Hijab
Part of a series on |
Islamic female dress |
---|
Types |
Practice and law by country |
Concepts |
Other |
![Smiling woman outdoors wearing a brightly coloured headscarf and embroidered clothing](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Woman_in_Tunisia.jpg/220px-Woman_in_Tunisia.jpg)
In modern usage, hijab (Arabic: حجاب, romanized: ḥijāb, pronounced [ħɪˈdʒaːb]) generally refers to variety of head coverings conventionally worn by many Muslim women as an expression of faith.[1][2] Similar to the tichel or snood worn by Orthodox Jewish women, certain headcoverings worn by some Christian women, such as the mantilla, apostolnik and wimple,[3][4] and the dupatta favored by many Hindu and Sikh women,[5][6][7] the hijab comes in various forms. Often, it specifically describes a scarf that is wrapped around the head, covering the hair, neck, and ears while leaving the face visible.[8][9] The use of the hijab has grown globally since the 1970s, with many Muslims viewing it as a symbol of modesty and faith; it is also worn as a form of adornment.[8][10] There is consensus among Islamic religious scholars that covering the head is either required or preferred.[11][12][13][14] In practice, most Muslim women choose to wear it.[15][16][12][17]
The term ḥijāb was originally used to denote a partition or a curtain and was sometimes used for Islamic rules of modesty.[8][18] In the verses of the Qur'an, the term refers to a curtain separating visitors to Muhammad's main house from his wives' lodgings. This has led some to claim that the mandate of the Qur'an applied only to the wives of Muhammad and not to all women.[19][20] Another interpretation can also refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, whereas a metaphysical dimension may refer to "the veil which separates man, or the world, from God".[21] The Qur'an never uses the word hijab to refer to women's clothing, but passages discuss the attire of women using other terms jilbab and khimār.[22] For some the term for headscarf in the Qur'an is khimār (Arabic: خِمار).[8][23][18][24][25]
There is variation in interpretations regarding the extent of covering required. Some legal systems accept the hijab as an order to cover everything except the face and hands,[26][21] whilst others accept it as an order to cover the whole body, including the face and hands.[27] These guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur'an. Some state that these guidelines are aligned with Qur'anic verses (ayahs) about hijab,[14][28] while others interpret them differently and argue that its not mandated.[29][30] Reformist groups claim that veiling is a recommendation rooted in historical context rather than an absolute mandate.[30][31]
Islamic veiling practices vary globally based on local laws and customs. In some regions, the hijab is mandated by law, while in others, its use is subject to restrictions or bans in both Europe and some Muslim countries.[32][33] Additionally, women face informal pressure regarding their choice to wear or not wear the hijab.[34][35] Discrimination against Muslims often affects women more due to the hijab making them more visible, leading to workplace prejudice, particularly after the rise of Islamophobia post-9/11.[36] Hijab-wearing Muslim women face both overt and covert discrimination in job applications and workplace environments, with covert bias often resulting in more hostile treatment.[37] Perceived discrimination can harm well-being,[38] but may also be overcomed by religious pride and community; studies show hijab-wearing women often find greater strength and belonging despite challenges.[39]
Etymology
[edit]The Arabic word hijab (Arabic: حجاب) is the verbal noun originating from the verb ﺣَﺠَﺐَ (hajaba), from the triliteral root ح ج ب (H-J-B), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of hide, conceal, block.[40][41]
In Islamic scripture
[edit]Qur'an
[edit]Qur'anic verses relating to dress codes use the terms khimār which translates to “veil” in English, (but, according to some, a headcovering[42][43]) and jilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather than ḥijāb.[18][nb 1] About six verses refer specifically to the way a woman should dress and walk in public;[44] Muslim scholars have differed as to how these verses should be applied, with some stating that a headscarf is required and others saying that a headscarf is not required.[45]
The clearest verses on the requirement of modest dress are Surah An-Nur 24:30-31, telling both men and women to dress and act modestly, with more detail about modest dress focused on women.[46][47]
˹O Prophet!˺ Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. That is purer for them. Surely Allah is All-Aware of what they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their chastity, and not to reveal their adornments except what normally appears. Let them draw their veils over their chests, and not reveal their ˹hidden˺ adornments except to their husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, those ˹bondwomen˺ in their possession, male attendants with no desire, or children who are still unaware of women’s nakedness. Let them not stomp their feet, drawing attention to their hidden adornments......
The word khimar, in the context of this verse, is translated as just a “veil" used on people.[42][48][43] Such head coverings were worn by women in Arabia at the advent of Islam mostly to protect against the hot sun and desert.[49]
Qur'an 33:59 tells Muhammad to ask his family members and other Muslim women to wear outer garments when they go out, so that they are not harassed:[47]
O Prophet! Ask your wives, daughters, and believing women to draw their cloaks over their bodies. In this way it is more likely that they will be recognized ˹as virtuous˺ and not be harassed. And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
The Islamic commentators generally agree this verse refers to sexual harassment of women of Medina. It is also seen to refer to a free woman, for which Tabari cites Ibn Abbas. Ibn Kathir states that the jilbab distinguishes free Muslim women from those of Jahiliyyah, so other men know they are free women and not slaves or prostitutes, indicating covering oneself does not apply to non-Muslims. He cites Sufyan al-Thawri as commenting that while it may be seen as permitting looking upon non-Muslim women who adorn themselves, it is not allowed in order to avoid lust. Al-Qurtubi concurs with Tabari about this ayah being for those who are free. He reports that the correct view is that a jilbab covers the whole body. He also cites the Sahabah as saying it is no longer than a rida (a shawl or a wrapper that covers the upper body). He also reports a minority view which considers the niqab or head-covering as jilbab. Ibn Arabi considered that excessive covering would make it impossible for a woman to be recognised which the verse mentions, though both Qurtubi and Tabari agree that the word recognition is about distinguishing free women.[50]: 111–113
Some scholars like Ibn Hayyan, Ibn Hazm and Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani questioned the ayah's common explanation. Hayyan believed that "believing women" referred to both free women and slaves as the latter are bound to more easily entice lust and their exclusion is not clearly indicated. Hazm too believed that it covered Muslim slaves as it would violate the law of not molesting a slave or fornication with her like that with a free woman. He stated that anything not attributed to Muhammad should be disregarded.[50]: 114
The word ḥijāb in the Qur'an refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain.[18] Sometimes its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad's wives from the visitors to his house (33:53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), and light from darkness (38:32).[18]
The interpretations of the ḥijāb as separation can be classified into three types: as visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. A visual barrier (for example, between Muhammad's family and the surrounding community) serves to hide from sight something, which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary. A physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals, such as elite women. An ethical barrier, such as the expression purity of hearts in reference to Muhammad's wives and the Muslim men who visit them, makes something forbidden.[44]
Hadith
[edit]The hadith sources specify the details of hijab for men and women, exegesis of the Qur'anic verses attributed to the sahabah, and are a major source which Muslim legal scholars used to derive their rulings.[51][52][53] It is reported in Sahih al-Bukhari on the authority of Aisha that:
`Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say to Allah's Messenger "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' Once Sauda, the daughter of Zam`a went out and she was a tall woman. `Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He (`Umar) said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil (the veiling of women.) So Allah revealed the Verse of veiling. (Al-Hijab; a complete body cover excluding the eyes).[54][55]
Aisha also reported that when Quran 24:31 was revealed,
...the men of Ansar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed. Each man recited to his wife, his daughter, his sister and other female relatives. Each woman among them got up, took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed. They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up, as if there were crows on their heads.[50]: 118
A similar hadith is Abū Dawud 32:4090, which describes that, in response to the verses, "the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads." Although these narrations refer to black clothing ("crows on their heads"), other narrations indicate wives of the prophet also wore other colors like yellow or rose.[56][50]: 124 Other hadith on hijab include:
- Narrated Safiya bint Shaiba: "Aisha used to say: 'When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils (khimaar) over their breasts (juyyub)," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and veiled themselves (Arabic: فَاخْتَمَرْنَ, lit. 'to put on a hijab') with the cut pieces.'" Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60:282, 32:4091. This hadith is often translated as "...and covered their heads and faces with the cut pieces of cloth,"[57] as the Arabic word used in the text (Arabic: فَاخْتَمَرْنَ) could include or exclude the face and there was ikhtilaf on whether covering the face is farḍ, or obligatory. The most prominent sharh, or explanation, of Sahih Bukhari is Fatḥ al-Bārī which states this included the face.
