OSMANLI TAŞRASININ İDARİ TAKSİMATI VE YÖNETİCİLERİ, C. 2, s. 59-86, https://www.idealkitap.com/, 2021
After the second half of the 14th century, the Ottomans became acquainted with the Balkan geograp... more After the second half of the 14th century, the Ottomans became acquainted with the Balkan geography and developed an administrative attitude that would turn the seized areas directly into Ottoman soil. The Conducting of Tahrirs, the establishment of the province and the sanjak system, the transfer of the places under the control of the akıncıs (frontiersmen) to the sanjak system and the settlement policy implemented are indications of the desire to make this geography a permanent part of the Ottoman country.
The Ottomans founded the first top administrative division which was composed of Sanjaks in the Balkan geography as the Rumelia Beylerbeyliği/Province. All the lands acquired in Eastern Europe were included in this province and even Kefe in the north of the Black Sea was written for a long time in the Province of Rumelia. After the mid-16th century, the area covered by the province of Rumelia was enlarged and new administrative units were needed. The newly established Province of the Archipelago (Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefîd Eyaleti), namely Kaptanpaşalık and the Aegean islands and some coastal Sanjaks were separated from Rumelia Province and attached here. Later, the provinces of Bosnia, Kefe and Özi / Silistra were established and the borders of Rumelia Province were narrowed, and the number of Sanjaks decreased.
There are no units such as ocaklık and malikâne in the Balkan region where the state partially delegated the administrative and financial powers to other authorities.
One of the main problems in the Ottoman administrative system, especially since the mid-17th century, is the increase in the number of pashas. This situation also affected the administrative units in the Balkan region. It is seen that many sanjaks in the province of Rumeli were left to the pashas and saved as sinecure (arpalık). In addition, there are also grants frequently in which several places are left under the responsibility of a pasha and State and sanjak preferences, which are subject to extraordinary conventions and the preservation of any place, are also frequently encountered. In this case, it has brought with it a process in which many Sanjaks in the Balkan geography are managed by the deputies appointed by the governors (mütesellim).
In the presentation, the administrative principles of the Ottomans after the transition to the Balkan geography and the change in the process were pointed out. The sources of the research are mainly tevcih registers, ruus registers, mühimme books and other archival documents on the subject. In addition to these, source works and contemporary works were also utilized.
Keywords: Rumelia, Balkan, Ottoman, administration, province, sanjak.
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Papers by Orhan Kılıç
However, it is seen that the concept of cleaning is perceived differently at different times, especially in Europe. Since Muslims lived predominantly in the Ottoman Empire, it can be said that they acted sensitively about body cleaning as a command of their religion.
In addition to cleaning and hygiene, strengthening the immune system with natural remedies can be expressed as one of the most prominent measures. One of the most realistic measures was not to leave the diseased place and not to enter the diseased place. The quarantine application should also be evaluated in this context. There is information that the first vaccinations against smallpox were made by traditional
methods in the Ottoman society. Herbal medicines were the most common form of treatment when infectious diseases emerged as an epidemic and deeply affected the society. Cassidoni (Lavandula stoechas), Nevruziye paste, henna, goat’s milk surutka, mışmış, isfanah, raziyanec, şibrem and honey are just a few of the natural remedies. Apart from these, it is also known that drugs are made with surgical methods and some chemical compositions. There were also some magical practices such as witchcraft, voodoo, talisman and fortune-telling in order not to get sick or to be treated. In this context, it is possible to evaluate the lodges of the poor and pesthouse, where leprosy patients are treated and isolated.
Key words: epidemics, infectious disease
Eskiçağlardan 19. yüzyılın sonuna kadar, salgın özelliği gösteren bulaşıcı hastalıklar hep gündemde olmuşlardır. Özellikle veba, sıtma, grip ve kolera salgınlarının dikkate değer sonuçlarının olduğunun altını çizmek gerekir. Savaşların, muhasaraların ve seferlerin kaybedilmesi veya kazanılmasının ağırlıklı sebebi salgın hastalıklar olmuş, Orta ve Yeniçağlarda insanlar korku ve çaresizlik içinde hastalıklara boyun eğmişlerdir. Psikolojileri bozulmuş, bedenen dirençsiz kalmışlar, yaşadıkları yerlerden göç etmişler, ailelerini terk etmişler hatta canlarına dahi kıyabilmişlerdir.
Bu kitap, Türkiye’de bu konuda eser veren ilk akademisyenlerden birisi olan Prof. Dr. Orhan Kılıç’ın yirmi yıla yakın bir süredir oluşturduğu bilgi birikiminin bir ürünüdür. Dünya ve özelde Osmanlı ülkesi ölçekli ele alınan salgınlar; siyasi, askeri, coğrafi, demografik, dini, edebi, kültürel ve sosyal bakımdan bütün yönleri ile değerlendirilmiştir. Tarihe salgın hastalıklar penceresinden bakan bu çalışma, okuyucunun tarihi olayları farklı bir perspektiften değerlendirmesini amaçlıyor.
