ideological motives that guided them."
The Shnaton - An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is the leading journal for ... more The Shnaton - An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is the leading journal for articles in the research of the Bible and its world in Hebrew. This volume (21) was co-edited by the former editor, Prof. Sara Japhet, and by Dr. Nili Wazana, who will continue to be the editor of the following volumes. It includes articles in three categories: biblical studies, the Bible in relation to the Ancient Near East, and history of exegesis, as well as extensive book reviews and obituaries. השנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום הוא הביטאון החשוב ביותר בעברית בחקר המקרא ועולמו. נכללים בו מאמרים מכל ענפי המחקר הנוגעים למקרא ובהם חקר המקרא עצמו, המזרח הקדום על תולדותיו, לשונותיו וספרויותיו בזיקה למקרא, הספרות החיצונית, מגילות מדבר יהודה, התרגומים העתיקים למקרא ותולדות הפרשנות לדורותיה. בשנתון גם מדור מיוחד למאמרי ביקורת מקיפים על ספרים שראו אור לאחרונה בנושאים אלה.
Coping With and Preventing Collective Fear in the Ancient Near East: Prespectives from Texts and Material Culture, Die Welt des Orients, 2021
This paper will investigate the role fear plays in the account of the conquest of the land (Jos 1... more This paper will investigate the role fear plays in the account of the conquest of the land (Jos 1–12), in the light of a general sketch of the role it plays in ANE sources according to the following categories: “freeze”, “follow”, “flight” or “fight”. Fear drives the separate episodes of the conquest, as well as its general setting. It strikes both the Israelite attacking forces and the local inhabitants of the land. Fear also appears in the encouraging formula “fear not” from oracles promising victory before battle. In Assyrian royal inscriptions the king does not fear, while fear of the Assyrians and their god’s splendor prevents the conflict – the enemy either submits to the conquering king or runs away. Fighting is never described as a reaction to fear. Rather, it is attributed to the enemy’s hubris and reliance on false power. In the book of Joshua flight is not a valid option because of the ḥerem ideological framework of the conquest. Fear of the Israelites either causes paralysis (Jericho) or motivates surrender (Rahab and the Gibeonites). In the light of the role fear plays in the Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, initiation of coalitions and fighting the Israelites are an unlikely reaction to fear. In the one case that fear prompts action (10:2), the verse is an addition to the account.
Joshua 2 presents one of the most curious biblical stories. It portrays a most unlikely protagon... more Joshua 2 presents one of the most curious biblical stories. It portrays a most unlikely protagonist: Rahab, a foreign woman, a prostitute, the first Canaanite Israel encounters upon entering the Promised Land (Josh 2; 6:17b.22–23.25). Rahab is also the only survivor from the local population of Canaan who is viewed favourably. This is a late story, building upon a variety of earlier literary traditions, inserted to the conquest narrative at a late stage. While historiography pays attention to the issue of foreign women as wives and mothers, Rahab is neither wife nor mother, and the story’s message is directed to all people. Rahab, the person with lowest standing in society, a foreign prostitute dwelling in the margins, proclaims the highest possible degree of faith. The lesson is that faith, derived from common observation of God’s control of Israel’s history, conquers all. With faith anyone can cross borders; even a foreign prostitute can overcome the ban decreed by God and dwell within Israel “to this day.”