- Yahya related to me from Malik from Muhammad ibn Zayd ibn Qunfudh that his mother asked Umm Salama, the wife of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, "What clothes can a woman wear in prayer?" She said, "She can pray in the khimār (headscarf) and the diri' (Arabic: الدِّرْعِ, lit. 'shield, armature', transl. 'a woman's garment') that reaches down and covers the top of her feet." Muwatta Imam Malik book 8 hadith 37.
- Aishah narrated that Allah's Messenger said: "The Salat (prayer) of a woman who has reached the age of menstruation is not accepted without a khimār." Jami` at-Tirmidhi 377.
Dress code
[edit]Modern Muslim scholars usually require women to cover everything but their hands and face in public,[21] but do not require the niqab (a face covering worn by some Muslim women). In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a hijab.[58]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Odalisque_%28Boston_Public_Library%29.jpg/180px-Odalisque_%28Boston_Public_Library%29.jpg)
Sunni
[edit]The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) believe that it is obligatory for free women to cover their hair,[59] and the entire body except her face and hands, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members.[60][61][62]
According to Hanafis and other scholars[which?], these requirements extend to being around non-Muslim women as well, for fear that they may describe her physical features to unrelated men.[63] The Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia,[64] and Muhammad ibn Adam Al-Kawthari[65] also believe women should cover their head.
Men must cover from their belly buttons to their knees, though the schools differ on whether this includes covering the navel and knees or only what is between them.[66][67][68][69]
It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body, such as modest forms of Western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbāb, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles.[citation needed]
Shia
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ir%C3%A1n_%28RPS_16-10-2019%29_comprando_en_el_bazar.jpg/200px-Ir%C3%A1n_%28RPS_16-10-2019%29_comprando_en_el_bazar.jpg)
In Shia jurisprudence, by consensus, it is obligatory for women to cover their hair, and the entire body except her hands and face, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members.[13][70][71][17] The major and most important Shia hadith collections such as Nahj Al-Balagha and Kitab Al-Kafi for the most part do not give any details about hijab requirements. However a quotation from Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih Musa al-Kadhim in reply to his brother makes reference to female hijab requirements during the salat (prayer), stating "She covers her body and head with it then prays. And if her feet protrude from beneath, and she doesn't have the means to prevent that, there is no harm".[72]
Miscellaneous
[edit]In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.[73]
Traditional scholars had differences of opinion on covering the hands and face. The majority adopted the opinion that the face and hands are not part of their nakedness.[citation needed] Some held the opinion that covering the face is recommended if the woman's beauty is so great that it is distracting and causes temptation or public discord.[citation needed]
Alternative views
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Shinz%C5%8D_Abe_and_Malala_Yousafzai_%281%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Shinz%C5%8D_Abe_and_Malala_Yousafzai_%281%29_%28cropped%29.jpg)
Leila Ahmed argues that head covering in Islam should not be seen as mandatory since it existed before the revelation of the Qur’an. It was introduced to Arabia through Arab interactions with Syria and Iran, where the hijab represented social status. Women who did not work in fields could afford to be secluded and veiled.[19][74] Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them"[Quran 33:58-59] and "guard their private parts ... and drape down khimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]",[Quran 24:31] they urge modesty. The word khimar or “veil” refers to a piece of cloth that was popularly used to cover the head in ancient Arabia.[75] While the term "hijab" was originally anything that was used to conceal,[76] it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.[77]
According to Karen Armstrong, Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed, the requirements of the hijab were initially intended solely for Muhammad's wives, serving to preserve their sanctity. This was because Muhammad conducted religious and civic matters in the mosque next to his home.[19] Leila Ahmed further explains that Muhammad aimed at fostering a sense of privacy and protecting the intimate space of his wives from the constant presence of the bustling community at their doorstep. They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ('taking the veil') was used synonymously and interchangeably with ‘becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife’ and that during Muhammad's life no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam,[19] and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C.E." in the Muslim community.[19][20]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Afghan_National_Army_%28ANA%29_Brig._Gen._Khatool_Mohammadzai%2C_center%2C_the_director_for_women%27s_affairs_and_the_deputy_director_for_the_education_and_physical_training_within_the_ANA%2C_poses_with_a_group_of_120220-A-WI966-673.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg)
Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that all Islamic moderates agree that, in all cases, the decision whether to wear the hijab should be a woman's autonomous decision and that her choice must be respected because the moderate pro-choice position is based on the Quranic teachings that there ought to be no compulsion in religion. [78]
Many scholars argue that these contemporary views and arguments, however, contradict the hadith sources, the classical scholars, exegesis sources, historical consensus, and interpretations of the companions (such as Aisha and Abdullah ibn Masud).[citation needed] Some traditionalist Muslim scholars accept the contemporary views and arguments as those hadith sources are not sahih and ijma would no longer be applicable if it is argued by scholars (even if it is argued by only one scholar). Notable examples of traditionalist Muslim scholars who accept these contemporary views include the Indonesian scholar Quraish Shihab.[79]
In 2012, Egyptian scholar Shaykh Mustapha Mohamed Rashed of Al Azhar University argued in his Ph.D. dissertation that hijab is not an Islamic duty.[80]
Contemporary practice
[edit]The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world.
