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Texas State Capital

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Texas Senate Chambers

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Behind the Texas Senate President is a Portrait of Stephen F. Austin. To the left and right are portraits of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States and John H. Reagan, who served as Postmaster General of the Confederacy.

"In God We Trust"

Albert Sidney Johnston

David B. Culberson


https://www.thestoryoftexas.com/discover/texas-state-capitol/capitol-art

Capitol Rotunda

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This section has so many issues.

Cleaned up spaceflight program section (mostly the manned spacecraft portion). It had many issues. Inaccuracies, poor summarization of programs and somewhat opinionated. Tried to add more sources and given missions the significance they held when they occurred.

Space flight programs

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Main article: List of NASA missions

The most notable NASA activities are its space flight programs, both manned and unmanned. The latter can be either independent, carrying scientific equipment, or supportive, testing equipment for manned flights. In the beginning, from the late 50s to early 70s, NASA’s mission focus revolved heavily around a competition with the Soviet Union, this period is generally referred to as the space race that culminated in the landing on the moon. Following the moon landings, competition between the Soviet Union and the United States still continued albeit at a slower pace with a less defined objective. The unmanned missions have until now explored most of the solar system. They have also brought telescopes for deep space exploration into orbit around the Earth together with satellites for studying Earth itself.

Manned programs

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The rocket planes experiments started by NACA was taken a step further by NASA which used them as support for spaceflights, the first of which was one-manned and launched by modified intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). When the attention turned to reaching the Moon, the solution chosen was complicated but also the most economical. Supportive projects, both manned and unmanned were introduced and larger rockets together with spacecraft and lunar lander developed. The Moon landing and end of the space race meant a reduction of NASA’s activities. Space stations of a more or less permanent nature, suggested already during the spacerace, were built and an international cooperation was introduced in an attempt to both bring nations together and at the same time share the high costs of space missions. In all, more than 150 manned missions have been made by NASA since 1961.

X-15A-2 leaving B-52, 1967

X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)

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Main article: X-15

The NACA XS-1 (Bell X-1) was followed by additional experimental vehicles, including the X-15 in cooperation with the US Air Force and US Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.[1] When the spacerace began the main objective was to get a person into space as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. This led to the choice of a small capsule spacecraft while rocket plane proposals like a modified X-15[2] were turned down.[3] Instead X-15 was used for development of techniques and equipment of value for the space missions. This included jets for changing the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits for astronauts and horizon definition for navigation.[4] Nearly 200 flights were made between 1959 and 1968 allowing NASA to collect data vital not only to the spacerace but also the design of the Space Shuttle.[1] The X-15 did perform several sub-orbital spaceflights, the first occurring in July 1963. The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).[4]

Project Mercury (1959–1963)

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Main article: Project Mercury
Freedom 7, the first manned mission by NASA
Launch on May 5, 1961
Launch on May 5, 1961. The spacecraft is the black cone on top
Flight, left to right: launch, summit (117 miles[5]), reentry and landing in water (recovery by aircraft carrier)

Project Mercury was initiated in 1958 and started NASA down the path of human space exploration with missions designed to discover if man could survive in space. Representatives from the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force were selected to provide assistance to NASA. Pilot selections were facilitated through coordination with U.S. defense research, contracting, and military test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space when he piloted Mercury-Redstone 3, called Freedom 7, on a 15-minute suborbital flight.[6] John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962 during the flight of Friendship 7.[7]

In April 1961, one month before Alan Shepard, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space when he orbited the Earth once in Vostok 1.[8] Further in August the same year, the follower Vostok 2 made a day long orbital flight[9] which led to canceling of additional American suborbital missions; they were no longer enough.[10] Three more orbital flights were made by the Mercury project after Friendship 7, the last in 1963.[11] Three additional orbital flights were cancelled since it was clear that the Mercury spacecraft had reached its limit of staying in space.[10]