Scholarly interpretation of the encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bet... more Scholarly interpretation of the encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (Amos 7:10-17), has thus far focused on the issue of prophetic authority and legitimization. This paper seeks to shed light on the issues at the heart of the dispute between Amaziah and Amos-issues of boundaries and identity, insiders and outsiders; belonging to and being banished from Israel, the land and the people. Amaziah insists that Amos is an outsider who may speak freely, but only "there", not "here". Amos counters by predicting the priest's own loss of social framework, in life and in death. The fact that, unlike many other reports of prophetic confrontations, this story does not indicate the consequences of the dispute-whether the expulsion of the prophet from the Northern Kingdom or the fulfillment of the curse of Amaziah-is another indication that the issue of prophetic authority is neither the only, nor the major concern of this showdown. Keywords Amos 7:10-17-Amos against Amaziah-prophetic conflict-insiders and outsiders-center and periphery-prostitution in the city-curses in the VTE-unclean land 1 Prophetic Conflict The encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (Amos 7:10-17) belongs to a well-known genre-that of a prophetic story that highlights a conflict between the antagonizing prophet and (a) member/s,
Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues, 2019
In this paper, the literary tradition describing a military coalition united
against an enemy is ... more In this paper, the literary tradition describing a military coalition united against an enemy is explored in three contemporary sources, belonging to different literary genres: Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith, Zakkur’s victory and thanksgiving stele and the biblical stories of the conquest of the land (Josh 10–11). A common underlying literary tradition shaped the motifs utilized in these disparate descriptions – the assembling of the forces, their depiction and enumeration, and the subsequent victory of the one against the many by means of divine assistance. Moreover, in this tradition, the coalitions are always assembled by the enemy force. Even within this common literary tradition, distinctive motifs characterize the local viewpoint vs. the imperial one. The common motifs and their unique utilization will help to shed light on biblical historiography, placing the situation of a conflict against a military coalition not in its correct historical frame, but at the beginning of the people’s history: in the description of the divinely assisted conquest of the land, when God fought for Israel (Josh 10:14).
Israel’s Declaration of Independence defends the right of Jews to the land, invoking the ancient ... more Israel’s Declaration of Independence defends the right of Jews to the land, invoking the ancient connection between the people of Israel and the land of Israel going back to biblical times. But does Ben-Gurion’s Declaration conform to biblical thought?
This paper points out the irony of two of Kaufmann’s lessknown
works. Kaufmann's detailed comment... more This paper points out the irony of two of Kaufmann’s lessknown works. Kaufmann's detailed commentaries on Joshua and Judges argue that these books supported his view that monotheism was a revolutionary innovation in early Israel. This required him to maintain that these two books are for the most part historically reliable and that they demonstrate that upon entering Canaan the Israelites quickly and decisively overcame the Canaanites. These theses have not won adherence—even among many scholars who consider themselves Kaufmann’s followers—and hence these works are rarely studied. They are, however, valuable, though not for the reasons that Kaufmann intended. Both commentaries are fine examples of close reading that were decades ahead of their time in their presentation of a literary method for analyzing biblical narrative. Further, they are both fine examples of Kaufmann’s moderate approach to compositional questions throughout his oeuvre: he does not deny the several levels of composition in biblical texts, but he avoids the capricious and far-fetched discovery of multitudinous levels of composition, redaction, and supplementation.
This paper deals with religious ties between Israel and Aram in the Deuteronomistic History, focu... more This paper deals with religious ties between Israel and Aram in the Deuteronomistic History, focusing primarily on the story of Ahaz and the altar from Damascus (2 Kgs 16:10–16), while considering two other stories – that of Naaman the Aramaean army general (2 Kings 5), and that of the meeting of Elisha and Hazael (2 Kgs 8:7–15).
The Bible is the only corpus including explicit anti-monarchial texts. This paper will focus on t... more The Bible is the only corpus including explicit anti-monarchial texts. This paper will focus on the Law of the King (Deut 17: 14-20) in an attempt to distinguish between two layers found in it: an anti-Assyrian – anti-imperialistic law dating to the seventh century BCE, and a secondary addition reacting to the conditions prevalent in the post-destruction era (sixth century BCE).
A rereading of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela commemorating the setting of a border (tahumu) by ... more A rereading of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela commemorating the setting of a border (tahumu) by the Assyrian king Adad-nerari III, represented by his commander-in-chief Samsi-ilu in 796 BCE. In the light of the role rivers played in border descriptions and agreements, this paper rejects the generally accepted translation of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela: "they divided the Orontes River between them equally", and propose a different reading of lines 4-11a of the Antakya Stela: "The border zone (i.e., land formerly belonging to Unqi) , which Adadnerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, [esta ]blished between Zakur of the land of Hamath [and] Atarsumki, son of Adramu - the town of Nablasi with all its fields, gardens [and s]ettlements is (the property) of Atarsumki; the Orontes River (is situated) between them - they (i.e., Adad-nerari III and Samsi-ilu the commander-in-chief, or the king of Hamath and the king of Arpad) divided [equ]ally between them. That border-zone (actually: its Arpadian side) Adad-nerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, have given freely and clearly (of all obligations) to Atarsumki, son of Adramu, to his sons and his future [gr]andsons. Its (principal) city (and) its territories [ ... ] to the territory of his (i.e., Atarsumki) land he (i.e., Adad-nerari III, or more likely Samsi-ilu) made firm."