An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public.[81] The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. The response rate for people of Turkey was just about 60%.[81] In Saudi Arabia, 63% gave preference to the niqab face veil; in Pakistan the niqab, the full-length chador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all.[81][82] The survey found "no significant difference" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favoured conservative women's dress.[82] However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress.[82] People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.[82]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Iriana_Joko_Widodo_in_2021.jpg/170px-Iriana_Joko_Widodo_in_2021.jpg)
Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans.[83][84] While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed.[83]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Muna_AbuSulayman_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_the_Middle_East%2C_North_Africa_and_Eurasia_2012.jpg/220px-Muna_AbuSulayman_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_the_Middle_East%2C_North_Africa_and_Eurasia_2012.jpg)
In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention.[85] The former Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months.[86] After Ebrahim Raisi became president, he started imposing hijab laws strictly, announcing use of facial recognition in public transport to enforce hijab law.[87] An Iranian woman, Mahsa Amini, died in custody of 'morality police' after they arrested her on new stricter hijab laws, which led to widespread protests.[88] Women's resistance in Iran is gaining traction as an increasing number of women challenge the mandatory wearing of the hijab. Smith (2017) addressed the progress that Iranian women have made in her article, "Iran surprises by realizing Islamic dress code for women,"[89] published by The Times, a news organization based in the UK. The Iranian government has enforced their penal dress codes less strictly and instead of imprisonment as a punishment have implemented mandatory reform classes in the liberal capital, Tehran. General Hossein Rahimi, the Tehran's police chief stated, "Those who do not observe the Islamic dress code will no longer be taken to detention centers, nor will judicial cases be filed against them" (Smith, 2017). The remarks of Tehran's recent police chief in 2017 reflect political progress in contrast with the remarks of Tehran's 2006 police chief.[89][90] Iranian women activists have made a headway since 1979 relying on fashion to enact cultural and political change.
In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian villager women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called türban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home. However the majority of those wear a traditional, non-Islamic head covering and only 11% wore a türban.[91][92][93][94] The ban was lifted from universities in 2008,[95] from government buildings in 2013,[96] and from schools in 2014.[97]
The hijab is also a common cultural practice for Muslims in the West. For example, in a 2016 Environics poll, a large majority (73%) of Canadian Muslim women reported wearing some sort of head-covering in public (58% wear the hijab, 13% wear the chador and 2% wear the niqab). Wearing a head covering in public had increased since the 2006 survey.[98]
Meanwhile, in a Pew Research Center poll from 2011, most Muslim American women also reported wearing hijab, 36% indicating they wore hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wore it most or some of the time; 40% said they never wore hijab.[99]
History
[edit]Pre-Islamic veiling practices
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Bronze_Statuette_of_a_Veiled_and_Masked_Dancer_1.jpg/170px-Bronze_Statuette_of_a_Veiled_and_Masked_Dancer_1.jpg)
Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses date back as far as 2500 BC.[100] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.[101] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society.[101] Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so.[18] Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available".[18][101]
Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 BCE, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.[102] Roman pagan custom included the practice of the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta (Vestal Virgins).[103]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Temple_of_baal07%28js%29.jpg/170px-Temple_of_baal07%28js%29.jpg)
It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty (tzniut).[103] Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in Babylonian and later in Greco-Roman society.[103] According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair (cf. Mitpaḥat). The surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices.[103] According to Fadwa El Guindi, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their heads and faces.[18]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Chief_Vestal.jpg/170px-Chief_Vestal.jpg)
The best-known view on Christian headcovering is delineated in the Bible within the passage in 1 Corinthians 11:4–7, which states that "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head".[103] The early Church Fathers, including Tertullian of Carthage, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus of Rome, John Chrysostom and Augustine of Hippo attested in their writings that Christian women should wear a headcovering, while men should pray with their heads uncovered.[104][105] There is archaeological evidence demonstrating that headcovering was observed as an ordinance by women in early Christianity,[106][103] and the practice of Christian headcovering continues among female adherents of many Christian denominations today, especially among Anabaptist Christians, as well as among certain Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians and Reformed Christians, among others.[107][105]
In the Indian subcontinent, some Hindu women cover their heads with a veil in a practice known as ghoonghat.[108][109]
Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East.[18] Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses.[18] In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.[18]
According to Leila Ahmed, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature had been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice.[110] Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam."[111]
During Muhammad's lifetime
[edit]Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighbouring countries such as Syria and Palestine.[112] Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans (Byzantines), Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status.[112] In the early Islamic texts, term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either "veil" or "curtain".[113] The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women's clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and draw their scarves over their breast area in the presence of men.[114] The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the "verse of the hijab" descended upon the community in 627 CE.[115] Now documented in Sura 33:53, the verse states, "And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts".[116] This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad's wives. As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers.[117] During Muhammad's lifetime the term for donning the veil, darabat al-hijab, was used interchangeably with "being Muhammad's wife".[112]
Later pre-modern history
[edit]The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires.[118] Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms".[117]
Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety.[119] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities.[18] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.[120] Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[121]
By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth).[18] The name of this garment, harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself.[18] Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization".[122]
Modern history
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Moslema_in_style_%288093610616%29.jpg/170px-Moslema_in_style_%288093610616%29.jpg)
Western clothing largely dominated fashion in Muslim countries in the 1960s and 1970s.[123][124] For example, in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, some women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, flared trousers,[125] and went out in public without the hijab.[citation needed] This changed following the Soviet–Afghan War,[citation needed] military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback.[126][127] There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979 after the hijab law, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house, was brought in.[128] However, this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population; in Turkey there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years,[129] although under Erdoğan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic, as Turkey repeals the Atatürk-era hijab ban,[130][131] and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively.[132]
Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser claimed that, in 1953, he was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood organization that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college, and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?"[133]
The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith.[134][135] This movement was named the Sahwah,[136] or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code.[134] The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back".[134] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al-niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.[citation needed]
Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women's equality,[135] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.[134]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Medalists_at_the_Women%27s_57_kg_Taekwando.jpg/220px-Medalists_at_the_Women%27s_57_kg_Taekwando.jpg)
Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it.[134]
As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Pan-Islamism and a symbolic rejection of Western culture and norms. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.[135]
After the September 11 attacks, the discussion and discourse on the hijab in Western nations intensified as Islamic traditions and theology came under greater scrutiny.[citation needed] According to the Harvard University Pluralism Project: "Some Muslim women cover their head only during prayer in the mosque; other Muslim women wear the hijab; still others may cover their head with a turban or a loosely draped scarf."[138]
Around the world
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Hijab.png/240px-Hijab.png)
Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing the hijab, including physical attacks.