Kafkasya, 1555 Amasya Anlaşması ile Osmanlılar ve Safeviler arasında iki ayrı nüfuz bölgesine ayrılmıştır. Buna göre Doğu Gürcistan’daki Meshiya, Kartli ve Kahet bölgeleri Safeviler’de, Batı Gürcistan’daki Açıkbaş (İmereti), Dadyan (Megrel), Gürel (Güril) ve Samstshe (Atabey Yurdu) ise Osmanlılar’da kalmıştır. Osmanlılar 1578 İran harplerine kadar ellerinde kalan bu yerleri Gürcistan Vilayeti olarak idari taksimatı içerisine dahil etmiştir. Bu vilayet; Kütadis (Kutayis), Dodyan (Dadyan) ve Kehâbir adlı üç sancaktan müteşekkildi. Osmanlı Devleti 1578-1590 Osmanlı-Safevi harpleri sürecinde yeni birtakım vilayetler kurmuştur. Bunların bir kısmı doğrudan Kafkasya coğrafyasında olmasa da
o bölgeyi kontrol etmeye yönelikti. Çıldır ve Kars vilayetlerini bu
bağlamda değerlendirebiliriz. Bu süreçte Kafkasya coğrafyası içerisinde batıdan doğuya doğru Batum, Acara, Ahıska, Gori ve Tiflis vilayetleri kurulmuştur. Çıldır’ın batısında ve Tiflis’in güneyinde ise Tumanis ve Lori daha doğuda ise Gence vilayetleri bu dönemde tesis edilmişlerdir. Hazar Denizi’ne yakın Şirvan bölgesinde kuzeyde Derbend, güneyde ise Şemahi vilayetleri kurulmuştur. Güneybatı Kafkasya coğrafyasındaki Gürel, Açıkbaş ve Dadyan bölgelerinde Osmanlı Devleti’nin üst hâkimiyetini tanıyan ailelerin idaresinde ve meliklik olarak adlandırılan idari üniteler bulunmaktaydı. Abhaza bölgesinde Sohum Vilayeti kurulsa da kısa sürede lağvedilmiş ve bölge eskiden olduğu gibi Sevaşidze ailesine yurtluk-ocaklık statü ile verilmiştir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin Hazar Denizi’nden Abhazya’ya kadar olan coğrafyada, 16. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde tesis ettiği idari üniteleri iki ayrı yönetim şekli ile tasarruf ettiği söylenebilir. Bunlardan birincisi doğrudan Osmanlı merkezi idaresini tesis etmek istediği klasik vilayetler, ikincisi ise idareyi yerel belli ailelerin tekeline bıraktığı yurtluk-ocaklık sancaklar ile melikliklerdir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kafkasya, Osmanlı, Meliklik, Yurtluk-Ocaklık, Gürcistan
ABSTRACT
The Caucasia was divided into two separate zones of influence between the Ottomans and Safavids by the 1555 Amasya Agreement. Accordingly, the Meshiya, Kartli and Kahet regions in Eastern Georgia remained in the Safavids, while in Western Georgia, Açıkbaş (İmereti), Dadyan (Megrel), Gürel (Güril) and Samstshe (Atabey Yurdu) remained in the Ottomans. The Ottomans included these places in their administrative divisions as Georgia Province until the 1578 Iranian War. This province was composed of three sanjaks called as Kutadis (Kutayis), Dodyan (Dadyan) and Kehâbir.
The Ottoman Empire established a number of new provinces during the Ottoman- Safavid War of 1578-1590. Some of them existed in order to control the region, even though it was not in the Caucasia. We can evaluate the provinces of Çıldır, Kars in this context. In this process, Batum, Acara, Ahıska, Gori and Tiflis provinces were established from west to east within the Caucasia geography.
Tumanis and Lori were established in the west of Çıldır and in the south of Tiflis, and further east Gence provinces were established in this period. In the Şirvan region near the Caspian Sea, Derbend provinces were established in the north and Şemahi provinces were established in the south. There were
administrative units called melikdoms in the Gürel, Açıkbaş and Dadyan regions of the southwestern Caucasia, under the administration of families that recognized the supreme sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. Although the Sohum Province was established in the Abhaza region, it was abolished in a short period of time and the region was given to the Sevaşidze family as melikdoms in yurtluk-ocaklik status.
It can be said that the Ottoman Empire saved administrative units established in the last quarter of the 16th century in two different ways in the geography from the Caspian Sea to Abhazya. The first of these is the typical provinces where he wants to establish the Ottoman central administration directly, and the second one is the yurtluk-ocaklik and melikdoms, where the certain local families monopolize the administration.