The defeat in the first round of the spacerace led to the introduction of the Moon race program, Apollo, in 1961 just after the flight of Freedom 7. However, it was estimated that this could not be done in one step and that further projects in Earth orbit were needed.[12]

Project Gemini (1962–1966)

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Rendezvous of Gemini 6 and 7
Main article: Project Gemini

Project Gemini consisted of ten manned missions which focused on conducting experiments and developing and practicing techniques required for lunar missions. Some of the main objectives were to peform a 14-day human space flight (in order gain greater confidence that man could survive in the space the length of a moon mission), rendezvous and docking of space vehicles, and extra-vehicular activity (EVA) capability.[13][14] The two-man Gemini spacecraft was launched by the Titan II GLV. The first two-man American spaceflight and the first manned Gemini mission, Gemini 3, occurred on March 23, 1965.[15] The first American EVA occurred on the following mission, Gemini 4, by Ed White.[13] Gemini 5's nearly eight day long mission was the first duration record held by the United States.[16] Gemini 6A and Gemini 7 were the first space vehicles to rendezvous with one another.[16] The crew of Gemini 7 spent a record fourteen days in space.[16] Gemini 8's docking to Agena target vehicle was the first spacecraft docking.[17] Gemini 12 was the first EVA that the Astronaut did not become exhausted. and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.[18][19]

During the Gemini program, the United States began to surpass Russia on the way to a moon landing.

Spacecraft and rocket comparison including Apollo (largest), Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone rockets are not shown

Project Apollo (1961–1972)

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Main article: Apollo program

The Apollo program was one of the most expensive American scientific programs. It is estimated to have cost $265 billion in present-day US dollars.[20][21] (In comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $33.8 billion, accounting for inflation.)[20][22] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects.[23] The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the astronauts would eventually return to Earth. The Apollo Command/Service Module and Apollo Lunar Module.

The Saturn I which was later upgraded into the Saturn IB, was used in the early portions of the program to test equipment in low Earth orbit. The Saturn V was used for the larger tests in low Earth orbit, the lunar practice missions and the actual lunar landings.

Buzz Aldrin on the moon, 1969

Early on in the program, the Apollo I diaster set the program back. The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968.[24] Shortly before, the Soviet had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.[25] On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced[26][27] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.[28] In 1961 President Kennedy had introduced the Apollo Program and set the deadline for a successful Moon landing at the end of the same decade. It was done by a narrow margin.[29]

The later missions utilized improved space suits and a lunar rover, and attempted more difficult landings. Longer missions.

The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind.[30]

Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.[31] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks.

Skylab (1965–1979)

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Skylab space station, 1974
Main article: Skylab

Skylab was the United States' first space station.[32] Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973 atop the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. Need to correct this/ It was occupied non-continuously for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews between 1973 and 1974.[32] The Apollo command/service modules and Saturn IB rockets were used for transporting astronauts to and from Skylab. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Which were duration records for their time.[17] It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.[32] NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but Skylab's orbit decayed quicker than anticipated and the Space Shuttle developmental program experienced delays and was therefor not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entered on July 11, 1979.[33]

NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a Apollo moon mission to launch Skylab. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), which was 30.7 times larger than that of the Apollo Command Module.[33]

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972-1975)

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Artist's rendering of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecrafts docking, 1975
Main article: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other (this didn't happen).[34] This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981.[35]

The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program[36] and the International Space Station.

Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)

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Main article: Space Shuttle program
Discovery liftoff
Discovery liftoff, 2008
Space Shuttle mission profile
Mission profile. Left: launch, top: orbit (cargo bay open), right: reentry and landing

The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable, inexpensive and mostly reusable vehicle, four Space Shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,[37] coincidentally on the 20th anniversary of the first human space flight.[38] Although it never achieved the flight rate or the launch economics originally envisioned.