Legal enforcement
[edit]In Gaza, there was a campaign by religious conservatives such as Hamas to impose the hijab on women during the First Intifada. In 1990, the Unified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU) declared that it rejected the imposition of a hijab policy for women, but that declaration was argued to have come too late, as many women had already yielded to the pressure in order to avoid harassment.[139] After assuming the government in the Gaza Strip in June 2007, Hamas sought to enforce Islamic law, imposing the hijab on women at courts, institutions and schools.[140][141]
Iran transitioned from banning veils in 1936 to mandating Islamic dress for women following the 1979 Islamic Revolution.[142] By 1980, veiling was required in government and educational settings, with the 1983 penal code imposing 74 lashes for not adhering to the hijab, though the exact requirements were unclear.[142][143][144] This led to public tensions and vigilante actions regarding proper hijab.[142][143] Subsequent regulations in 1984 and 1988 clarified dress-code standards, and the current penal code prescribes fines or prison terms for failing to observe hijab, without detailing its specific form.[142][145][146]
The enforcement of the dress code in Iran has fluctuated between strict and relaxed over the years, leading to ongoing debate between conservatives and reformists like Hassan Rouhani.[145][147] The United Nations Human Rights Council has urged Iran to uphold the rights of those advocating for dress code reforms.[148] Government and religious institutions mandate the khimar headscarf and overcoat, while women in other public areas often wear a loosely tied headscarf.[citation needed] The government officially promotes stricter veiling, citing both Islamic principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.[149]
Ruhollah Khomeini maintained that women do not have to wear a full-body cover. He stated that women can choose any kind of attire they like so long as it covers them properly and they have a hijab. His successor, Ali Khamenei, stated that the hijab does not hinder participation in social, political, or academic activities.[13]
The Indonesian province of Aceh requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public.[150] Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's local government the right to impose Sharia in 2001, although that no local regulations should conflict with Indonesian national laws, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.[150]
Saudi Arabia formally required women to cover their hair and wear a full-body garment, though enforcement varies.[151][152][153] Saudi women typically wear the abaya, while foreigners may choose long coats.[33] Regulations are enforced by religious police, which once faced criticism for their role in a fire rescue where schoolgirls' lack of hijabs was reportedly a factor, leading to 15 deaths.[154] In 2018, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman stated that women must wear 'decent, respectful clothing,' and that women are free to decide what form it should take, though the hijab remains mandatory in Mecca and Medina which hosts the holiest sites in Islam.
Legal bans
[edit]Muslim world
[edit]The tradition of veiling hair in Persian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins,[155] but the widespread custom was ended by Reza Shah's government in 1936, as the hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered "unveiling" act or Kashf-e hijab. In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it. These policies had popular support but outraged the Shi'a clerics, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.[156] In 1941, the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.
Turkey had a ban on headscarves at universities until recently. In 2008, the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.[157] In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities, government buildings and schools.[158]
In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing the hijab in state offices in 1981; in the 1980s and 1990s, more restrictions were put in place.[159]
In June 2024, Tajikistan's parliament passed a bill banning "foreign clothing" and religious celebrations for children during the Islamic holidays of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The upper house, Majlisi Milli, approved the legislation on June 19, following approval by the lower house, Majlisi Namoyandagon, on May 8. The bill specifically targets the hijab, a traditional Islamic headscarf. This formalization of restrictions comes after years of Tajikistan unofficially discouraging Islamic attire, including headscarves and bushy beards.[160] In 2007, the Ministry of Education banned both Islamic clothing and Western-style miniskirts in schools, a policy later extended to all public institutions. Minister of Culture Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda told Radio Free Europe that Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under previous laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices.[161][162]
Europe
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Hujum.png/220px-Hujum.png)
On 15 March 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006.[163] On 13 July 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places,[164] followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years.
Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas.[165] In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places.[166][167] In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress.[164] In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country.[168][169] In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item.[170] In 2018, the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places.[171]
In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab.[172][173][174] Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police.[172][175][176][177] Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.[172][177] Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice.[175][176][177] The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack.[172][177]
A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism.[178]
In 2019, Austria banned the hijab in schools for children up to ten years of age. The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs. Parents who send their child to school with a headscarf will be fined 440 euro.[179] The ban was overturned in 2020 by the Austrian Constitutional Court.[180]
In 2019, Staffanstorp Municipality in Sweden banned all veils for school pupils up to sixth grade.[181]
India
[edit]In India, Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and/or burqa anytime, anywhere.[182][183][184] However, in January 2022, a number of colleges in the South Indian state of Karnataka stopped female students wearing the hijab from entering the campus, following which the state government issued a circular banning 'religious clothes' in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed.[185] On 15 March 2022, the Karnataka High Court, in a verdict, upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed, arguing that the practice is non-essential in Islam.[186] The hijab ban was condemned inside India and abroad by officials in countries including the United States, Bahrain and Pakistan, as well as by Human Rights Watch, and by figures like Malala Yousafzai.[187][188]
A study published by human rights body People’s Union for Civil Liberties reported that the move to ban hijab has widened the social divide and increased fear among Muslims in Karnataka.[189]
Unofficial pressure to wear hijab
[edit]During the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the wearing of the hijab was mandated for women. The requirement extended to covering not only their heads but also their faces, as it was believed that doing so would prevent any perceived impropriety and maintain modesty in society.[34]
In Srinagar, the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.[190][191]
Unofficial pressure against wearing the hijab
[edit]In recent years, women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide, particularly following terrorist attacks.[192][35][193] Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks, not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend.[35] Some women stop wearing the hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction, even when they are urged to do so for self-protection.[35]
Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing the hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.[194]
In 2015, authorities in Uzbekistan organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital city Tashkent, during which women wearing the hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley.[195]
After the election of Shavkat Mirziyoyev as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016, Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity, which manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan. In July 2021, the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places.[196]
In Kyrgyzstan in 2016, the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.[197]
Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women
[edit]The issue of discrimination against Muslims affects Muslim women more due to the hijab making them more identifiable compared to Muslim men. Particularly after the September 11 attacks and the coining of the term Islamophobia, some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace.[36] Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.[198][199] Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them.[200] As a result of the heightened discrimination, some hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.[201]
A number of hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.[202] To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.[202]
The discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience; it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. As a result, hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion, because it might mean they are rejected employment.[203] Ali, Yamada, and Mahmoud (2015)[204] state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called "triple jeopardy", due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination.[citation needed]
A study by Ali et al. (2015)[204] found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.[205]
Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment; they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.[37] While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S., experimenters found that employers who self-identified as Republican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages.[206]
One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court was EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch. The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments.[207]
Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.[208] Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.[208] The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.[208]
Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.[38] However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual.[39] A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.[39]
World Hijab Day
[edit]Nazma Khan, a Bangladeshi-American, launched World Hijab Day (WHD) in 2013, which is an annual event founded by Nazma Khan in 2013,[209] taking place on 1 February each year in 140 countries worldwide.[210] Its stated purpose is to encourage women of all religions and backgrounds to wear and experience the hijab for a day and to educate and spread awareness on why hijab is worn.[211]
See also
[edit]- World Hijab Day
- Types of hijab
- Purdah
- Islamic scarf controversy in France
- Iranian compulsory hijab protests
- List of religious headgear
- Covering variants: cowl, paranja, purdah, tagelmust (worn by men), tudong, yashmak
- Non-Muslim religious coverings: ghoonghat (Hindu), Christian headcovering, religious habit, tichel
Notes
[edit]References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ Piela, Anna (6 April 2022). "Muslim Women and the Politics of the Headscarf". Jstor. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ Mitchell, Travis (29 June 2021). "9. Religious clothing and personal appearance". Retrieved 4 April 2023.