Keywords: Caucasia, Ottoman, Melikdom, Yurtluk-Ocaklik, Georgia
تقسيماً وتوجيهاً*
أ.د. أورخان قليج**
عضو هيئة التدريس بقسم التاريخ
جامعة الفرات
بحث مقدم لندوة الجزيرة العربية الثامنة في رحاب جامعة الملك سعود
الملخص
لما قضت الدولة العثمانية على الدولة المملوكية عام 1517م، عملت على تأسيس إدارتها في الجزيرة العربية؛ للسيطرة على الأوضاع في البحر الأحمر وخليج البصرة. ونظراً لوجود الأماكن المقدسة الهامة للعالم الإسلامي في الجزيرة العربية فقد أضفى ذلك أهمية أخرى على الموضوع. ولذلك فقد أخذت الدولة العثمانية إمارة مكة المكرمة في حمايتها أولاً، ولم تغير من النظام الإداري الموجود من العهد السابق بها. ولقد تمت إدارة الحجاز من العثمانيين من مفهوم الحماية والخدمة. ولقد أسس العثمانيون إمارة (بكلربكية) في اليمن عام 1539م وفي الأحساء عام 1555م. ومع أن منطقة الأحساء تعرفت على الدولة العثمانية عام 1550م، إلا أن تنظيمها كان ضمن إمارة البصرة (بكلربكية) البصرة. وهذه الإمارات أديرت بالساليانه. ومقاومة بعض القوى المحلية للحكم العثماني ولاسيما في اليمن، أشغلت الإدارة العثمانية. وقد بقيت الإدارة العثمانية في الحجاز واليمن والأحساء في القرن العاشر الهجري.
الكلمات المفتاحية: الحجاز، اليمن، الأحساء، الجزيرة العربية، العثماني.
Taksimat ve Tevcihat Bakımından 16. Yüzyılda Arap Yarımadasında Osmanlı İdaresi
Özet
Osmanlı Devleti 1517 yılında Memlûk Devleti’ne son verince Kızıldeniz ve Basra Körfezi’ni kontrolü altına almak için Arap yarımadasında idaresini yerleştirmeye çalışmıştır. İslam dünyası için önemli olan kutsal yerlerin Hicaz bölgesinde bulunması, buraya ilgiyi bir kat daha artırmıştı. Bu münasebetle önce Mekke-i Mükerreme Emirliği’ni Osmanlı Devleti’nin himayesine almış ancak daha önceki idari uygulamaları da çok fazla değiştirmemiştir. Hicaz Bölgesi Osmanlı kontrolünde himayeci ve hizmet edici bir anlayışla yönetilmiştir. Arap yarımadasında Osmanlılar 1539 yılında Yemen’de, 1555 yılında ise Lahsa’da iki beylerbeyilik kurmuştur. Lahsa bölgesi 1550 yılında Osmanlı hâkimiyeti ile tanışmışsa da başlangıçta Basra beylerbeyliği bünyesinde teşkilatlanmıştır. Bu beylerbeylikler salyâneli statü ile yönetilmişlerdir. Yarımadadaki mahalli güçlerin özellikle Yemen bölgesindeki direnişleri belli dönemlerde Osmanlı yönetimini meşgul etmiştir. Hicri 10. asırda Osmanlı idaresi Hicaz, Yemen ve Lahsa bölgelerinde kalıcı olmuştur.
Anahtar kelimeler: Hicaz, Yemen, Lahsa, Arap Yarımadası, Osmanlı
The Ottoman Rule in the Arabian Peninsula in the 16th Century in Context Administrative Divisions and Appointments
Abstract
Ottoman Empire to end the Mamluk Empire of the Red Sea in 1517 and tried to establish the administration in the Arabian Peninsula to take control of the Persian Gulf. Present in the Hijaz region of important holy places for the Islamic world, here interest had increased further. In this connettion the emirate of Makkah has taken the Makkah before this occasion the auspices of the Ottoman Empire, but the previous administrative practice did not change too much. Hjaz was with mentality directed service agent and protectionist at the Ottoman control. Ottomans founded two province in the Arabian Peninsula, in Yemen in 1539 and in Lahsa in 1555 . If Lahsa the region met in 1550 in the Ottoman domination was initially organized in Basra Province. This provinces have managed to with salyâne status. The Ottoman Empire has occupied the disobedience of the local powers in Yemen. Ottoman rules has been persistent in Hijaz, Yemen and Lahsa in the 16th century.
Keywords: Hijaz, Yemen, Lahsa, Arabian Peninsula, Ottoman
and geostrategic position. Van Castle, which was previously a military
garrison, later had displayed the identity of a castle-city, and then, became especially during the period of Turkish rule, a city with all its establishments.