Its major components were the Space Shuttle orbiter, the external fuel tank and two solid fuel rocket boosters. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only component that was not reused. The Shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles)[39] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).[40] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.[39]

On 20 missions (1983–1998) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, a space laboratory designed in cooperation with the ESA. Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.[41] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble space telescope 1990 and 1993[42] Sally Ride became the first American woman to travel into space as a crew member of STS-7 during June of 1983 and Guion Bluford became the first African-American to travel into space as a crew member of STS-8 in August of the same year.

In 1995 Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle-Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. Eleven Space Shuttle missions flew to Mir and seven American astronauts were allowed to conduct long duration missions aboard it, each for an average of five months.[43] This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as the two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and a combined 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.[44] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss.[44] Because Columbia was already planned to be retired. NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.[45] The Discovery orbiter flew 39 missions, the most of any spacecraft.

International Space Station (1998–)

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Main article: International Space Station
The International Space Station, 2011

The International Space Station (ISS) combines the Japanese Kibō laboratory with three space station projects, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the American Freedom, and the European Columbus.[46] Budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in the early 1990s which is managed by the five participating space agencies, NASA, the Russian RKA, the Japanese JAXA, the European ESA, and the Canadian CSA.[47][48] The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.[46] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016.[49][50] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements[51] which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),[52][53] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[51]

The STS-131 (light blue) and Expedition 23 (dark blue) crew members in April 2010.

Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions, expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[54] The initial expedition crew size was three, it was temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster; since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.[55] Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.[56] The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 24 years and 52 days, having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[57][58] The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2012, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[59] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year long missions and than returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009 and the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz.[60] The most amount of people on the ISS at one time has been thirteen, this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[61]

The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020 but may be extended until 2028 or possibly beyond that.[62]

Commercial Resupply Services (2006-)
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Main article: Commercial Resupply Services
The Dragon is seen being berthed to the ISS in May 2012
Artist's rendering of the Standard variant of Cygnus

The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.[63] The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone.[64] Private companies were also required to have some "skin in the game" which refers raising an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.[65]

On 23 December 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation.[66] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft.[67] Orbital Sciences will use its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.[68] The first Cygnus resupply mission is expected to occur in early 2013.[69] The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[70]

Commercial Crew Program (2010–)
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Main article: Commercial Crew Development

The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.[71][71] It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.[72] Like COTS, CCDev is also a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.[64]

In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies.[73] In 2012, the winners of the the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.[74] This phase of the CCDev program is expected to last from 3 June 2012 to 31 May 2014.[74] The winners of this latest round were SpaceX's Dragon planned to be launched on a Falcon 9, Boeing's CST-100 planned to be launched on an Atlas V and Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser, which is also planned to be launched on an Atlas V.[75] NASA will most likely only choose one provider for the Commercial Crew program, this vehicle is expected by NASA to become operational around 2017.[76][77]


  • The unmanned variant of Dragon is seen approaching the ISS
    The unmanned variant of Dragon is seen approaching the ISS
  • Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit
    Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit

Unnamed BLEO program (2010–)

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Artist's rendering of the the 70 mt variant of SLS launching Orion

For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.[78] During speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed the design selection of the new HLV that would replace the formerly planned Ares-V should be delayed until 2015.[79] He also proposed that the United States should send a crew to an asteroid in the 2020s and send a crew to Mars orbit in the mid-2030s.[79] The U.S. Congress drafted the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 and President Obama signed it into law on October 11 of that year.[80] The authorization act officially canceled the Constellation program.[80]

Expanded view of the Orion spacecraft

The Authorization Act required a new heavy lift vehicle design to be chosen within 90 days of its passing and that the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.[81] The authorization act called this new HLV the Space Launch System. The authorization act also required a beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft to be developed, the Orion spacecraft, which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role.[82] The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.[83] The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt into LEO, it is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.[82][84]

Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, is planned to be launched in 2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket.[84] Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory, which is planned for 2017.[84] The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) is to launch between 2019 and 2021; it is a 10-14 day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit.[84] As of March 2012, the destination for EM-3 and the intermediate focus for this new program is still in-flux.[85]

Misc
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Main article: Constellation program

Following the destruction of Space Shuttle Columbia, in early 2004 then President George W. Bush, announced his Vision for Space Exploration which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars.[86] A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the Orion spacecraft, a six person variant was planned to service the ISS and a four person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The Ares I would have launched Orion and the heavy-lift vehicle (HLV), the Ares V would have launched all other hardware. The Altair lunar lander would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays.[87][88] And many accused the program of not being adequitly funded by Congress.

In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.[78] During speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed the design selection of the new HLV that would replace the Ares-V would not occur until 2015.[89] The U.S. Congress drafted the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 and President Obama signed it into law on October 11 of that year.[80] The authorization act officially canceled the Constellation program.[80]

Unmanned programs (1958–)

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Deep space mission deployed by Shuttle, 1989
Main article: Unmanned NASA missions

More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.[90] Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA.[91] The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.

The first unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early space race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA it was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects.[92] A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.[93]

The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and 70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.[94]

The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.[95]

Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.[96] Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983.[97] For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.[98]

Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.[99][100] A problem with deep space travel is communication. For instance, it takes about 3 hours at present for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft at a point more than halfway to Pluto.[101] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.[102]

On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and will now begin its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[103][104][105]

Recent and planned activities

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The Orion spacecraft is intended to be used for beyond low Earth orbit missions, shown here is the ground test article

NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are MESSENGER for Mercury, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997-), and Juno (2011–).

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and is currently en-route for a Pluto flyby in 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[106]

On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base.[107] The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on a "unsustainable trajectory."[108] In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.[109]

In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars.[110] The Orion MPCV is planned for an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket around late 2013.[111]

Celebration erupts at NASA with rover's successful landing on the planet Mars

On August 6th, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Aerospaceweb, North American X-15. Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-03.
  2. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Project 7969, retrieved 2011-10-17
  3. ^ NASA, Project Mercury Overview, retrieved 2011-10-17
  4. ^ a b NASA, X-15 Hypersonic Research Program, retrieved 2011-10-17
  5. ^ NASA, Mercury-Redstone 3 (18), retrieved 2011-10-14
  6. ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "11-4 Shepard's Ride". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris (eds.). This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "13-4 An American in Orbit". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris (eds.). This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  8. ^ "NASA history, Gagarin". NASA. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
  9. ^ Astronautix, Vostok 2, retrieved 2011-10-14
  10. ^ a b "Mercury". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
  11. ^ "Mercury Manned Flights Summary". NASA. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
  12. ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Apollo, retrieved 2011-10-14
  13. ^ a b "Exploring the Unknown Volume VII: Human Spaceflight: Projects Mercury, Gemini and Apollo" (PDF). NASA. 2008. p. 37. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  14. ^ "Gemini Summary Conference". Houstan, Texas: NASA. February 1967. p. 1. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  15. ^ Gamble, Chris (2002-12-31). "10-1 The Last Hurdle". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (url). NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on 2010-02-01. Retrieved July 14, 2009. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b c "A Selective Chronology of Defining Events in NASA History". NASA. 2006. Retrieved 28 September 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b "The Early Years: Mercury to Apollo-Soyuz" (PDF). NASA. September 1991. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
  18. ^ Gamble, Chris (2002-12-31). "12-5 Two Weeks in a Spacecraft". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (url). NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on 2010-02-01. Retrieved July 14, 2009. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Gamble, Chris (2002-12-31). "13-3 An Alternative Target". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (url). NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on 2010-02-01. Retrieved July 14, 2009. {{cite book}}: More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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Falcon 9 engine anomaly

[edit]
Engine 1 can be seen in the upper-left hand corner.

During the ascent of Falcon 9 there was an engine anomaly on Engine 1, which is one of the nine engines on Falcon 9's first stage. It is believed that fuel dome above the engine's nozzle ruptured, causing the engine's cover, which protects it from aerodynamic forces, to also rupture. Debris falling from the rocket was seen at around +120 seconds. The SpaceX CRS-1 first stage did shut down engine no. 1 during the October 2012 ascent, and as a result continued the first-stage burn on the remaining eight engines longer than usual to provide more time at the somewhat reduced thrust to insert the Dragon spacecraft into the proper orbit.[1] Although unintended, this was the first inflight demonstration of Falcon 9's "engine out" design,[2][3] and "provides a clear demonstration of the engine out capability."[4]

SpaceX has emphasized for several years that the Falcon 9 first stage is designed for "engine out" capability, with the capability to shut down one or more malfunctioning engines and still make a successful ascent.[5] In the event,

In response to the anomaly, NASA and SpaceX created the CRS-1 Post-Flight Investigation Board.[6]


NASA Docking System (Passive on the left, active on the right) before 11/13/2012
IDAs shown connected to PMA-2 and PMA-3 on the Harmony node

The NASA Docking System (NDS) is a spacecraft docking and berthing mechanism being developed for future US space exploration vehicles, such as the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and the Commercial Crew vehicles. The NDS is NASA’s implementation of the International Docking System Standard (IDSS), an attempt by the ISS Multilateral Coordination Board (MCB) to create an international docking standard. NDS is also known as the international Low Impact Docking System (iLIDS).[7]

Two International Docking Adapters (IDA) will be attached to the PMAs, one at Node-2 forward, the other at Node-2 zenith.[8] They are scheduled to be delivered to ISS by Dragon on separate Commercial Resupply Services missions in 2015.[9]


Design

[edit]

The NDS docking mechanism is androgynous, the first system to use low impact technology and the first system to allow both docking and berthing.[10] It supports both autonomous and piloted dockings and features pyrotechnics for contingency undocking. Once mated the NDS interface can transfer power, data, commands, air, communication and in future implementations will be able to transfer water, fuel, oxidiser and pressurant as well.[7] The passage for crew and cargo transfer has a diameter of 800 millimetres (31 in).[11]

In form and function NDS bears some resemblance to the Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS-95) mechanism already in use on the Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA) attached to the International Space Station, but is not compatible with it

History

[edit]

Johnson Space Center began development in 1996, then it was known as the Advanced Docking Berthing System[12] and eventually the X-38 Low-Impact Docking System.[13][14] The X-38 was canceled in 2002, development of the mating system continued but its future was unknown. In 2004 George Bush announced his Vision for Space Exploration and NASA's 2005 Exploration Systems Architecture Study was created in response, recommended to use the Low Impact Docking System (LIDS) on the Crew Exploration Vehicle and all applicable future exploration elements.[15] The Hubble Space Telescope received the Soft-Capture Mechanism (SCM) on STS-125. The SCM is meant for unpressurized docking, but uses the LIDS interface to reserve the possibility of an Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle docked mission. The docking ring is mounted on Hubble's aft bulkhead. It will be used for safely de-orbiting Hubble at the end of its service lifetime.[16]

Image showing the design changes

In February 2010, the LIDS program became modified to be compliant with the IDSS and became known as the international Low Impact Docking System (iLIDS) or simply the NASA Docking System (NDS).[10] In May 2011, the NDS critical design review was completed and qualification was expected to be completed by late 2013.[8]

In April 2012, NASA funded a study to determine if a less complex docking system could be used as the NASA Docking System that both met the international community’s desire for a narrower soft capture system ring width, as well as providing the ISS a simpler active docking system compared to the then-current design.[17] Boeing's proposal was the Soft Impact Mating and Attenuation Concept (SIMAC), a design originally conceived in 2003 for the Orbital Space Plane (OSP) Program.[17]