- ^ Khir-Allah, Ghufran (24 May 2021). Framing Hijab in the European Mind: Press Discourse, Social Categorization and Stereotypes. Springer. ISBN 9789811616532.
- ^ Lindberg, Christine A. (2012). Oxford American Writer's Thesaurus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-982992-7.
- ^ "Religious clothing and personal appearance". Pew Research Center. 29 June 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
- ^ Spurgeon, Andrew B. (14 August 2016). Twin Cultures Separated by Centuries: An Indian Reading of 1 Corinthians. Langham Publishing. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-78368-139-6.
Ghoonghat (also ghunghat or jhund) is the Hindi word used for a veil or a scarf that a woman in northern India wears to cover her head or face (in states such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Assam). Sometimes the end of a sari or dupatta (a long scarf) is pulled over the head or face to function as a ghoonghat.
- ^ Garcia, Myrian (15 March 2022). "How India's Religious Headwear Ban Affects Muslims And Not Hindus". Religion Unplugged. Retrieved 5 May 2023.
- ^ a b c d Mark Juergensmeyer, Wade Clark Roof, ed. (2012). "Hijab". Encyclopedia of Global Religion. Vol. 1. SAGE Publications. p. 516. doi:10.4135/9781412997898. ISBN 9780761927297.
- ^ “Hijab.” Cambridge Dictionary, dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hijab. Accessed 6 Sept. 2023.
- ^ Nasir, Kamaludeen Mohamed (December 2020). Representing Islam: Hip-Hop of the September 11 Generation. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05305-3.
- ^ "Is Hijab Religious or Cultural? How Islamic Rulings Are Formed".
- ^ a b Aziz, Shamsa (2011). "Veiling and Unveiling: Attitudes and Experiences of University Students in the Punjab". International Journal of Social Sciences and Education. 1 (4): 353–366.
- ^ a b c "Part 4: Khomeini & Khamenei on Women". 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 13 March 2023. Retrieved 1 November 2022.
- ^ a b "Wearing niqab by Muslim women is a divine order, religious freedom and a superior Muslim culture" (PDF). International Islamic Development Management Conference (IDMAC 2019). p. 621. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ Blake, John (12 August 2009). "Muslim women uncover myths about the hijab". CNN. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ Qamarunissa, Maryam. "Myth-busting Hijab: the Perspective of a Muslim Woman". Feminista Journal. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ a b Inskeep, Steve (25 September 2023). "Why Iran won't budge on mandatory hijab laws — according to the president's wife". NPR. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o El Guindi, Fadwa; Sherifa Zahur (2009). Hijab. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135.
- ^ a b c d e Aslan, Reza, No God but God, Random House, (2005), p.65–6
- ^ a b Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300055832. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ a b c Glasse, Cyril (2001). "hijab". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Altamira Press. pp. 179–180.
- ^ Sahar Amer (2014), What Is Veiling?, University of North Carolina Press, pp. 25-27
- ^ Lane's Lexicon page 519 and 812
- ^ Contemporary Fatwas by Sheik Yusuf Al Qaradawi, vol. 1, pp. 453-455
- ^ Ruh Al Ma’ani by Shihaab Adeen Abi Athanaa’, vol. 18, pp. 309, 313
- ^ Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008.
- ^ "YÜZÜ ÖRTMENİN HÜKMÜNE DÂİR DETAYLI DELİLLER - İslam Soru-Cevap". islamqa.info.
- ^ Ansari, Ustadha Zaynab (11 April 2016). "Can You Clarify the Standard Explanation of the Verse of Hijab? [Shafi'i]". Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 721, New York: Macmillan Reference USA
- ^ a b Syed, Ibrahim. "The Quran Does Not Mandate Hijab". Islamic Research Foundation International, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
- ^ "Hijab is Not an Islamic Duty: Muslim Scholar". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
- ^ Azerbaijan: [1] Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Morocco:[2] Archived 7 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine[3][4], Tunisia:[5][6][7][8] Archived 23 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Egypt:[9][permanent dead link][10] Algeria:[11], Turkey: IRBC,, TUR,,4885a91a8,0.html[12][13][14][15] France: [16][17], Germany:[18][19] Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Senegal:[20] Archived 17 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Singapore:[21], Kosovo: [22], Québec: [23], Austria: [24], Switzerland: Teachers%20in%20Geneva%20are%20already%20banned%20from%20wearing%20visible%20religious, in%20contact%20with%20the%20public, Denmark: [25], Kazakhstan: [26], Kyrgystan: [27], Tajikistan: [28], Turkmenistan: [29], Uzbekistan: for%20both%20students%20and%20teachers
- ^ a b "Saudi Arabia's dress code for women". The Economist. 28 January 2015. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
- ^ a b M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
- ^ a b c d Louis A. Cainkar (2009). Homeland Insecurity: The Arab American and Muslim American Experience After 9/11. Russell Sage Foundation. pp. 244–245. ISBN 9781610447683.
- ^ a b Tahmincioglu, Eve (12 September 2010). "Muslims face growing bias in the workplace". NBC News. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ a b Ahmad, A. S., King, E. B.(2010). An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward Muslim job applicants. Personnel Psychology, 63(4), 881–906
- ^ a b Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531
- ^ a b c Jasperse, Marieke Lyniska (2009). Persevere in Adversity: Perceived Religious Discrimination and Islamic Identity as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing in Muslim Women in New Zealand (PDF). Core.ac.uk (thesis). New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington. doi:10.26686/wgtn.16967146.v1. hdl:10063/1005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
- ^ Lane, Edward William (1863), “ح ج ب”, in Arabic-English Lexicon, London: Williams & Norgate, pages 515–516
- ^ "ح ج ب". 5 May 2019.
- ^ a b Samira Haj (2008). Reconfiguring Islamic Tradition: Reform, Rationality, and Modernity. Stanford University Press. p. 134.
- ^ a b c Cenap Çakmak, ed. (2017). "Hijab". Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 595.
- ^ a b Bucar, Elizabeth, The Islamic Veil. Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications, 2012.
- ^ Nomani, Asra Q.; Arafa, Hala (21 December 2015). "Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity". Washington Post. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
- ^ "Evidence in the Qur'an for Covering Women's Hair". IslamonLine.net. 8 April 2003. Archived from the original on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ a b Hameed, Shahul (9 October 2003). "Is Hijab a Qur'anic Commandment?". Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
- ^ John Richard Bowen (2012). A New Anthropology of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 67.