This paper points out the existence of spatial merisms relating to Aram found in Amos 1:5 and con... more This paper points out the existence of spatial merisms relating to Aram found in Amos 1:5 and contemporaneous Aramaic and Assyrian inscriptions. Awareness of this literary pattern as well as the character and identity of the representative sites in Amos's description of Aram will help explain the reference to "all Aram" in the Sefire inscriptions and may offer yet another clue to the possible identification of KTK, the enigmatic party in the treaty that these steles record.
The Gift of the Land and the Fate of the Canaanites in Jewish Thought, Edited by Katell Berthelot, Joseph E. David and Marc Hirshman, Oxford University Press, pp. 13-35, 2014
The book of Amos begins with a series of oracles against Israel’s neighbors condemning them for a... more The book of Amos begins with a series of oracles against Israel’s neighbors condemning them for a list of sins which many commentators characterize as “war crimes” (Amos 1:3-2:3). The common understanding of the deeds of the nations as “obvious crimes” and a logical trap aimed at forcing the Israelite listeners to admit and accept their own guilt, is based on anachronistic assumptions, stemming from a contemporary viewpoint of war crimes projected upon the words of Amos. The paper offers a different understanding of the "war crimes" in Amos’ oracles against the nations and a different relationship between the crimes of the nations and Israel’s social crimes, based on the conception of war in contemporaneous societies and analysis of the form and intent of the oracles. Amos is not categorically against the actions themselves, but is referring to these measures as unjustified when taken to the extreme. What provoked God’s anger is the accumulation of those actions (‘for three transgressions… and for four’), their extreme character (‘complete exile’), their perpetuation over generations (‘unceasing’, ‘forever’), and their use for illegitimate causes (enlarging territory; violating a brotherhood covenant). While none of these deeds are categorically prohibited, when used in excess they break divine patience, inciting God’s anger and revenge. Although Amos still reflects the ethical guidelines of his era and he must not be seen as the first initiator of categorical “war laws”, his ideology limits war, and presents an irregular position in his world and time.
This article addresses the phenomenon of fortifications in Iron Age Israel and tries to portray t... more This article addresses the phenomenon of fortifications in Iron Age Israel and tries to portray the specific historical background behind their construction by integrating the archaeological data,
the extra-biblical sources and the analysis of the biblical text. Of the two clear stratigraphical phases of fortifications noticed in several Iron Age cities, the latter is more massive and elaborated
compared with its predecessor. We propose that the developed phase of fortifications in Israel was created under the Omrides, in a time of economic and political strength, as a response to the expansion policy of Aram Damascus. This analysis offers an explanation to the intriguing absence of any biblical reference to the Assyrians prior to Tiglath-pileser III, and casts a fresh look
upon the current debate on the chronology of the Iron Age II. If the elaborate fortification systems were initiated during the first half of the ninth century, the initial phase of the urbanization process, which preceded this developed stage, must have begun in the days prior to the Omride dynasty, namely in the tenth century.
"What are the borders of the Promised Land in the Hebrew Bible? What drives and characterizes the... more "What are the borders of the Promised Land in the Hebrew Bible? What drives and characterizes the descriptions given of them? The starting point for this research lies in the premise that, despite their detailed geographical nature, the biblical texts are not genuinely geographical documents. They are more appropriately to be understood and examined as literary texts composed in the service of an ideological agenda. In order to comprehend properly the idea of the Promised Land presented in the Hebrew Bible—its definitions, dimensions, and significance—we must understand that the descriptions belong to diverse literary genres, were composed according to various literary devices that require decoding, and that reflect a range of perspectives, outlooks, and notions.