A leaked internal memo dated November 13, 2012,[18] announced that SIMAC had been chosen to replace the previous design. to the development team that NASA had decided to retire and archive the design, instead contracting Boeing to develop their narrow ring design, SIMAC. According to this memo, work is not to be immediately shutdown, but current work was going to be finished and the documentation cleaned up and finished for archiving. Apparently, iLIDS was not the optimal design for the ISS, but NASA decided to keep the design, or the developed technology, as an option for the future. Under the Request of Proposals for the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) NASA bought 5 docking systems, one of which is to be fitted to the ISS.[19]: p. 8 

Bigelow

[edit]

Bigelow Aerospace has expressed interest in licensing the LIDS technology from NASA for its space station technology development program. As of 2007 Bigelow was planning to equip its Sundancer and BA-330 expandable space modules with both a Soyuz-style docking system on one end and the NASA-standard Low Impact Docking System on the other.[20] During the summer of 2011, news had been made available that Bigelow was considering to use NDS on their modules.[21]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ SpaceX CRS-1: Post conference press conference
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference tsr20121008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Hennigan, WJ (8 October 2012). "SpaceX rocket engine shuts down during launch to station". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
  4. ^ Money, Stewart (2012-10-09). "Falcon 9 Loses an Engine (and Fairing), Demonstrates Resiliance". Innerspace. Retrieved 2012-10-10. provides a clear demonstration of the engine out capability.
  5. ^ "Falcon 9 Overview". SpaceX. 8 May 2010.
  6. ^ Lindsey, Clark (12 October 2012). "SpaceX CRS-1: Review board formed to investigate engine failure". NewSpaceWatch. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
  7. ^ a b Parma, George (2011-05-20). "Overview of the NASA Docking System and the International Docking System Standard" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  8. ^ a b Bayt, Rob (2011-07-26). "Commercial Crew Program: Key Drving Requirments Walkthrough". NASA. Retrieved 27 July 2011.
  9. ^ "Dragon C2, CRS-1,... CRS-12". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
  10. ^ a b NASA Docking System (NDS) Technical Integration Meeting (2010-11-17)
  11. ^ "NASA Docking System (NDS) Interface Definitions Document (IDD) JSC-65795 Revision C November 2010" (PDF). NASA Technical Reports Server. NASA. Retrieved July 19, 2014.
  12. ^ Low Impact Docking System (2009-02)
  13. ^ Advanced Docking/Berthing System - NASA Seal Workshop (2004-11-04)
  14. ^ Advanced Docking Berthing System
  15. ^ NASA's Exploration Systems Architecture Study - 5.3.4 Docking Mechanism/ISS Docking Module Trades (November 2005)
  16. ^ NASA (2008). "The Soft Capture and Rendezvous System". NASA. Retrieved May 22, 2009.
  17. ^ a b "Feasibility of the SIMAC for the NASA Docking System" (PDF). Boeing. Retrieved 27 September 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Johnson Space Center (2012-11-13). "NASA Decides to Adopt Boeing SIMAC Design for Docking and Is Retiring the iLIDS Design". SpaceRef. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
  19. ^ "NASA Commercial Crew Transportation Capability Contract CCTCAP Draft RFP". SpaceREF. July 19, 2013. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
  20. ^ Covault, Craig (2007-04-08). "Bigelow Reveals Business Plan". Aviation Week. Retrieved 2010-07-20. equipped with a Soyuz type docking system at one end and a new NASA developed advanced lightweight Low Impact Docking System on the other end
  21. ^ John Cook, Valery Aksamentov, Thomas Hoffman, and Wes Bruner (2011-09-02). "ISS Interface Mechanisms and their Heritage" (PDF). The Boeing Company. Retrieved 6 September 2011. The mechanism to be used for the interface between the CST-100 and the Bigelow module was originally an APAS, but the NDS platform is also consideration due to its implementation as part of the International Docking System Standard (IDSS){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
[edit]

Category:Spacecraft components Category:Spacecraft docking systems

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