- ^ Ghufran Khir-Allah (2021). Framing Hijab in the European Mind: Press Discourse, Social Categorization and Stereotypes. Springer. p. 59.
- ^ a b c d Hasan, Usama; Hannan, Rabitha (2011). "6. The Veil: Between Tradition and Reason, Culture and Context; 7. An Exploration of the Debates Pertaining to Head Covering and Face Veiling of Women in the British Muslim Context". In Gabriel, Theodore; Hannan, Rabiha (eds.). Islam and the Veil: Theoretical and Regional Contexts. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-6137-6.
- ^ "Hijab: Fard (Obligation) or Fiction?". virtualmosque.com. 15 October 2012. Archived from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- ^ "How Should We Understand the Obligation of Khimar (Head Covering)?". seekershub.org. 25 September 2017. Archived from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- ^ Kamali, Mohammad (2005). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (3 ed.). Islamic Texts Society. p. 63. ISBN 0946621810. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- ^ Anwar 2006, p. 170.
- ^ Bukhārī 1997, p. 146, Vol. 8, no. 6240.
- ^ Mariam al-Jaber (28 March 2018). "Saudi cleric al-Ghamdi: Abaya is not mandatory as per Islam's teachings". Al Arabiya.
- ^ "Vol. 6, Book 60, Hadith 282". sunnah.com. Archived from the original on 3 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- ^ "Muslim Women Network". www.mwnuk.co.uk. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
- ^ Sahar Amer (2014). What Is Veiling?. University of North Carolina Press. p. 37.
- ^ "A Detailed Exposition of the Fiqh of Covering One's Nakedness (Awra)". 19 September 2010. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "Can You Clarify the Standard Explanation of the Verse of Hijab? [Shafi'i]". 11 April 2016. Archived from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ Hsu, Shiu-Sian. "Modesty." Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Ed. Jane McAuliffe. Vol. 3. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003. 403-405. 6 vols.
- ^ "Uncovering in Front of Non-Muslim's of Unmarriageable Kin (Mahram)". 9 September 2010. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "Fatwas of the Permanent Committee: Women covering their faces and hands". General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta'. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Archived from the original on 7 November 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
- ^ "Who is Mahram". 30 May 2009. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "Fatwas by Mufti Ebrahim Desai » Askimam". Archived from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "Covering the Nakedness for a Man: Answers". 27 May 2014. Archived from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ Ali, Abdul Samad. "Maliki Fiqh: Matn al-'Ashmāwiyyah (English Translation)". Academia. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "The Awrah of Men According to Imams Shafi, Ahmad and Malik (A.R). – Darul Uloom Trinidad & Tobago". 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ "Question & Answer » Hijab (Islamic Dress)". Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar. "Hijab of Eyes". Retrieved 19 August 2024.
- ^ Rispler-Chaim, Vardit. ‘The siwāk: A Medieval Islamic Contribution to Dental Care’. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2.1 (1992): 13-20.
- ^ Heba G. Kotb M.D., Sexuality in Islam, PhD Thesis, Maimonides University, 2004
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300055832.
- ^ V.A. Mohamad Ashrof (2005). Islam and gender justice. Gyan Books, 2005. p. 130. ISBN 9788178354569. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ Asma Afsaruddin; A. H. Mathias Zahniser (1997). Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 87. ISBN 9781575060200. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ Asma Afsaruddin; A. H. Mathias Zahniser (1997). Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 95. ISBN 9781575060200. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ El Fadl, Khaled Abou (2005), The Great Theft: Wresting Islam From the Extremists, Harper San Francisco, p.274
- ^ WAWI, NA (3 February 2021). PENAFSIRAN AYAT-AYAT HIJAB (Studi Komparatif atas Pemikiran Quraish Shihab, Wahbah Al-Zuhaili Dan Buya Hamka Terhadap Ayat Hijab) [INTERPRETATION OF THE VERSES OF HIJAB (Comparative Study of Quraish Shihab, Wahbab Al-Zuhaili And Buya Hamka's Thinking of The Verses of Hijab)] (undergraduate thesis) (in Indonesian). Universitas Islam Negeri Kiai Haji Achmad Siddiq Jember.
- ^ "Hijab is Not an Islamic Duty: Muslim Scholar".
- ^ a b c "Female Muslim Dress Survey Reveals Wide Range Of Preferences On Hijab, Burqa, Niqab, And More". Huffington Post. 23 January 2014. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
- ^ a b c d RICH MORIN (14 January 2014). "Q&A with author of U. Mich. study on preferred dress for women in Muslim countries". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
- ^ a b Shounaz Meky (9 October 2014). "Under wraps: Style savvy Muslim women turn to turbans". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ Yasmin Nouh (11 May 2016). "The Beautiful Reasons Why These Women Love Wearing A Hijab". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
- ^ "Playing cat and mouse with Iran's morality police". Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World. Qantara.de. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
- ^ Yara Elmjouie (19 June 2014). "Iran's morality police: patrolling the streets by stealth". Tehran Bureau/The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
- ^ Strzyżyńska, Weronika (5 September 2022). "Iranian authorities plan to use facial recognition to enforce new hijab law". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
- ^ Strzyżyńska, Weronika (16 September 2022). "Iranian woman dies 'after being beaten by morality police' over hijab law". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
- ^ a b Istanbul, Hannah Lucinda Smith (29 December 2017). "Iran surprises by relaxing Islamic dress code for women". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- ^ "Fashion police get tough in Tehran". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
- ^ Rainsford, Sarah (7 November 2006). "Headscarf issue challenges Turkey". BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
- ^ Rainsford, Sarah (2 October 2007). "Women condemn Turkey constitution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
- ^ Jonathan Head (31 December 2010). "Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ Clark-Flory, Tracy (23 April 2007). "Head scarves to topple secular Turkey?". Salon. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
- ^ Ayman, Zehra; Knickmeyer, Ellen (10 February 2008). "Ban on Head Scarves Voted Out in Turkey". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ "Turkey Lifts Longtime Ban on Head Scarves in State Offices". NY Times. 8 October 2013. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
- ^ "Turkey-lifts-ban-on-headscarves-at-high-schools". news24.com/. 23 September 2014. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
- ^ Grenier, Éric (27 April 2016). "Muslim Canadians increasingly proud of and attached to Canada, survey suggests". CBC News. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ^ "Muslim Americans: No Signs of Growth in Alienation or Support for Extremism; Section 2: Religious Beliefs and Practices". Pew Research Center. 30 August 2011. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
- ^ Kahf, Mohja (2008). "From Her Royal Body the Robe Was Removed: The Blessings of the Veil and the Trauma of Forced Unveilings in the Middle East". The Veil: Women Writers on Its History, Lore, and Politics. University of California Press. p. 27.
- ^ a b c Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 27–28.