It can be said that concrete steps towards Van's transition from being a
fortified castle to regaining the city life inside the outer walls coincided with the dominance of the Ahlatşahs in the region. The construction of the Great Mosque on the sides of the castle is the most important starting point of the settlement outside the castle. Van came under the Ottoman rule in 1548 and that never changed again. However, it can be said that the Safavids were a serious threat to Van and its surroundings for many years. Van has always felt the aspects of the disadvantage of being frontier. Van Castle was the most important key point of the Ottoman Empire in the east and almost became the outpost. People living in Van and its surroundings had experienced the negative effects of living in geography between two important powers for a long time. Despite being in favorable geography in many respects, the desired development could not be achieved. For instance, it is difficult to say that livestock activities are realized as expected. Van can be described as a
city of soldiers in the Ottoman period as it contains a large military
population. When the city was completely burned down by the Armenians in 1915, it had to be rebuilt in a new place.
Keywords: Van, city, conquest, Ottoman History
The Ottomans founded the first top administrative division which was composed of Sanjaks in the Balkan geography as the Rumelia Beylerbeyliği/Province. All the lands acquired in Eastern Europe were included in this province and even Kefe in the north of the Black Sea was written for a long time in the Province of Rumelia. After the mid-16th century, the area covered by the province of Rumelia was enlarged and new administrative units were needed. The newly established Province of the Archipelago (Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefîd Eyaleti), namely Kaptanpaşalık and the Aegean islands and some coastal Sanjaks were separated from Rumelia Province and attached here. Later, the provinces of Bosnia, Kefe and Özi / Silistra were established and the borders of Rumelia Province were narrowed, and the number of Sanjaks decreased.
There are no units such as ocaklık and malikâne in the Balkan region where the state partially delegated the administrative and financial powers to other authorities.
One of the main problems in the Ottoman administrative system, especially since the mid-17th century, is the increase in the number of pashas. This situation also affected the administrative units in the Balkan region. It is seen that many sanjaks in the province of Rumeli were left to the pashas and saved as sinecure (arpalık). In addition, there are also grants frequently in which several places are left under the responsibility of a pasha and State and sanjak preferences, which are subject to extraordinary conventions and the preservation of any place, are also frequently encountered. In this case, it has brought with it a process in which many Sanjaks in the Balkan geography are managed by the deputies appointed by the governors (mütesellim).
In the presentation, the administrative principles of the Ottomans after the transition to the Balkan geography and the change in the process were pointed out. The sources of the research are mainly tevcih registers, ruus registers, mühimme books and other archival documents on the subject. In addition to these, source works and contemporary works were also utilized.
Keywords: Rumelia, Balkan, Ottoman, administration, province, sanjak.
interpretation of history is pandemic diseases. The nature of the pandemic diseases, ways of prevention and treatments are not fully known for a long time. People saw the disease as a wrath of God until they learned the nature of the epidemic, and often placed a blessing on it. Many diseases with an endemic, epidemic and pandemic character have been experienced since ancient times and millions of people have died in these outbreaks. Plague, malaria, cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, influenza, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus and syphilis are important epidemic diseases that cause mass death. However, all of these could not produce outbreaks while would affect several continents of the world.
We can only say that plague, cholera and influenza diseases are pandemic epidemics and that affect people globally known. The world has experienced from antiquity to the present, more than ten influenza pandemics with three plagues, seven cholera, and the outbreak we are experiencing today. Epidemic outbreaks of smallpox, malaria and yellow fever which caused the death of many people, were at least as effective as these three diseases. The reason for the high destruction of all pandemics is that the disease is not fully recognized. Therefore, the mortality rates were high, and the spreading areas were wide. Epidemics/pandemics deeply affected social life economically,
socially, psychologically, culturally, politically, religiously, geographically and many more.
Keywords:
pandemic, plague, cholera, influenza/flu, pandemics in history, pandemic and society
In this study, in the light of new information and documents, the pashas of the Buda and Timisoara provinces were updated by eliminating some deficiencies in the previous studies. However, the main purpose of this study is not only to identify the Pashas of Buda and Timisoara. The method, which we started with the pashas of Rumili and Cyprus and analyzed the pashas governing the Ottoman provinces with a different method and point of view in many respects, was applied together in comparison with Buda and Timisoara in this study. The birth places, nationality, origin of the Ottoman bureaucracy, ranks, appointments, renewal and dismiss dates, province saving procedures, mission times, salaries, previous and next assignments and regional connections had been determined as much as possible and tables were systematically analyzed. It is thought that the determination of the administrative profile of these two provinces will not only contribute to the general evaluations about the Ottoman Pashas, but will also shed light on the principles of the Ottoman State's administration of Hungary.
Basic sources of research are archival sources such as province, sanjaks and alaybegs registries, registrations related to appointments in muhimme registers, ruus registries and certificates of attorney, chronicles reflecting the period. The works of contemporary Hungarian and Ottoman historians were used to shed light on this research.