All the Boundaries of the Land provides engaging fresh perspectives on the variant views of the Promised Land in the interface between literature, history, geography, and ideology. It does not intend to answer the question of how the borders of the land altered throughout the course of history. The reader will find no maps or outlines in this book. The emphasis is on the literary tools that were employed by the biblical authors who described the borders, and the ideological motives that guided them."
The Shnaton - An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is the leading journal for ... more The Shnaton - An Annual for Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies is the leading journal for articles in the research of the Bible and its world in Hebrew. This volume (21) was co-edited by the former editor, Prof. Sara Japhet, and by Dr. Nili Wazana, who will continue to be the editor of the following volumes. It includes articles in three categories: biblical studies, the Bible in relation to the Ancient Near East, and history of exegesis, as well as extensive book reviews and obituaries. השנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום הוא הביטאון החשוב ביותר בעברית בחקר המקרא ועולמו. נכללים בו מאמרים מכל ענפי המחקר הנוגעים למקרא ובהם חקר המקרא עצמו, המזרח הקדום על תולדותיו, לשונותיו וספרויותיו בזיקה למקרא, הספרות החיצונית, מגילות מדבר יהודה, התרגומים העתיקים למקרא ותולדות הפרשנות לדורותיה. בשנתון גם מדור מיוחד למאמרי ביקורת מקיפים על ספרים שראו אור לאחרונה בנושאים אלה.
Coping With and Preventing Collective Fear in the Ancient Near East: Prespectives from Texts and Material Culture, Die Welt des Orients, 2021
This paper will investigate the role fear plays in the account of the conquest of the land (Jos 1... more This paper will investigate the role fear plays in the account of the conquest of the land (Jos 1–12), in the light of a general sketch of the role it plays in ANE sources according to the following categories: “freeze”, “follow”, “flight” or “fight”. Fear drives the separate episodes of the conquest, as well as its general setting. It strikes both the Israelite attacking forces and the local inhabitants of the land. Fear also appears in the encouraging formula “fear not” from oracles promising victory before battle. In Assyrian royal inscriptions the king does not fear, while fear of the Assyrians and their god’s splendor prevents the conflict – the enemy either submits to the conquering king or runs away. Fighting is never described as a reaction to fear. Rather, it is attributed to the enemy’s hubris and reliance on false power. In the book of Joshua flight is not a valid option because of the ḥerem ideological framework of the conquest. Fear of the Israelites either causes paralysis (Jericho) or motivates surrender (Rahab and the Gibeonites). In the light of the role fear plays in the Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions, initiation of coalitions and fighting the Israelites are an unlikely reaction to fear. In the one case that fear prompts action (10:2), the verse is an addition to the account.
Joshua 2 presents one of the most curious biblical stories. It portrays a most unlikely protagon... more Joshua 2 presents one of the most curious biblical stories. It portrays a most unlikely protagonist: Rahab, a foreign woman, a prostitute, the first Canaanite Israel encounters upon entering the Promised Land (Josh 2; 6:17b.22–23.25). Rahab is also the only survivor from the local population of Canaan who is viewed favourably. This is a late story, building upon a variety of earlier literary traditions, inserted to the conquest narrative at a late stage. While historiography pays attention to the issue of foreign women as wives and mothers, Rahab is neither wife nor mother, and the story’s message is directed to all people. Rahab, the person with lowest standing in society, a foreign prostitute dwelling in the margins, proclaims the highest possible degree of faith. The lesson is that faith, derived from common observation of God’s control of Israel’s history, conquers all. With faith anyone can cross borders; even a foreign prostitute can overcome the ban decreed by God and dwell within Israel “to this day.”
Scholarly interpretation of the encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bet... more Scholarly interpretation of the encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (Amos 7:10-17), has thus far focused on the issue of prophetic authority and legitimization. This paper seeks to shed light on the issues at the heart of the dispute between Amaziah and Amos-issues of boundaries and identity, insiders and outsiders; belonging to and being banished from Israel, the land and the people. Amaziah insists that Amos is an outsider who may speak freely, but only "there", not "here". Amos counters by predicting the priest's own loss of social framework, in life and in death. The fact that, unlike many other reports of prophetic confrontations, this story does not indicate the consequences of the dispute-whether the expulsion of the prophet from the Northern Kingdom or the fulfillment of the curse of Amaziah-is another indication that the issue of prophetic authority is neither the only, nor the major concern of this showdown. Keywords Amos 7:10-17-Amos against Amaziah-prophetic conflict-insiders and outsiders-center and periphery-prostitution in the city-curses in the VTE-unclean land 1 Prophetic Conflict The encounter between the prophet Amos and Amaziah, the priest of Bethel (Amos 7:10-17) belongs to a well-known genre-that of a prophetic story that highlights a conflict between the antagonizing prophet and (a) member/s,
Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues, 2019
In this paper, the literary tradition describing a military coalition united
against an enemy is ... more In this paper, the literary tradition describing a military coalition united against an enemy is explored in three contemporary sources, belonging to different literary genres: Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith, Zakkur’s victory and thanksgiving stele and the biblical stories of the conquest of the land (Josh 10–11). A common underlying literary tradition shaped the motifs utilized in these disparate descriptions – the assembling of the forces, their depiction and enumeration, and the subsequent victory of the one against the many by means of divine assistance. Moreover, in this tradition, the coalitions are always assembled by the enemy force. Even within this common literary tradition, distinctive motifs characterize the local viewpoint vs. the imperial one. The common motifs and their unique utilization will help to shed light on biblical historiography, placing the situation of a conflict against a military coalition not in its correct historical frame, but at the beginning of the people’s history: in the description of the divinely assisted conquest of the land, when God fought for Israel (Josh 10:14).
Israel’s Declaration of Independence defends the right of Jews to the land, invoking the ancient ... more Israel’s Declaration of Independence defends the right of Jews to the land, invoking the ancient connection between the people of Israel and the land of Israel going back to biblical times. But does Ben-Gurion’s Declaration conform to biblical thought?
This paper points out the irony of two of Kaufmann’s lessknown
works. Kaufmann's detailed comment... more This paper points out the irony of two of Kaufmann’s lessknown works. Kaufmann's detailed commentaries on Joshua and Judges argue that these books supported his view that monotheism was a revolutionary innovation in early Israel. This required him to maintain that these two books are for the most part historically reliable and that they demonstrate that upon entering Canaan the Israelites quickly and decisively overcame the Canaanites. These theses have not won adherence—even among many scholars who consider themselves Kaufmann’s followers—and hence these works are rarely studied. They are, however, valuable, though not for the reasons that Kaufmann intended. Both commentaries are fine examples of close reading that were decades ahead of their time in their presentation of a literary method for analyzing biblical narrative. Further, they are both fine examples of Kaufmann’s moderate approach to compositional questions throughout his oeuvre: he does not deny the several levels of composition in biblical texts, but he avoids the capricious and far-fetched discovery of multitudinous levels of composition, redaction, and supplementation.
This paper deals with religious ties between Israel and Aram in the Deuteronomistic History, focu... more This paper deals with religious ties between Israel and Aram in the Deuteronomistic History, focusing primarily on the story of Ahaz and the altar from Damascus (2 Kgs 16:10–16), while considering two other stories – that of Naaman the Aramaean army general (2 Kings 5), and that of the meeting of Elisha and Hazael (2 Kgs 8:7–15).
The Bible is the only corpus including explicit anti-monarchial texts. This paper will focus on t... more The Bible is the only corpus including explicit anti-monarchial texts. This paper will focus on the Law of the King (Deut 17: 14-20) in an attempt to distinguish between two layers found in it: an anti-Assyrian – anti-imperialistic law dating to the seventh century BCE, and a secondary addition reacting to the conditions prevalent in the post-destruction era (sixth century BCE).
A rereading of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela commemorating the setting of a border (tahumu) by ... more A rereading of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela commemorating the setting of a border (tahumu) by the Assyrian king Adad-nerari III, represented by his commander-in-chief Samsi-ilu in 796 BCE. In the light of the role rivers played in border descriptions and agreements, this paper rejects the generally accepted translation of lines 7-8 of the Antakya Stela: "they divided the Orontes River between them equally", and propose a different reading of lines 4-11a of the Antakya Stela: "The border zone (i.e., land formerly belonging to Unqi) , which Adadnerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, [esta ]blished between Zakur of the land of Hamath [and] Atarsumki, son of Adramu - the town of Nablasi with all its fields, gardens [and s]ettlements is (the property) of Atarsumki; the Orontes River (is situated) between them - they (i.e., Adad-nerari III and Samsi-ilu the commander-in-chief, or the king of Hamath and the king of Arpad) divided [equ]ally between them. That border-zone (actually: its Arpadian side) Adad-nerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, have given freely and clearly (of all obligations) to Atarsumki, son of Adramu, to his sons and his future [gr]andsons. Its (principal) city (and) its territories [ ... ] to the territory of his (i.e., Atarsumki) land he (i.e., Adad-nerari III, or more likely Samsi-ilu) made firm."
This paper points out the existence of spatial merisms relating to Aram found in Amos 1:5 and con... more This paper points out the existence of spatial merisms relating to Aram found in Amos 1:5 and contemporaneous Aramaic and Assyrian inscriptions. Awareness of this literary pattern as well as the character and identity of the representative sites in Amos's description of Aram will help explain the reference to "all Aram" in the Sefire inscriptions and may offer yet another clue to the possible identification of KTK, the enigmatic party in the treaty that these steles record.
The Gift of the Land and the Fate of the Canaanites in Jewish Thought, Edited by Katell Berthelot, Joseph E. David and Marc Hirshman, Oxford University Press, pp. 13-35, 2014
The book of Amos begins with a series of oracles against Israel’s neighbors condemning them for a... more The book of Amos begins with a series of oracles against Israel’s neighbors condemning them for a list of sins which many commentators characterize as “war crimes” (Amos 1:3-2:3). The common understanding of the deeds of the nations as “obvious crimes” and a logical trap aimed at forcing the Israelite listeners to admit and accept their own guilt, is based on anachronistic assumptions, stemming from a contemporary viewpoint of war crimes projected upon the words of Amos. The paper offers a different understanding of the "war crimes" in Amos’ oracles against the nations and a different relationship between the crimes of the nations and Israel’s social crimes, based on the conception of war in contemporaneous societies and analysis of the form and intent of the oracles. Amos is not categorically against the actions themselves, but is referring to these measures as unjustified when taken to the extreme. What provoked God’s anger is the accumulation of those actions (‘for three transgressions… and for four’), their extreme character (‘complete exile’), their perpetuation over generations (‘unceasing’, ‘forever’), and their use for illegitimate causes (enlarging territory; violating a brotherhood covenant). While none of these deeds are categorically prohibited, when used in excess they break divine patience, inciting God’s anger and revenge. Although Amos still reflects the ethical guidelines of his era and he must not be seen as the first initiator of categorical “war laws”, his ideology limits war, and presents an irregular position in his world and time.
This article addresses the phenomenon of fortifications in Iron Age Israel and tries to portray t... more This article addresses the phenomenon of fortifications in Iron Age Israel and tries to portray the specific historical background behind their construction by integrating the archaeological data,
the extra-biblical sources and the analysis of the biblical text. Of the two clear stratigraphical phases of fortifications noticed in several Iron Age cities, the latter is more massive and elaborated
compared with its predecessor. We propose that the developed phase of fortifications in Israel was created under the Omrides, in a time of economic and political strength, as a response to the expansion policy of Aram Damascus. This analysis offers an explanation to the intriguing absence of any biblical reference to the Assyrians prior to Tiglath-pileser III, and casts a fresh look
upon the current debate on the chronology of the Iron Age II. If the elaborate fortification systems were initiated during the first half of the ninth century, the initial phase of the urbanization process, which preceded this developed stage, must have begun in the days prior to the Omride dynasty, namely in the tenth century.
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Books by Nili Wazana
All the Boundaries of the Land provides engaging fresh perspectives on the variant views of the Promised Land in the interface between literature, history, geography, and ideology. It does not intend to answer the question of how the borders of the land altered throughout the course of history. The reader will find no maps or outlines in this book. The emphasis is on the literary tools that were employed by the biblical authors who described the borders, and the ideological motives that guided them."
השנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום הוא הביטאון החשוב ביותר בעברית בחקר המקרא ועולמו. נכללים בו מאמרים מכל ענפי המחקר הנוגעים למקרא ובהם חקר המקרא עצמו, המזרח הקדום על תולדותיו, לשונותיו וספרויותיו בזיקה למקרא, הספרות החיצונית, מגילות מדבר יהודה, התרגומים העתיקים למקרא ותולדות הפרשנות לדורותיה. בשנתון גם מדור מיוחד למאמרי ביקורת מקיפים על ספרים שראו אור לאחרונה בנושאים אלה.
Papers by Nili Wazana
against an enemy is explored in three contemporary sources, belonging to different literary genres: Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith, Zakkur’s victory and thanksgiving stele and the biblical stories of the conquest of the land (Josh 10–11). A common underlying literary tradition shaped the motifs utilized in these disparate descriptions – the assembling of the forces, their depiction and enumeration, and the subsequent victory
of the one against the many by means of divine assistance. Moreover, in this tradition, the coalitions are always assembled by the enemy force. Even within this common literary tradition, distinctive motifs characterize the local viewpoint vs. the imperial one.
The common motifs and their unique utilization will help to shed light on biblical historiography, placing the situation of a conflict against a military coalition not in its correct historical frame, but at the beginning of the people’s history: in the description of the divinely assisted conquest of the land, when God fought for Israel (Josh 10:14).
works. Kaufmann's detailed commentaries on Joshua and Judges argue that these books supported his view that monotheism was a revolutionary innovation in early Israel. This required him to maintain that these two books are for the most part historically reliable and that they demonstrate that upon entering Canaan the Israelites quickly and decisively overcame the Canaanites. These theses have not won adherence—even among many scholars who consider themselves Kaufmann’s followers—and hence these works are rarely studied.
They are, however, valuable, though not for the reasons that
Kaufmann intended. Both commentaries are fine examples of close reading that were decades ahead of their time in their presentation of a literary method for analyzing biblical narrative. Further, they are both fine examples of Kaufmann’s moderate approach to compositional questions
throughout his oeuvre: he does not deny the several levels of composition in biblical texts, but he avoids the capricious and far-fetched discovery of multitudinous levels of composition, redaction, and supplementation.
"The border zone (i.e., land formerly belonging to Unqi) , which Adadnerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief,
[esta ]blished between Zakur of the land of Hamath [and] Atarsumki, son of Adramu - the town of Nablasi with all its fields, gardens [and s]ettlements is (the property) of Atarsumki; the Orontes River (is situated) between them - they (i.e., Adad-nerari III and Samsi-ilu the commander-in-chief, or the king of Hamath and the king of Arpad) divided [equ]ally between them. That border-zone (actually: its Arpadian side) Adad-nerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, have given freely and clearly (of all obligations) to Atarsumki, son of Adramu, to his sons and his future [gr]andsons. Its (principal) city (and) its territories [ ... ] to the territory of his (i.e., Atarsumki) land he (i.e., Adad-nerari III, or more likely Samsi-ilu) made firm."
the extra-biblical sources and the analysis of the biblical text. Of the two clear stratigraphical phases of fortifications noticed in several Iron Age cities, the latter is more massive and elaborated
compared with its predecessor. We propose that the developed phase of fortifications in Israel was created under the Omrides, in a time of economic and political strength, as a response to the expansion policy of Aram Damascus. This analysis offers an explanation to the intriguing absence of any biblical reference to the Assyrians prior to Tiglath-pileser III, and casts a fresh look
upon the current debate on the chronology of the Iron Age II. If the elaborate fortification systems were initiated during the first half of the ninth century, the initial phase of the urbanization process, which preceded this developed stage, must have begun in the days prior to the Omride dynasty, namely in the tenth century.
All the Boundaries of the Land provides engaging fresh perspectives on the variant views of the Promised Land in the interface between literature, history, geography, and ideology. It does not intend to answer the question of how the borders of the land altered throughout the course of history. The reader will find no maps or outlines in this book. The emphasis is on the literary tools that were employed by the biblical authors who described the borders, and the ideological motives that guided them."
השנתון לחקר המקרא והמזרח הקדום הוא הביטאון החשוב ביותר בעברית בחקר המקרא ועולמו. נכללים בו מאמרים מכל ענפי המחקר הנוגעים למקרא ובהם חקר המקרא עצמו, המזרח הקדום על תולדותיו, לשונותיו וספרויותיו בזיקה למקרא, הספרות החיצונית, מגילות מדבר יהודה, התרגומים העתיקים למקרא ותולדות הפרשנות לדורותיה. בשנתון גם מדור מיוחד למאמרי ביקורת מקיפים על ספרים שראו אור לאחרונה בנושאים אלה.
against an enemy is explored in three contemporary sources, belonging to different literary genres: Shalmaneser III’s Kurkh Monolith, Zakkur’s victory and thanksgiving stele and the biblical stories of the conquest of the land (Josh 10–11). A common underlying literary tradition shaped the motifs utilized in these disparate descriptions – the assembling of the forces, their depiction and enumeration, and the subsequent victory
of the one against the many by means of divine assistance. Moreover, in this tradition, the coalitions are always assembled by the enemy force. Even within this common literary tradition, distinctive motifs characterize the local viewpoint vs. the imperial one.
The common motifs and their unique utilization will help to shed light on biblical historiography, placing the situation of a conflict against a military coalition not in its correct historical frame, but at the beginning of the people’s history: in the description of the divinely assisted conquest of the land, when God fought for Israel (Josh 10:14).
works. Kaufmann's detailed commentaries on Joshua and Judges argue that these books supported his view that monotheism was a revolutionary innovation in early Israel. This required him to maintain that these two books are for the most part historically reliable and that they demonstrate that upon entering Canaan the Israelites quickly and decisively overcame the Canaanites. These theses have not won adherence—even among many scholars who consider themselves Kaufmann’s followers—and hence these works are rarely studied.
They are, however, valuable, though not for the reasons that
Kaufmann intended. Both commentaries are fine examples of close reading that were decades ahead of their time in their presentation of a literary method for analyzing biblical narrative. Further, they are both fine examples of Kaufmann’s moderate approach to compositional questions
throughout his oeuvre: he does not deny the several levels of composition in biblical texts, but he avoids the capricious and far-fetched discovery of multitudinous levels of composition, redaction, and supplementation.
"The border zone (i.e., land formerly belonging to Unqi) , which Adadnerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief,
[esta ]blished between Zakur of the land of Hamath [and] Atarsumki, son of Adramu - the town of Nablasi with all its fields, gardens [and s]ettlements is (the property) of Atarsumki; the Orontes River (is situated) between them - they (i.e., Adad-nerari III and Samsi-ilu the commander-in-chief, or the king of Hamath and the king of Arpad) divided [equ]ally between them. That border-zone (actually: its Arpadian side) Adad-nerari (III), king of Assyria, (and) Samsi-ilu, the commander-in-chief, have given freely and clearly (of all obligations) to Atarsumki, son of Adramu, to his sons and his future [gr]andsons. Its (principal) city (and) its territories [ ... ] to the territory of his (i.e., Atarsumki) land he (i.e., Adad-nerari III, or more likely Samsi-ilu) made firm."
the extra-biblical sources and the analysis of the biblical text. Of the two clear stratigraphical phases of fortifications noticed in several Iron Age cities, the latter is more massive and elaborated
compared with its predecessor. We propose that the developed phase of fortifications in Israel was created under the Omrides, in a time of economic and political strength, as a response to the expansion policy of Aram Damascus. This analysis offers an explanation to the intriguing absence of any biblical reference to the Assyrians prior to Tiglath-pileser III, and casts a fresh look
upon the current debate on the chronology of the Iron Age II. If the elaborate fortification systems were initiated during the first half of the ninth century, the initial phase of the urbanization process, which preceded this developed stage, must have begun in the days prior to the Omride dynasty, namely in the tenth century.