- ^ a b c d e f Richard Freund. "The Veiling of Women in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. A Guide to the Exhibition" (PDF). University of Hartford. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^ "On Account of the Angels: Why I Cover My Head". Orthodox Christian Information Center. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
St. John Chrysostom thought that Paul, in admonishing women to wear a covering "because of the angels," meant it "not at the time of prayer only, but also continually, she ought to be covered." Fr. Rhodes agrees: "The veil can be the constant symbol of the true woman of God … a way of life … a testimony of faith and of the salvation of God, not only before men, but angels as well."
- ^ a b "The Ultimate Guide to Christian Headcoverings". Saint John the Evangelist Orthodox Church. 17 May 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
- ^ Anderson, Cory A. (2013). The Ornament of a Spirit: Exploring the Reasons Covering Styles Change. Stoneboro: Ridgeway Publishing. pp. 14–21, 29–30, 85.
- ^ Anderson, Cory A. (2013). The Ornament of a Spirit: Exploring the Reasons Covering Styles Change. Stoneboro: Ridgeway Publishing. p. 13.
- ^ Gupta, Kamala (2003). Women In Hindu Social System (1206–1707 A.D.). Inter-India Publications. ISBN 9788121004145.
Hindu ladies covered their head with a kind of veil known as Ghoonghat.
- ^ Gupta, Kamala (1987). Social Status of Hindu Women in Northern India, 1206-1707 A.D. Inter-India Publications. p. 131. ISBN 978-81-210-0179-3.
The Hindu ladies covered their heads with a kind of veil known as ghoonghat.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 26–28.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 35.
- ^ a b c Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 55–56.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 53–54.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 55.
- ^ Aslan, Reza (2005). No God but God. Random House. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4000-6213-3.
- ^ "Surat Al-'Ahzab". Archived from the original on 7 February 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
- ^ a b Aslan, Reza (2005). No God but God. Random House. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4000-6213-3.
- ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Hijab". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 9780195125580.
- ^ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 36.
- ^ Esposito, John (1991). Islam: The Straight Path (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-19-506225-0.
- ^ Bloom (2002), p.47
- ^ Sara Silverstri (2016). "Comparing Burqa Debates in Europe". In Silvio Ferrari; Sabrina Pastorelli (eds.). Religion in Public Spaces: A European Perspective. Routledge. p. 276. ISBN 9781317067542.
- ^ Leila Ahmed (2014). A Quiet Revolution: The Veil's Resurgence, from the Middle East to America. Yale University Press.
- ^ "Retro Middle East: The rise and fall of the miniskirt". albawaba.com. 18 August 2013. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
- ^ "Bhutto's Pakistan". 4 December 2015. Archived from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
- ^ "Pakistan's swinging 70s". Archived from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
- ^ Robinson, Jeremy Bender, Melia. "25 photos show what Iran looked like before the 1979 revolution turned the nation into an Islamic republic". Business Insider.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "theguardian.com, 3 September 2015, accessed 23 October 2016". The Guardian. 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
- ^ "Women in Turkey: The headscarf is slipping - Qantara.de". 20 February 2019.
- ^ "Turkey's fraught history with headscarves". Public Radio International. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ "Why Turkey Lifted Its Ban on the Islamic Headscarf". National Geographic News. 12 October 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ "Cover Story". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
- ^ "How Abdel Nasser described Muslim Brotherhood". EgyptToday. 23 July 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
- ^ a b c d e El Guindi, Fadwa; Zuhur, Sherifa. "Ḥijāb". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
- ^ a b c Bullock, Katherine (2000). "Challenging Medial Representations of the Veil". The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 17 (3): 22–53. doi:10.35632/ajis.v17i3.2045.
- ^ Elsaie, Adel. "Dr". United States of Islam. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012.
- ^ Patrick Johnston (19 August 2016). "Kimia Alizadeh Zenoorin Becomes The First Iranian Woman To Win An Olympic Medal". Reuters/Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^ "Women in Islam".
- ^ "Women, the Hijab and the Intifada". 4 May 1990.
- ^ Milton-Edwards, Beverley; Farrell, Stephen (2010). Hamas: The Islamic Resistance Movement. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780745654683.
- ^ Fedorak, Shirley A. (2012). Anthropology Matters. University of Toronto Press. p. 172. ISBN 9781442605930.
- ^ a b c d Ramezani, Reza (spring 2007). Hijab dar Iran az Enqelab-e Eslami ta payan Jang-e Tahmili Archived 2 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine [Hijab in Iran from the Islamic Revolution to the end of the Imposed war] (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi’ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women] 4:11, Qom: Muassasah-e Shi’ah Shinasi, pp. 251-300, ISSN 1735-4730
- ^ a b Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011). Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women. Georgetown University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9781589017528.
- ^ "قانون مجازات اسلامی (Islamic Penal Code), see ماده 102 (article 102)". Islamic Parliament Research Center. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
- ^ a b Sanja Kelly; Julia Breslin (2010). Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress Amid Resistance. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 126. ISBN 9781442203976.
- ^ Behnoosh Payvar (2016). Space, Culture, and the Youth in Iran: Observing Norm Creation Processes at the Artists' House. Springer. p. 73. ISBN 9781137525703.
- ^ BBC Monitoring (22 April 2016). "Who are Islamic 'morality police'?". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ "Iran must protect women's rights advocates". UN OHCHR. 6 May 2019.
- ^ Strategies for promotion of chastity (Persian), the official website of Iranian Majlis (04/05/1384 AP, available online Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ a b Jewel Topsfield (7 April 2016). "Ban on outdoor music concerts in West Aceh due to Sharia law". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
- ^ Mail, Daily (15 September 2019). "Rebel Saudi women appear in public without hijab, abaya; onlookers stunned | New Straits Times". NST Online. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
- ^ Nic Robertson (5 December 2020). "Saudi Arabia has changed beyond recognition. But will tourists want to visit?". CNN. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
- ^ "Coverings for women 'not mandatory', says Saudi crown prince ahead of US charm offensive". The New Arab (Al-Araby Al-Jadeed). 20 March 2018. Archived from the original on 2 January 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
Islamic clothing in Saudi Arabia is compulsory, but the crown prince has claimed this does not have to the case so long as women maintain a modest appearance in public. Saudi Arabia requires women to wear the black robe and hijab by law.