Key words: Ottoman, Hungary, Buda, Timisoara, Pasha
Abstract
One of the important factors to be considered in the explanation and interpretation of history is pandemic diseases. The nature of the pandemic diseases, ways of prevention and treatments are not fully known for a long time.
People saw the disease as a wrath of God until they learned the nature of the epidemic, and often placed a blessing on it. Many diseases with an endemic, epidemic and pandemic character have been experienced since ancient times and millions of people have died in these outbreaks. Plague, malaria, cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, influenza, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus and syphilis are important epidemic diseases that cause mass death. However, all of these could not produce outbreaks while would affect several continents of the world. We can only say that plague, cholera and influenza diseases are pandemic epidemics and that affect people globally known. The world has experienced from antiquity to the present, more than ten influenza pandemics with three plagues, seven cholera, and the outbreak we are experiencing today. Epidemic
outbreaks of smallpox, malaria and yellow fever which caused the death of many people, were at least as effective as these three diseases.
The reason for the high destruction of all pandemics is that the disease is not fully recognized. Therefore, the mortality rates were high, and the spreading areas were wide. Epidemics/pandemics deeply affected social life economically, socially, psychologically, culturally, politically, religiously, geographically and many more.
Keywords: pandemic, plague, cholera, influenza/flu, pandemics in history, pandemic and society
However, it is seen that the concept of cleaning is perceived differently at different times, especially in Europe. Since Muslims lived predominantly in the Ottoman Empire, it can be said that they acted sensitively about body cleaning as a command of their religion.
In addition to cleaning and hygiene, strengthening the immune system with natural remedies can be expressed as one of the most prominent measures. One of the most realistic measures was not to leave the diseased place and not to enter the diseased place. The quarantine application should also be evaluated in this context. There is information that the first vaccinations against smallpox were made by traditional
methods in the Ottoman society. Herbal medicines were the most common form of treatment when infectious diseases emerged as an epidemic and deeply affected the society. Cassidoni (Lavandula stoechas), Nevruziye paste, henna, goat’s milk surutka, mışmış, isfanah, raziyanec, şibrem and honey are just a few of the natural remedies. Apart from these, it is also known that drugs are made with surgical methods and some chemical compositions. There were also some magical practices such as witchcraft, voodoo, talisman and fortune-telling in order not to get sick or to be treated. In this context, it is possible to evaluate the lodges of the poor and pesthouse, where leprosy patients are treated and isolated.
Key words: epidemics, infectious disease
Eskiçağlardan 19. yüzyılın sonuna kadar, salgın özelliği gösteren bulaşıcı hastalıklar hep gündemde olmuşlardır. Özellikle veba, sıtma, grip ve kolera salgınlarının dikkate değer sonuçlarının olduğunun altını çizmek gerekir. Savaşların, muhasaraların ve seferlerin kaybedilmesi veya kazanılmasının ağırlıklı sebebi salgın hastalıklar olmuş, Orta ve Yeniçağlarda insanlar korku ve çaresizlik içinde hastalıklara boyun eğmişlerdir. Psikolojileri bozulmuş, bedenen dirençsiz kalmışlar, yaşadıkları yerlerden göç etmişler, ailelerini terk etmişler hatta canlarına dahi kıyabilmişlerdir.
Bu kitap, Türkiye’de bu konuda eser veren ilk akademisyenlerden birisi olan Prof. Dr. Orhan Kılıç’ın yirmi yıla yakın bir süredir oluşturduğu bilgi birikiminin bir ürünüdür. Dünya ve özelde Osmanlı ülkesi ölçekli ele alınan salgınlar; siyasi, askeri, coğrafi, demografik, dini, edebi, kültürel ve sosyal bakımdan bütün yönleri ile değerlendirilmiştir. Tarihe salgın hastalıklar penceresinden bakan bu çalışma, okuyucunun tarihi olayları farklı bir perspektiften değerlendirmesini amaçlıyor.
Kafkasya, 1555 Amasya Anlaşması ile Osmanlılar ve Safeviler arasında iki ayrı nüfuz bölgesine ayrılmıştır. Buna göre Doğu Gürcistan’daki Meshiya, Kartli ve Kahet bölgeleri Safeviler’de, Batı Gürcistan’daki Açıkbaş (İmereti), Dadyan (Megrel), Gürel (Güril) ve Samstshe (Atabey Yurdu) ise Osmanlılar’da kalmıştır. Osmanlılar 1578 İran harplerine kadar ellerinde kalan bu yerleri Gürcistan Vilayeti olarak idari taksimatı içerisine dahil etmiştir. Bu vilayet; Kütadis (Kutayis), Dodyan (Dadyan) ve Kehâbir adlı üç sancaktan müteşekkildi. Osmanlı Devleti 1578-1590 Osmanlı-Safevi harpleri sürecinde yeni birtakım vilayetler kurmuştur. Bunların bir kısmı doğrudan Kafkasya coğrafyasında olmasa da
o bölgeyi kontrol etmeye yönelikti. Çıldır ve Kars vilayetlerini bu
bağlamda değerlendirebiliriz. Bu süreçte Kafkasya coğrafyası içerisinde batıdan doğuya doğru Batum, Acara, Ahıska, Gori ve Tiflis vilayetleri kurulmuştur. Çıldır’ın batısında ve Tiflis’in güneyinde ise Tumanis ve Lori daha doğuda ise Gence vilayetleri bu dönemde tesis edilmişlerdir. Hazar Denizi’ne yakın Şirvan bölgesinde kuzeyde Derbend, güneyde ise Şemahi vilayetleri kurulmuştur. Güneybatı Kafkasya coğrafyasındaki Gürel, Açıkbaş ve Dadyan bölgelerinde Osmanlı Devleti’nin üst hâkimiyetini tanıyan ailelerin idaresinde ve meliklik olarak adlandırılan idari üniteler bulunmaktaydı. Abhaza bölgesinde Sohum Vilayeti kurulsa da kısa sürede lağvedilmiş ve bölge eskiden olduğu gibi Sevaşidze ailesine yurtluk-ocaklık statü ile verilmiştir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin Hazar Denizi’nden Abhazya’ya kadar olan coğrafyada, 16. yüzyılın son çeyreğinde tesis ettiği idari üniteleri iki ayrı yönetim şekli ile tasarruf ettiği söylenebilir. Bunlardan birincisi doğrudan Osmanlı merkezi idaresini tesis etmek istediği klasik vilayetler, ikincisi ise idareyi yerel belli ailelerin tekeline bıraktığı yurtluk-ocaklık sancaklar ile melikliklerdir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kafkasya, Osmanlı, Meliklik, Yurtluk-Ocaklık, Gürcistan
ABSTRACT
The Caucasia was divided into two separate zones of influence between the Ottomans and Safavids by the 1555 Amasya Agreement. Accordingly, the Meshiya, Kartli and Kahet regions in Eastern Georgia remained in the Safavids, while in Western Georgia, Açıkbaş (İmereti), Dadyan (Megrel), Gürel (Güril) and Samstshe (Atabey Yurdu) remained in the Ottomans. The Ottomans included these places in their administrative divisions as Georgia Province until the 1578 Iranian War. This province was composed of three sanjaks called as Kutadis (Kutayis), Dodyan (Dadyan) and Kehâbir.
The Ottoman Empire established a number of new provinces during the Ottoman- Safavid War of 1578-1590. Some of them existed in order to control the region, even though it was not in the Caucasia. We can evaluate the provinces of Çıldır, Kars in this context. In this process, Batum, Acara, Ahıska, Gori and Tiflis provinces were established from west to east within the Caucasia geography.
Tumanis and Lori were established in the west of Çıldır and in the south of Tiflis, and further east Gence provinces were established in this period. In the Şirvan region near the Caspian Sea, Derbend provinces were established in the north and Şemahi provinces were established in the south. There were
administrative units called melikdoms in the Gürel, Açıkbaş and Dadyan regions of the southwestern Caucasia, under the administration of families that recognized the supreme sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. Although the Sohum Province was established in the Abhaza region, it was abolished in a short period of time and the region was given to the Sevaşidze family as melikdoms in yurtluk-ocaklik status.
It can be said that the Ottoman Empire saved administrative units established in the last quarter of the 16th century in two different ways in the geography from the Caspian Sea to Abhazya. The first of these is the typical provinces where he wants to establish the Ottoman central administration directly, and the second one is the yurtluk-ocaklik and melikdoms, where the certain local families monopolize the administration.
Keywords: Caucasia, Ottoman, Melikdom, Yurtluk-Ocaklik, Georgia
تقسيماً وتوجيهاً*
أ.د. أورخان قليج**
عضو هيئة التدريس بقسم التاريخ
جامعة الفرات
بحث مقدم لندوة الجزيرة العربية الثامنة في رحاب جامعة الملك سعود
الملخص
لما قضت الدولة العثمانية على الدولة المملوكية عام 1517م، عملت على تأسيس إدارتها في الجزيرة العربية؛ للسيطرة على الأوضاع في البحر الأحمر وخليج البصرة. ونظراً لوجود الأماكن المقدسة الهامة للعالم الإسلامي في الجزيرة العربية فقد أضفى ذلك أهمية أخرى على الموضوع. ولذلك فقد أخذت الدولة العثمانية إمارة مكة المكرمة في حمايتها أولاً، ولم تغير من النظام الإداري الموجود من العهد السابق بها. ولقد تمت إدارة الحجاز من العثمانيين من مفهوم الحماية والخدمة. ولقد أسس العثمانيون إمارة (بكلربكية) في اليمن عام 1539م وفي الأحساء عام 1555م. ومع أن منطقة الأحساء تعرفت على الدولة العثمانية عام 1550م، إلا أن تنظيمها كان ضمن إمارة البصرة (بكلربكية) البصرة. وهذه الإمارات أديرت بالساليانه. ومقاومة بعض القوى المحلية للحكم العثماني ولاسيما في اليمن، أشغلت الإدارة العثمانية. وقد بقيت الإدارة العثمانية في الحجاز واليمن والأحساء في القرن العاشر الهجري.
الكلمات المفتاحية: الحجاز، اليمن، الأحساء، الجزيرة العربية، العثماني.
Taksimat ve Tevcihat Bakımından 16. Yüzyılda Arap Yarımadasında Osmanlı İdaresi
Özet
Osmanlı Devleti 1517 yılında Memlûk Devleti’ne son verince Kızıldeniz ve Basra Körfezi’ni kontrolü altına almak için Arap yarımadasında idaresini yerleştirmeye çalışmıştır. İslam dünyası için önemli olan kutsal yerlerin Hicaz bölgesinde bulunması, buraya ilgiyi bir kat daha artırmıştı. Bu münasebetle önce Mekke-i Mükerreme Emirliği’ni Osmanlı Devleti’nin himayesine almış ancak daha önceki idari uygulamaları da çok fazla değiştirmemiştir. Hicaz Bölgesi Osmanlı kontrolünde himayeci ve hizmet edici bir anlayışla yönetilmiştir. Arap yarımadasında Osmanlılar 1539 yılında Yemen’de, 1555 yılında ise Lahsa’da iki beylerbeyilik kurmuştur. Lahsa bölgesi 1550 yılında Osmanlı hâkimiyeti ile tanışmışsa da başlangıçta Basra beylerbeyliği bünyesinde teşkilatlanmıştır. Bu beylerbeylikler salyâneli statü ile yönetilmişlerdir. Yarımadadaki mahalli güçlerin özellikle Yemen bölgesindeki direnişleri belli dönemlerde Osmanlı yönetimini meşgul etmiştir. Hicri 10. asırda Osmanlı idaresi Hicaz, Yemen ve Lahsa bölgelerinde kalıcı olmuştur.
Anahtar kelimeler: Hicaz, Yemen, Lahsa, Arap Yarımadası, Osmanlı
The Ottoman Rule in the Arabian Peninsula in the 16th Century in Context Administrative Divisions and Appointments
Abstract
Ottoman Empire to end the Mamluk Empire of the Red Sea in 1517 and tried to establish the administration in the Arabian Peninsula to take control of the Persian Gulf. Present in the Hijaz region of important holy places for the Islamic world, here interest had increased further. In this connettion the emirate of Makkah has taken the Makkah before this occasion the auspices of the Ottoman Empire, but the previous administrative practice did not change too much. Hjaz was with mentality directed service agent and protectionist at the Ottoman control. Ottomans founded two province in the Arabian Peninsula, in Yemen in 1539 and in Lahsa in 1555 . If Lahsa the region met in 1550 in the Ottoman domination was initially organized in Basra Province. This provinces have managed to with salyâne status. The Ottoman Empire has occupied the disobedience of the local powers in Yemen. Ottoman rules has been persistent in Hijaz, Yemen and Lahsa in the 16th century.
Keywords: Hijaz, Yemen, Lahsa, Arabian Peninsula, Ottoman
and geostrategic position. Van Castle, which was previously a military
garrison, later had displayed the identity of a castle-city, and then, became especially during the period of Turkish rule, a city with all its establishments.
It can be said that concrete steps towards Van's transition from being a
fortified castle to regaining the city life inside the outer walls coincided with the dominance of the Ahlatşahs in the region. The construction of the Great Mosque on the sides of the castle is the most important starting point of the settlement outside the castle. Van came under the Ottoman rule in 1548 and that never changed again. However, it can be said that the Safavids were a serious threat to Van and its surroundings for many years. Van has always felt the aspects of the disadvantage of being frontier. Van Castle was the most important key point of the Ottoman Empire in the east and almost became the outpost. People living in Van and its surroundings had experienced the negative effects of living in geography between two important powers for a long time. Despite being in favorable geography in many respects, the desired development could not be achieved. For instance, it is difficult to say that livestock activities are realized as expected. Van can be described as a
city of soldiers in the Ottoman period as it contains a large military
population. When the city was completely burned down by the Armenians in 1915, it had to be rebuilt in a new place.
Keywords: Van, city, conquest, Ottoman History
The Ottomans founded the first top administrative division which was composed of Sanjaks in the Balkan geography as the Rumelia Beylerbeyliği/Province. All the lands acquired in Eastern Europe were included in this province and even Kefe in the north of the Black Sea was written for a long time in the Province of Rumelia. After the mid-16th century, the area covered by the province of Rumelia was enlarged and new administrative units were needed. The newly established Province of the Archipelago (Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefîd Eyaleti), namely Kaptanpaşalık and the Aegean islands and some coastal Sanjaks were separated from Rumelia Province and attached here. Later, the provinces of Bosnia, Kefe and Özi / Silistra were established and the borders of Rumelia Province were narrowed, and the number of Sanjaks decreased.
There are no units such as ocaklık and malikâne in the Balkan region where the state partially delegated the administrative and financial powers to other authorities.
One of the main problems in the Ottoman administrative system, especially since the mid-17th century, is the increase in the number of pashas. This situation also affected the administrative units in the Balkan region. It is seen that many sanjaks in the province of Rumeli were left to the pashas and saved as sinecure (arpalık). In addition, there are also grants frequently in which several places are left under the responsibility of a pasha and State and sanjak preferences, which are subject to extraordinary conventions and the preservation of any place, are also frequently encountered. In this case, it has brought with it a process in which many Sanjaks in the Balkan geography are managed by the deputies appointed by the governors (mütesellim).
In the presentation, the administrative principles of the Ottomans after the transition to the Balkan geography and the change in the process were pointed out. The sources of the research are mainly tevcih registers, ruus registers, mühimme books and other archival documents on the subject. In addition to these, source works and contemporary works were also utilized.
Keywords: Rumelia, Balkan, Ottoman, administration, province, sanjak.
interpretation of history is pandemic diseases. The nature of the pandemic diseases, ways of prevention and treatments are not fully known for a long time. People saw the disease as a wrath of God until they learned the nature of the epidemic, and often placed a blessing on it. Many diseases with an endemic, epidemic and pandemic character have been experienced since ancient times and millions of people have died in these outbreaks. Plague, malaria, cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, influenza, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus and syphilis are important epidemic diseases that cause mass death. However, all of these could not produce outbreaks while would affect several continents of the world.
We can only say that plague, cholera and influenza diseases are pandemic epidemics and that affect people globally known. The world has experienced from antiquity to the present, more than ten influenza pandemics with three plagues, seven cholera, and the outbreak we are experiencing today. Epidemic outbreaks of smallpox, malaria and yellow fever which caused the death of many people, were at least as effective as these three diseases. The reason for the high destruction of all pandemics is that the disease is not fully recognized. Therefore, the mortality rates were high, and the spreading areas were wide. Epidemics/pandemics deeply affected social life economically,
socially, psychologically, culturally, politically, religiously, geographically and many more.
Keywords:
pandemic, plague, cholera, influenza/flu, pandemics in history, pandemic and society
In this study, in the light of new information and documents, the pashas of the Buda and Timisoara provinces were updated by eliminating some deficiencies in the previous studies. However, the main purpose of this study is not only to identify the Pashas of Buda and Timisoara. The method, which we started with the pashas of Rumili and Cyprus and analyzed the pashas governing the Ottoman provinces with a different method and point of view in many respects, was applied together in comparison with Buda and Timisoara in this study. The birth places, nationality, origin of the Ottoman bureaucracy, ranks, appointments, renewal and dismiss dates, province saving procedures, mission times, salaries, previous and next assignments and regional connections had been determined as much as possible and tables were systematically analyzed. It is thought that the determination of the administrative profile of these two provinces will not only contribute to the general evaluations about the Ottoman Pashas, but will also shed light on the principles of the Ottoman State's administration of Hungary.
Basic sources of research are archival sources such as province, sanjaks and alaybegs registries, registrations related to appointments in muhimme registers, ruus registries and certificates of attorney, chronicles reflecting the period. The works of contemporary Hungarian and Ottoman historians were used to shed light on this research.
Key words: Ottoman, Hungary, Buda, Timisoara, Pasha
Abstract
One of the important factors to be considered in the explanation and interpretation of history is pandemic diseases. The nature of the pandemic diseases, ways of prevention and treatments are not fully known for a long time.
People saw the disease as a wrath of God until they learned the nature of the epidemic, and often placed a blessing on it. Many diseases with an endemic, epidemic and pandemic character have been experienced since ancient times and millions of people have died in these outbreaks. Plague, malaria, cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, influenza, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus and syphilis are important epidemic diseases that cause mass death. However, all of these could not produce outbreaks while would affect several continents of the world. We can only say that plague, cholera and influenza diseases are pandemic epidemics and that affect people globally known. The world has experienced from antiquity to the present, more than ten influenza pandemics with three plagues, seven cholera, and the outbreak we are experiencing today. Epidemic
outbreaks of smallpox, malaria and yellow fever which caused the death of many people, were at least as effective as these three diseases.
The reason for the high destruction of all pandemics is that the disease is not fully recognized. Therefore, the mortality rates were high, and the spreading areas were wide. Epidemics/pandemics deeply affected social life economically, socially, psychologically, culturally, politically, religiously, geographically and many more.
Keywords: pandemic, plague, cholera, influenza/flu, pandemics in history, pandemic and society