- ^ "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue". BBC News. 15 March 2002. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
- ^ "CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods" at Encyclopædia Iranica
- ^ El-Guindi, Fadwa, Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999
- ^ "Turkey's AKP discusses hijab ruling". Al Jazeera. 6 June 2008. Archived from the original on 1 August 2018. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ "Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban". BBC News. 31 December 2010. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ "Tunisia's Hijab Ban Unconstitutional". 11 October 2007. Archived from the original on 20 July 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ "Hijab ban: Tajikistan parliament approves bill prohibiting alien garments and Eid celebrations by children". Mint. Archived from the original on 22 June 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
- ^ "Country passes law 'to stop Muslim women wearing hijabs'". The Independent. September 2017. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ^ "Majority-Muslim Tajikistan passes law to discourage wearing of hijabs". Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
- ^ Mardell, Mark (16 January 2006). "Dutch MPs to decide on burqa ban". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ a b Köksal Baltaci (27 September 2017). "Austria becomes latest European country to ban burqas — but adds clown face paint, too". USA Today. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
- ^ "The Islamic veil across Europe". BBC News. 2017. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ "A European government has banned Islamic face veils despite them being worn by just three women". The Independent. 21 April 2016. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ "Another European country just banned the burqa". The Independent. 1 October 2016. Archived from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ "Bosnian women protest at headscarf ban". BBC News. 7 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 March 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ "Bosnia Judicial Authorities Uphold Hijab Ban, Despite Protests". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 February 2016. Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ Rankin, Jennifer; Oltermann, Philip (14 March 2017). "Europe's right hails EU court's workplace headscarf ban ruling". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ Staff and agencies (31 May 2018). "Denmark passes law banning burqa and niqab". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
- ^ a b c d ALISSA J. RUBIN (24 August 2016). "French 'Burkini' Bans Provoke Backlash as Armed Police Confront Beachgoers". New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 March 2019. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
- ^ "Cannes bans burkinis over suspected link to radical Islamism". BBC News. 12 August 2016. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
- ^ "Nice joins growing list of French towns to ban burqini". The Local.fr. 19 August 2016. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^ a b Harry Cockburn (24 August 2016). "Burkini ban: Armed police force woman to remove her clothing on Nice beach". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
- ^ a b Ben Quinn (23 August 2016). "French police make woman remove clothing on Nice beach following burkini ban". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
- ^ a b c d Angelique Chrisafis (24 August 2016). "French burkini ban row escalates after clothing incident at Nice beach". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
- ^ Saroglou, Vassilis; Lamkaddem, Bahija; Van Pachterbeke, Matthieu; Buxant, Coralie (2009). "Host society's dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 33 (5): 419–428. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.6175. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005.
- ^ Lëtzebuerg, Tageblatt (16 May 2019). "Österreich verbietet Kopftücher an Grundschulen". Tageblatt.lu (in German). Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.
- ^ "Austria court overturns primary school headscarf ban". BBC News. 11 December 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
- ^ TT (29 May 2019). "Staffanstorp röstade för huvudduksförbud". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). ISSN 1101-2412. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
- ^ Sheikh Saaliq (8 February 2022). "In India, wearing hijab bars some Muslim students from class". Toronto Star.
- ^ "Karnataka hijab row: Judge refers issue to larger bench". BBC News. 10 February 2022.
- ^ "Religious identity, rights in focus as Indian schools ban hijab". Christian Science Monitor. 8 February 2022.
- ^ "Karnataka's hijab row: A fragile regime's latest assault on right to choice". The News Minute.
- ^ "Hijab ban: Karnataka high court upholds government order on headscarves". BBC News.
- ^ Ganguly, Meenakshi (15 February 2022). "India's Hijab Debate Fueled by Divisive Communal Politics". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
- ^ Correspondent, Special (9 February 2022). "Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai comments on hijab controversy in Karnataka". The Hindu. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
{{cite news}}
:|last1=
has generic name (help) - ^ Roy, Taniya (12 September 2022). "'Very Frightening' to Enter Campus Alone: Muslim Students Recount Hijab Ban's Impact". The Wire. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
- ^ Popham, Peter (in Delhi) (30 August 2001). "Kashmir women face threat of acid attacks from militants". The Independent. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ "Kashmir women face acid attacks". BBC News. 10 August 2001. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
- ^ Basia Spalek (2013). Basia Spalek (ed.). Muslim women's safety talk and their experience of victimisation. Vol. Islam, Crime and Criminal Justice. Routledge. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9781134032839.
- ^ Kirk Semple (25 November 2015). "'I'm Frightened': After Attacks in Paris, New York Muslims Cope With a Backlash". New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 December 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
- ^ Farangis Najibullah (20 March 2011). "Hijab Now A Hot Topic In Kazakhstan". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^ Bruce Pannier, Farruh Yusupov (14 June 2015). "'Deveiling' Drive Moves To Uzbekistan's Capital". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
- ^ Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 563. DOI: 10.4314/ijma.v2i16.2
- ^ BBC Trending (13 August 2016). "Kyrgyzstan president: 'Women in mini skirts don't become suicide bombers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ Ali, Saba Rasheed; Liu, William Ming; Humedian, Majeda (2004). "Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy Implications". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 35 (6): 635–642. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.569.7436. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.635.
- ^ Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2008). The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States Archived 11 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine. [DX Reader version].
- ^ Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(1), 4-23
- ^ Cole, Darnell; Ahmadi, Shafiqa (2003). "Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses". Journal of College Student Development. 44: 47–66. doi:10.1353/csd.2003.0002. S2CID 145659665.
- ^ a b Reeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 32(1), 49-67.
- ^ Hamdani, D. (March 2005). Triple jeopardy: Muslim women’s experience of discrimination. Canadian Council of Muslim Women Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Ali, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women. Journal of Employment Counseling, 52(4), 146-157
- ^ Younis, Mohamed (2 March 2009). "Muslim Americans Exemplify Diversity, Potential". Gallup. Archived from the original on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
- ^ Acquisti, Alessandro; Fong, Christina M. (17 July 2015). "An Experiment in Hiring Discrimination Via Online Social Networks". Rochester, NY: Social Sciences Research Network. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2031979. S2CID 142425660. SSRN 2031979.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of “dress policy”: Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law, 17(3), 831
- ^ a b c Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE. Journal of International Women's Studies,16(2), 70-97
- ^ "World Hijab Day - Better Awareness. Greater Understanding. Peaceful World". Archived from the original on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
- ^ Participating Countries. "Worldwide Support". World Hijab Day. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
- ^ "World Hijab Day". worldhijabday.com. Retrieved 6 March 2013.
Sources
[edit]- Anwar, Etin (2006). Gender and Self in Islam. Routledge. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-135-99353-5.
- Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʻīl (1997). Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari : Arabic-English (in Arabic). Darussalam Pub. & Distr. ISBN 9960-717-32-1.
- Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05583-2.
- Aslan, Reza, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam, Random House, 2005
- Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09422-0.
- El Guindi, Fadwa (1999). Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-929-7.
- Elver, Hilal. The Headscarf Controversy: Secularism and Freedom of Religion (Oxford University Press; 2012); 265 pages; Criticizes policies that serve to exclude pious Muslim women from the public sphere in Turkey, France, Germany, and the United States.
- Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
- Yurdakul, Gökce and Anna C. Korteweg. The Headscarf Debates: Conflicts of National Belonging Archived 3 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine (Stanford University Press; 2014) Media debates on stigmatizing Muslim women and how Muslim women respond to these critics for the country cases of Germany, Turkey, the Netherlands and France.
External links
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- "In graphics: Muslim veils." BBC. - Drawings of different types of Islamic women's clothing
- ReOrienting the Veil - Website discussing global hijab usage by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill