Glossary of French criminal law

This glossary of French criminal law is a list of explanations or translations of contemporary and historical concepts of criminal law in France.

Introduction

Scope

This glossary includes terms from criminal law under the legal system in France. Legal terms from other countries that use French language (Belgium, Canada, Switzerland, North Africa, etc.) are not included here. Terms from the French civil code (known as the Napoleonic code) and from French administrative law are generally not included, unless they have repercussions for criminal law. Some common expressions for governmental agencies, position titles, or other concepts are included for convenience even if they are not unique to criminal law, as they come up frequently in definitions of other terms.

Disclaimer

There is absolutely no assurance that any statement contained in this article is true, correct, or precise. The information in this article is, at best, of a general nature and cannot substitute for the advice of a competent authority with specialized knowledge. This article (and all articles at Wikipedia) are covered by this legal disclaimer; please read it.

Style

Each entry consists of a bolded headword containing one French expression, followed by an indented section with a translated equivalent or description of the term. Headwords appear as they would be if found in English running text; thus italicized, and in lower case unless always capitalized. Many of these terms can be found in French Wikipedia; if so, then the headword appears in blue and is linked directly to the French Wikipedia article. Below the headword, the indented text may contain either a direct translation of the French term, a definition or description of it, or some combination. A section symbol (§) prefixed before a term indicates a link to another term appearing on the page. Headwords are alphabetized as if they contained no embedded blanks; accented letters are alphabetized as if they were not accented; for example: à perpetuité comes after amende but before appel.

Glossary

A

abrogation: repeal of an Act;^[1] revocation (of regulations, etc.)^[2]

abus

misuse; fraudulent misuse^[3] See also: § détournement.

Usage notes:

abus d'autorité ⟶ abuse (misuse) of official authority. See § abus de pouvoir below.
abus de biens sociaux ⟶ misuse of a company's property or credit
abus de confiance ⟶ misappropriation, embezzlement (see also: § détourner); fraudulent conversion. In other contexts (civil law) ⟶ breach of trust.
abus sexuel sur mineur ⟶ child sexual abuse
abus de faiblesse : see also disability abuse.
abus de pouvoir ⟶ abuse of power – exercise of a legal right only to cause annoyance, harm, or injury.

Other contexts (outside of criminal law):

abus de droit ⟶ (in civil law) abuse of rights^[4]
abus de position dominante (in commercial law) see Law 420-2.^[5]

accusatoire: adversarial.^[6] See § procédure accusatoire et contradictoire.

accusé: The accused person (or defendant,^[6]^[1] or suspect) suspected or accused of an § infraction of a serious type (i.e., a § délit or a § crime). See also: § accusé, § auteur, § défendeur, § inculpé, § intimé, § prévenu.

acquittement: a decision by a § cour d'assises of not guilty against a defendant.^[7] See § relaxe.

acte de barbarie: inhumane act^[6]

acte d'écrou: See § écrou.

acte d'huissier: document served by the § huissier (court bailiff)^[8]

acte juridique: any document having legal significance; an instrument^[1]; a term which has no equivalent in English, but means any document or action which has legal implications (contrast § faits matériels). Examples: legacies, contract offers, notices of arrears, but not negligence or commission of a crime, which are faits matériels.^[9]

action publique^[a]: public prosecution;^[6]^[8] criminal proceedings.^[b] Actions carried out on behalf of society by the § Ministère public (Public Prosecutor's Office) against those involved in a criminal violation. Action publique is defined by article 1 of the § CPP^[10] (French code of criminal procedure).; Usage note: déclencher l'action publique ⟶ to institute criminal proceedings^[11]

administration des preuves: presentation of evidence^[8]

administration penitentiaire: prison service^[6]

affaire: case^[6]

affaire pénale: criminal case

afflictif: See § Peine afflictive et infamante.

agent de la force publique: law enforcement officer; police officer; police. See also § force publique.

agent de police judiciaire: police officer;^[6] judicial police officers of the police nationale (National Police (France)), or gendarmes of the § gendarmerie nationale (National Gendarmerie)^[12] See also: § officiers de police judiciaire.

agents de répression^[a]: law enforcement officials. See § répressif.

agir sous l'empire de: act under the influence of^[6]; Usage note: agir sous l'emprise de ⟶ an eggcorn with the same meaning

agissements incriminés: criminal conduct^[6]

à huis clos: in camera^[6]

ajournement ^[a]: old term for § citation directe

à juste titre

correctly; properly^[1]

aliénation mentale partielle: partial mental disturbance; a perpetrator found by medical experts to have aliénation mentale partielle is § non-imputable and may be found to lack the § élément moral (mens rea) to be charged with an § infraction.^[13]^[14]^[15]

alinéa: paragraph^[6]

amende: fine^[6]

amende honorable: public confession, apology^[6]

ancien droit: pre-revolutionary law; law of the Ancien régime.^[16]

annuler

set aside, declare void;^[17] cancel, repeal, nullify. See also § casser.

Usage note:

annuler un jugement ⟶ set aside a judgment or ruling^[18]
action en annulation ⟶ action to set aside^[17]

à perpetuité: life; for life^[6]

appel

an appeal.^[6]^[19] The appelant (same word and spelling in English) is the party who is appealing, while the § intimé (respondent) is the party who is the defendant in the appeal proceeding. See also: § pourvoi, § recours.

Usage notes:

fol appel ⟶ frivolous or vexatious appeal^[20]
interjeter appel ⟶ when an appeal is made to the Court of Appeal, the term "interjeter appel" is used
appel des causes^[a] ⟶ no recognized translation; nearest equivalent: pre-trial hearing.^[16]

application de la loi dans le temps: concerns the legal effects of a law which replaces or amends an older one on the same topic, and the extent to which it applies to situations which arose before it came into force. The old law nevertheless continues to have certain effects.^[21]

appréciation souveraine des juges: The exclusive jurisdiction of the court^[22]

arme: weapon^[6]

arrestation: arrest^[6]

arrêt

a judgment (of a court).^[1] judgment (of a higher court).^[16] Compare: § décision de justice, § jugement, § ordonnance, § relaxe. See also: § cour.

Note: not to be confused with: § arrêté.

Usage note:

arrêt de cassation – decision to quash a judgment of the lower courts^[16]
arrêt définitif – decision open to appeal on law rather than fact^[16]
arrêt de principe – leading case/seminal decision;^[22] case stating a legal principle^[16]
arrêt de rejet – final decision rejecting an appeal on points of law^[16]
grands arrêts – leading cases^[22]
jurisprudence (des arrêts) – case law; see § jurisprudence^[22]
prononcer ou rendre un arrêt – deliver judgment^[22]
suspendre ou surseoir l'éxecution d'un arrêt – suspend the execution of a judgment^[22]

arrêt de mise en accusation: Judgment in a criminal proceeding.^[1] See also: § mise en accusation.

arrêt de non-lieu: judgment of no case to answer.^[1]^[23] See also: § non-lieu.

arrêt de renvoi: a judgment referring a case back to another court.^[1]

arrêté: order, decision, decree (of a minister, mayor, or other administrative officer)^[1]^[24]; Note: not to be confused with: § arrêt.

Wikisource has original text related to this entry:

French Constitution
(in English)

Constitution de 1958
(in French)

Article 38: Describes an optional feature of lawmaking power-sharing between the parliament and the executive, which may be enabled by a § loi d'habilitation.^[25]

Assemblée nationale: National Assembly; the lower chamber of § parlement (parliament).^[16]

assemblée plénière: full sitting of the Cour de cassation^[16]

assermentation: See § prêter serment.

assigner

to summon.

Usage notes:

assigner [quelqu'un] en justice or ... au tribunal ⟶ to summon [someone] to appear before the court^[26]^[27]
assigner [quelqu'un] à résidence ⟶ to restrict [someone] to a residence^[28]

association de malfaiteurs: conspiracy^[6] (or, when referring to the § auteurs, co-conspirators)

astreinte: a punitive measure^[26] by which a court obliges a guilty person to pay a certain sum of money per day of delay if he does not carry out a prior court order to give or to do something^[29]^[30]^[31]; See also: § être astreinte aux obligations du contrôle judiciaire.

à temps: fixed term^[6]

à titre exceptionnel: in exceptional cases^[8]

atteinte: attack^[6]

attendu que: phrase used to introduce part of a judgement; similar to "whereas"^[26]^[6]

attributions: powers^[16]

audience: (court) hearing,^[6] session^[26]

audition: questioning^[32]; Usage note: audition des témoins ⟶ hearing of witnesses^[32]

au sein de: within^[16]

auteur^[a]: principal offender, defendant;^[6] perpetrator. See also: § accusé, § défendeur, § inculpé, § intimé, § prévenu.

auteur intellectuel: see § auteur moral^[33]

auteur matériel: principal offender.^[33] See also § élément matériel.

auteur moral: person who is treated as the § auteur matériel (principal offender), even if they did not carry out the § élément matériel (actus reus) of the offense; also known as the auteur intellectuel. See also § élément moral.^[33]

autorité judiciaire: ordinary courts;^[34] judicidary; judicial power^[32]; Usage note: avertir les autorités judiciaires ⟶ to alert the legal authorities^[33]

autorité legitime: legitimate authority^[33]

auxiliaire de justice: officer of the court^[32]

avant ... ans révolus: Before turning ... [years old]^[32]; Example: avant 18 ans révolus ⟶ "before turning eighteen".

avertissement: summons (in criminal proceedings)^[26]

aveu: Confession, or more rarely, statement

avocat: a lawyer,similar to a barrister,^[26] with a specific education and training track which is separate from the § procureurs, who have different professional training and are part of the § magistrature.^[35]; The profession of avocat is the oldest in France, going back to the Roman period. They play four roles: providing advice before and during trial (assistance), writing reports on behalf of the client (représentation), giving legal advice, and writing documents. Previously, the professions of § avoués and legal advisors (§ conseils juridiques) were separate and had responsibility for some of the advice and documentary roles, but these were merged into the avocat role in 1971 and 1990. There are about 44,000 avocats.^[36]

avoué: solicitor; lawyer before the Cour d'Appel^[26]; established in a law of 2 November 1945 with later modifications, they previously had sole responsibility for drafting all court pleadings. In a 1971 law, this responsibility was passed to avocats for courts of the first instance, with the avoués retaining responsibility for appeals documents. There remain a few hundred avoués to fulfill this role.^[37]

B

baïonette intelligente: principle according to which subordinates are expected to ensure the legality of an order before executing it.^[32] From the term "intelligent bayonet" meaning "intelligent soldier" (baionnette = soldier, by metonymy) who must consider whether an orders he is given is legal or not.^[38]

bande organisée: organized gang^[33]

bannissement: banishment. A type of punishment under the Ancien régime.^[39] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

barreau: See § ordre des avocats.

blanchiment: money laundering;^[33] also, whitewashing, and in non-legal context: bleaching

bloc de constitutionnalité: the constitutional block is a set of texts recognized as being invested with the same constitutional force as the French Constitution itself. It includes the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), the preamble of the Constitution of 1946, and the Charter for the Environment (2004).See also § valeur constitutionnelle.

bon père de famille: reasonable person;^[33] a bonus pater familias, reasonable man

bourreau: state executioner^[33]

bracelet électronique: See § Placement sous surveillance électronique (PSE), § placement sous surveillance électronique mobile (PSEM).^[40]

bracelet GPS: See § placement sous surveillance électronique mobile.

C

caduc: null, void, obsolete^[41] (feminine form: caduque)

capacité juridique: legal competence. The ability to have rights and obligations and to exercise them oneself. Minors do not have it, neither do adults under guardianship (tutelle) or curatorship (curatelle).^[42]

carcan: an iron collar^[33] placed around the neck of a § condamné (prisoner) and fixed to a pillory, a symbol of § haute justice in medieval France.^[43] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

cas de force majeure: See § force majeure.

casier judiciaire: criminal record. A record of criminal convictions stored at the National Criminal Record Office^[fr] of the Ministry of Justice in Nantes.^[42]

cassation: Reversal by the § Cour de cassation or by the § conseil d'Etat of a judicial decision rendered contrary to the rules of law.^[42]

casser: set aside, annul, quash.^[44] See also § annuler.

causes de non-imputabilité: grounds for which a judge might declare a defendant not morally responsible (cf. § élément moral) for a crime, even if they are materially responsible (cf. § élément matériel) for it. It is up to legislators to decide, generally speaking, what acts are to be considered criminal, and it is up to the judges to decide in individual cases whether a defendant is criminally responsible for an act. Some grounds are codified by legislators, such as dementia, physical or moral constraint; the concept of criminal responsibility, in effect presupposes that the perpetrator of a given action acted in full control of their faculties and with § libre arbitre (free will).^[45] See also § élément moral, § intention, § aliénation mentale partielle.

céder: to supply.^[33] See § cession.

centre de détention: A prison or institutional housing for those inmates with the best prospects for reintegration into society. Their detention is mainly oriented towards the resocialization of prisoners.^[42]

centre de semi-liberté: A prison which houses convicts admitted under the § régime de semi-liberté (semi-liberty regime).^[42]

cession de stupéfiants: a supply of drugs.^[33] From the verb § céder.

Chambre correctionelle: Criminal Division (of the § Tribunal correctionnel, § Tribunal de grande instance, or § Cour d'assises)^[33]^[41]; Usage note: in larger jurisdictions, numbered to distinguish one from another, as in, le n^e chambre correctionalle ⟶ "the n^th criminal division"

Chambre d'accusation: division of a § Cour d'appel (appeal court) in charge of a judicial investigation, known since 2000 as the § Chambre de l'instruction^[33]

Chambre de l'instruction: name given to the old § Chambre d'accusation following the law of 15 June 2000^[33]^[46] on the § Loi sur la présomption d'innocence (Law on the presumption of innocence; a.k.a. § Loi Guigou); A panel of the § Cour d'appel that examines appeals of decisions rendered by a § juge d'instruction and reviews their lawfulness. Example: order for § mise en examen (indictment); placement under § contrôle judiciaire (judicial supervision).^[42]

chose jugée: res judicata^[26]

citation: A document delivered by a § huissier de justice (bailiff) or issued by the § greffe (court registry) that orders a person to appear before a court. Example: § citation (summons to appear).^[42]

citation directe: A summons delivered to an individual by a § huissier to appear at a certain date before the § tribunal de police or § tribunal correctionnel. Called an § ajournement under the old system.^[47]^[42]^[48]^[49]

CJUE: The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) (Cour de justice de l'Union européenne).

classement sec: A decision by the § ministère public (Public Prosecutor's Office) not to prosecute an offense, but to close the affair.^[50]

classer sans suite: In the event of an offense, the § ministère public (Public Prosecutor's Office) may decide not to initiate § action publique (criminal proceedings) against the § auteur (perpetrator). The decision can be taken for legal reasons or on the elements of the investigation: unidentified perpetrator, absence or insufficient evidence, withdrawal of complaint.^[42] See also: § opportunité des poursuites.

coauteur: a joint principal;^[33] based on the idea of a joint endeavor, in which two or more people involved in an act are equally liable for everything that happens, regardless whether they were present or not. The mens rea formed by one is imputed to the others.

Code des délits et des peines: The Code of Offences and Penalties was a criminal code adopted in revolutionary France by the National Convention on 25 October 1795 dealing with judicial organization, § procédure pénale (criminal procedure), and § sanction pénale (criminal sanctions). It established a division between the § police administrative and § police judiciaire (administrative and judiciary police), and led to the duality of the judicial system (§ dualité des ordres de juridiction) with the distinction between the § ordre administratif and the § ordre judiciaire still in force.^{[citation needed]}

(CPP): French Code of Criminal Procedure. The legal code adopted in 1958 which covers all aspects of French criminal procedure.^[51] It a direct successor of and replaced the § Code d'instruction criminelle of 1808.^[52] It guides the behavior of police, prosecutors, and judges in how to deal with a possible crime.^[53]^[54] The current code was established in 1958, and replaced the code of 1808, created under Napoleon.

Code d'instruction criminelle: The Code of Criminal Procedure of 1808 ^[fr] is a collection of legal texts which organized criminal procedure in the revolutionary era in France. It was replaced by the French code of criminal procedure in 1958.^[55]

code pénale: French criminal code; also called the "penal code".^[56]

commetre: to commit^[33]

commission rogatoire: A request from a judge in one jurisdiction, to an § officier de police judiciaire or to a judge in another (or in a foreign country) to carry out investigative measures or other judicial acts on their behalf.^[57]^[58]^[59] Similar to Letters rogatory. The § juge d'instruction can delegate investigative acts to the police via a commission rogatoire^[60]^[58]^[61]; delegation of authority by a judge, usually to the police, to carry out the initial investigation of the case^[62]

comparution: Appearance; the act of appearing in court.^[63]

comparution immédiate: Procedure by which the perpetrator of an § infraction is brought before the § tribunal correctionnel at the end of his § garde à vue (custody), to be tried.^[42]^[64] See also § flagrant délit.

comparution sur reconnaissance préalable de culpabilité (CRPC): French justice does not have a guilty plea or plea bargaining as in common law,^[65] but the CRPC allows the prosecutor to offer a reduced sentence of up to one year in prison or half of the maximum penalty if the defendant admits the offense. Introduced in 2004 and later extended to almost all § délits, by 2012 it was 13% of délit prosecutions.^[66] See also § coupable.

compétence^[a]

jurisdiction.^[62]

Usage:^[67]

avoir compétence – exercise jurisdiction
clause d'attribution des compétences – jurisdiction clause
compétences d'attribution – special jurisdiction
compétence exclusive – Sole jurisdiction
se déclarer compétent – accept jurisdiction
se déclarer incompétent – Decline jurisdiction
décliner la compétence du tribunal – to take a plea against the jurisdiction of the court
juge compétent – judge having jurisdiction
relever de la compétence de – to fall under the jurisdiction of

compétent ^[a]: (of a court): having the appropriate jurisdiction to investigate and try a given type of § infraction.^[42] See also § présomption d'innocence.; False friend warning: this is *not* the same as the English term "competent" in the sense of legally of sound mind, which in French is rendered by § capacité juridique.^[62]

complice: accomplice^[33]^[68]^[69]

complicité correspective: analysis in which the § coauteur (joint principal) is also ispo facto an accomplice^[33]

complot: conspiracy (see also: § association de malfaiteurs)^[33]

condamnation: conviction.^[11] In criminal matters, it is a court decision/verdict declaring a person § coupable (guilty) of committing an § infraction and imposing a § peine (sentence).

condamnation avec sursis: suspended sentence. A sentence that the convicted person is excused from having to serve, unless found guilty for some other offense within five years.^[42]

condamnation définitive: A conviction becomes final when all recourses have been exhausted (e.g., appeal). It cannot be challenged unless the trial is reviewed.^[42]

condamnation par défaut: Conviction resulting from a trial in absentia of a person without representation and who was not aware of the date of the § audience (hearing).^[42]

condamné: convicted person;^[11] A person who has been found guilty of an § infraction (offense) by a § condamnation définitive (final decision) and upon whom a § sanction (penalty) is imposed.^[42]

confiscation d'un objet: confiscation of an asset^[11]

conseil d'État: The Conseil d'État, or Council of state, is the supreme court of the § ordre administratif (administrative order). This is not part of criminal law, which is under the § ordre judiciaire.

consentement: Consent

considérant que: phrase used to introduce part of a judgement; similar to "§ whereas"^[62]

consommation: commission (in non-legal contexts: consumption, intake, use of)^[11]

constat: official report^[62]

constatation: finding, proof^[62]

contrainte: constraint^[11]

contrainte pénale: a new type of probationary sentence for délits, created in 2014 as a result of the conférence de consensus (Consensus Commission) established by justice minister Christiane Taubira to reduce recidivism.^[70]

contravention: A non-criminal offense (such as a parking ticket) is a minor offense^[33] judged by the police court. The offender is liable to a fine and/or a penalty that deprives or restricts his rights, such as suspension of the driver's license, a ban on issuing checks, etc.^[71]

contrôle judiciaire: Judicial supervision. A penal measure ordered by the § juge d'instruction or the § juge des libertés et de la détention (liberty and custody judge) pending trial. The convicted person is subject to certain obligations (answering summonses from the § SPIP, a prohibition on meeting certain people or frequenting certain places, § obligation de soins (court-ordered treatment) etc. and may benefit, depending on his or her situation, from social support.^[42] See § suivi judiciaire.

contrôle restreinte: judicial review^[72]

contumace: contempt of court^[62]

copie exécutoire: See § grosse.

coupable

(adjective) guilty.^[33]
(noun) guilty person.^[33] There is no guilty plea in French criminal law. A defendant may confess to a crime, but this becomes one more piece of evidence that can be used against them. Plea bargaining does not exist.^[65] But see: § comparution sur reconnaissance préalable de culpabilité.

coups et blessures volontaires: crime of intentionally injuring another^[33]

cour: Court.; Usage note: cour and § tribunal both mean "court", but there is a hierarchy between them: tribunal is a court of § instance, whereas a § cour is an appeals court. Further, different terms are used for their rulings: a § tribunal gives a § jugement, whereas a cour renders an § arrêt.^[73]

Cour d'appel: court of appeal^[33]

Cour d'assises: court that tries the most serious offenses.^[33]^[62] The court having jurisdiction over § crime, composed of three professional judges and six jurors. In principle, it is situated in the chief town of the department or in the seat of the court of appeal if there is one in the department. Appeals against conviction verdicts (§ condamnation) handed down by an Assize Court are reviewed by another Assize Court composed of three professional judges and nine jurors.^[42]

Cour d'assises de mineurs: court that tries serious offenses by minors^[33]

Cour de cassation: court that hears final appeals on points of law only.^[33] The supreme court of the § ordre judiciaire, dealing within the 'ordinary' courts,^[72] located in Paris. Its role is not to retry a case, but to check that court decisions have been rendered in accordance with the rules of law. An appeal before this court is called a § pourvoi en cassation.

coutume

a usage held to be obligatory by the social order, as if it were the result of a law. It is formed by the accumulation of precedents.^[74]

Usage:

Droit coutumier en France – law based on custom; dating to the Middle Ages and referring mainly to the Ancien Régime.
a saying: "une fois n'est pas coutume" – "once is not a coutume".

CPP: See § Code de procédure pénale

CRPC: See § comparution sur reconnaissance préalable de culpabilité.

crime ^[a]: serious offense; serious crime;^[33] an offense judged by a § court of assizes. The penalty is more than 10 years imprisonment and the fine is at least 75,000 euros.^[71]; Translation note: Despite the obvious cognate, there is no wide agreement on how to translate crime into English, and in the context of the penal code, the English word crime is rarely if ever used. Translator Edward Tomlinson chose the words felony.^[75] See the Translation note at § délit.

crime contre l'humanite: crime against humanity^[33]

crime de guerre: war crime^[33]

culpabilité: guilt.^[33] See § coupable.

D

déchéance: disqualification^[11] Loss of a right as a penalty, or because of non-compliance with conditions governing its exercise. Example: loss of civic rights following a criminal conviction.^[76]

décision de justice: A written summary of the case, representing the resolution adopted by the court and the reasoning that led to it.^[76] Compare: § arrêt, § jugement, § ordonnance, and § relaxe. See also: § cour.

décision de relaxe: acquittal^[11] See § relaxe.

décision de renvoi: decision to send the defendant for trial^[11] See § renvoi.

décolation: decapitation^[11]

décret: This entry is about a governmental regulation. For the exceptional power of the executive used by the Third Republic government during the post-World War I crisis period, see § décret-loi.; A decree,^[23] which, according to Article 37 of the Constitution^[fr] is a regulation that may be issued by the government in any area that is not within the scope specifically assigned to Parliament.^[77]^[78] See also: § arrêté, § hierarchie des normes.; a type of § règlement (regulation) which is issued by the Prime Minister or the President^[79]^[80] A décret is subject to § recours en annulation (judicial review) by the § Conseil d'État (Council of State.^[81] Contrast: § arrêté.; In the § hiérarchie des normes, a décret is below a § loi and above an § arrêté.; Background: Historically, the word décret has undergone numerous changes of meaning since its use under the Ancien régime, where it meant an arrest warrant. During the Constitutional monarchy (1789–92), it took on the new meaning of a text from the legislative branch. In the Constitution of 1795 the term was replaced by résolution. It reappeared in the Napoleonic era with the meaning of a text promulgated by the head of state, disappearing and reappearing again several times with various senses, until it finally took its current meaning in the Constitution of 1848. Until the end of the Third Republic, a décret could be issued only by the head of state; in the Third Republic and Fourth Republic the head of government also had this power.^{[citation needed]}

décret-loi: § décret-loi (plural: décrets-lois), an exceptional power of the executive during the post-WWI crisis period of the Third Republic.^[82] Décrets-lois were enabling measures taken during the interwar period expanding the powers of the executive to balance the budget and protect the monetary system. Although subject to parliamentary ratification, they were seen as having the force of law. This ability of the executive to create law was abrogated in the Constitution of the Fourth Republic in 1946, and then resurrected in the § loi d'habilitation provision of the 1958 Constitution of the Fifth Republic.^[83]

défaut criminel: Literally 'criminal default', a judgment by default describes the court procedure by which a criminal trial may proceed, even in the absence of the defendant.^[84]^[85]^[86]

défendeur: defendant.^[11]^[76] See also: § accusé, § auteur, § inculpé, § intimé, § prévenu.

se deféndre: to defend oneself^[11]

défit: wrongful conduct^[11]^[23]

délai de prescription: See § prescription.

délation: a § denonciation considered vile and despicable^[87]

délictuel ^[a]: adjectival form of § délit, meaning: that which constitutes a délit, or is characteristic of a délit. Also: délictuelle, délictueux, délictueuse.^[88]^[89]; Example: "Un délit est une infraction punie d’une peine délictuelle" ⟶ A délit is an offense punishable by a criminal ("delictuel") punishment."^[89]

délit: A middle-ranking criminal offense^[90]^[c] judged by a § tribunal correctionnel (correctional court). In the tripartite division of § infractions (offenses), it is of intermediate seriousness^[90] between a § contravention (minor) and a § crime (major). The maximum sentence is ten years, minimum is a 3750 Euro fine.^[71] Alternative sentences include community service (§ travail d'intérêt général), a citizenship workshop (§ stage de citoyenneté), or additional penalties.^[76]; Usage note: in informal language, may mean any offense. The adjectival form is § delictuel, delictueux, -euse.; Translation note: There is no agreement in English sources about how to refer to délit in English. The tripartite division of § infractions in French law does not line up well with concepts in common law, and translations of délit into English vary greatly. Some terms seen include: felony,^[91] major offense,^[23] intermediate offense,^[11] minor offense, minor crime,^[92] and misdemeanor.^[93] Many English sources describe the term on first appearance, and then just refer to it using the French term after that. Note that the English cognate delict exists (see Delict) but that word is rarely used in English to represent the French term.; Edward Tomlinson described the problem in the Transator's Preface to his 1999 translation of the 1994 Penal code. Tomlinson chose the words felony, misdemeanor, and petty infraction for the French terms § crime, délit, and § contravention. He points out how inexact the correspondence is between the French and English terms, and that délit has a broad range of possible penalties which at high end can be ten years imprisonment, which is well within the range of felonies in the common law system.^[75]

délit materièl: a major offense which only requires as a mens rea that the defendant's conduct be voluntary^[11]

démande en justice: legal claim; court petition; plaintiff's claim.

déni de justice: miscarriage of justice;^[11] refusal of a jurisdiction to judge a case.^{[citation needed]} Contrast: § principe d'opportunité des poursuites.

dénoncer: Literally: to denounce. When notice of an § infraction (offense) is given to the police or to the § procureur (public prosecutor's office) by a third party, the verb used is dénoncer,^[94] and the notice is a dénonciation. Compare: § porter plainte.

se dépêcher sur les lieux: See § lieu du crime.

déportation: deportation^[11]

dépositaire de la force publique: law enforcement officer

déposition: Testimony given before a court, magistrate, gendarme or police officer.^[76]; Usage note: déposer en justice ⟶ to give evidence in court^[11]

détention: detention^[11] See also § emprisonnement and § réclusion.^[d]

détention provisoire: remand in custody.^[11]; a measure ordered by the § juge des libertés et de la détention at the request of the § juge d'instruction (investigating judge). The latter may request that a person under investigation for a § crime or § délit punishable by at least three years' imprisonment be placed in prison *before* trial. The § détention provisoire (pre-trial detention) must be strictly substantiated according to the conditions provided by law.^[76]

détenu: A person incarcerated in a penitentiary by court order.^[76]

détournement

misappropriation; the act of dispossessing someone of something of value which was entrusted to them in confidence. Can be a civil or professional offense, or a criminal offense. Among the latter, it constitutes the § élément matériel of § délits such as § abus de confiance. See also: § abus. Some subtopics:

Détournement de biens par un dépositaire public (CP 432-15)^[95]^[96]
détournement de fonds, a confidence scheme involving fraudulent appropriation of funds
détournement de mineur, removing a minor from the adults having authority over them; kidnapping (CP 227-7)^[97]^[98]
détournement d'objet donné en gage, removal of a security or collateral intended for a creditor (CP 314-5)^[99]^[100]
détournement d'objet saisi moving (hiding) an object for which confiscation has been ordered (CP 314-6)^[101]^[100]
détournement de pouvoir, when a public official goes beyond their remit, in order to achieve a goal not within the authority of their position. (such acts are nullified, and not a criminal offense) See § abus de pouvoir.
détournement de procédure, when a public official uses a technique envisioned by law for one specific purpose, for a different one, in order to get around some judicial obstacle and attain some other goal. (a civil, not a criminal offense)

detournement de fonds: embezzlement.^[11]; Usage note: détourner ⟶ to misappropriate; détournement ⟶ misappropriation^[11]

diligences: care^[11]

dispositif: court's finding (stated at the end of the decision)^[11]; The dispositif of a § décision de justice (court decision) is the last part of a judgment or ruling that describes the resolution of the dispute and is binding on the parties.^[76]

doctrine: academic writing, learned opinion, the writing of leading authorities^[62]

d'office: ex officio; by virtue of their office. The ability of a public official to act on their own accord, rather than by request of someone.^[102]; Usage note: depending on context, could be translated as 'automatically', 'by virtue of their office', 'acting on their own initiative'.^[102]

dol

fault; ^[11]

a fraudulent scheme to deceive another person in order to obtain their consent^[76] Compare confidence game.

Specific forms:

dol aggravé ⟶ additional mens rea beyond § dol général or § dol spécial special intention^[11]
dol dépassé ⟶ the repercussions of the act go beyond the intention of, or the foreseeable outcome by the defendant^[103]
dol éventuel ⟶ oblique or indirect intention;^[103] See also § intention.
dol général ⟶ Deliberate commission of a criminal act, while having foreknowledge that the act is prohibited by law and has criminal sanctions.^[104]
dol imprécis ⟶ See § dol indéterminé.^[103]
dol indéterminé ⟶ where a person acts intending a certain result, but without being able to foresee the actual outcome^[103]
dol spécial ⟶ criminal intent. There is dol spécial, or criminal intent, when the perpetrator of an act that threatens an interest protected by criminal law does so with the intention of damaging that interest.^[105]

droit

the law: an abstract term for 'the law' (as opposed to § loi, which is an individual law);^[102] a set of rules governing life in society.^[76]
a right (as in, the right to do something; human rights): the prerogatives attributed to an individual.^[102]

In other contexts:

a fee or duty
right (adj.; as opposed to left)
straight (ligne droite; straight line)

droit civil: Civil law.^[106] One of the two branches of § droit privé (private law), the other being § droit pénal (criminal law). Includes the fields of § droit commercial (commercial law), droit social (welfare law), (droit judiciaire privé) civil procedure, and others^[107]

droit coutumier: See § pays de droit coutumier, and § coutume.

droit écrit: Literally, "written law". In a traditional sense, mostly used in the expression § pays de droit écrit ("land of written law") referring to the south of France in the context of the development of law in France during the Middle Ages.^{[citation needed]} In a more modern sense, refers to documents such as the § Constitution, statutes (§ lois), regulations (§ réglements), and § ordonnances which are defined and delineated in the Constitution.^[108]

droit impératif: Also, régle impérative; closely related to § ordre public, this is a law of guidance for the citizen that has a higher level of compulsion than § droit supplétif and may not be overridden.^[9]

droit pénal: criminal law. Criminal law is "the set of legal rules that govern the State's response to offenses and offenders".^[53] Droit pénal deals with an individual's rights and obligations under the law, as codified in a criminal code (§ code pénal). Under French criminal law, the criminal code (defines what acts (or omissions) are punishable.^[54] Contrast § procédure pénale.

droit positif: Positive law

droit privé: private law, concerned with the rights between private individuals.^[56] In Montesquieu's words: "laws concerning the relationship that all citizens have with each other".^[109] One half of § dualisme juridictionnel (jurisdictional dualism).; All the rules that concern the acts and lives of individuals or of § personnes morales (legal persons; i.e., private legal entities, such as companies or associations).^[76] Contrast: § droit public.

droit public: public law; pertains to the relationship between the government and the governed.^[109] One half of § dualisme juridictionnel (jurisdictional dualism).; the relationship between the State and the individual, or the organization of the state^[56]; All the rules concerning the organization and operation of the State, local authorities, and administration, as well as their relations with private persons.^[76] Contrast: § droit privé.

droit supplétif: Also régle supplétive; closely related to § ordre public, this is a law of guidance for the citizen that is presumed to be followed in the absence of evidence to the contrary; a default course of action which may, however, be overridden under explicit circumstances. Contrast with § droit impératif, which has a higher level of compulsion and may not be overridden.^[9]

dualisme juridictionnel

Jurisdictional dualism in France, Lit., "jurisdictional duality"; consists in the existence of two separate jurisdictional systems, or "orders of jurisdiction": the § ordre administratif (administrative order) corresponding to public law (§ droit public) and the § ordre judiciaire (judicial order) corresponding to private law (§ droit privé), headed respectively by the § Conseil d'État (Council of State) for administrative law, and the § Cour de cassation (Court of Cassation) for judicial law (with conflicts of jurisdiction between the two handled by the § Tribunal des conflits). This jurisdictional separation resulted from a long political and administrative history, and is now constitutionally protected.^[110]

E

écartèlement: dismemberment. An extremely brutal punishment resulting in death. Used during the Ancien Régime, and usually reserved for regicide. Abolished by the penal code of 1791 during the French Revolution.^{[citation needed]}

École nationale de la magistrature (ENM): the National Judicial Academy in Bordeaux, responsible for educating judges.^{[citation needed]}

écrou: A § procès verbal (written legal act) that a person has been turned over to a prison warden for detention, including the name of the inmate, the date, and the reasons for incarceration.^[111]^[112] An act of committal; a legal document drawn up for any person who is taken to a penitentiary establishment or who presents himself there voluntarily.^[113]^[114]; In other contexts: a hardware nut.

effraction

breaking (of a lock, door, fence, or other barrier to an enclosed area)^[115]

Usage notes:

entrée par effraction ⟶ entrance by force^[103] break-in
entrer par effraction ⟶ to break in^[115]
pénétrer par effraction ⟶ breaking and entering
vol par effraction ⟶ burglary^[115]

égalité devant la loi: equality before the law.

élément intellectuel: Another name for § élément moral

élément matériel: the actus reus of an offense (lit.: material element). This is the visible, external part of the offense, i.e., the actions involved in carrying out a criminal act.^[116]^[117]^[118]^[69] Contrast: § élément moral.

élément moral: the mens rea of an offense (lit.: 'guilty mind'); i.e., the psychological attitude of the perpetrator towards the commission of the acts deemed to be punishable by criminal law. The perpetrator may have acted with intent, or through recklessness or negligence.^[119]^[69]^[120]^[121] Also known as § élément intellectuel, and § élément psychologique. Contrast: § élément matériel. See also: § dol général, § dol spécial, § intention, and § causes de non-imputabilité.

élément psychologique: Another name for § élément moral

éléments d'appréciation: information; criteria; background info; key aspects; indications; evidence; considerations.

éléments de preuve: evidence

empire: See also: § agir sous l'empire de.

empreinte génétique: The genetic characteristics permitting an individual to be identified.^[122] See also: § FNAEG.

emprisonnement: imprisonment.^[56] See also § détention and § réclusion.^[d]

emprisonnement à perpétuité: life imprisonment.^[123] See § réclusion criminelle à perpétuité.

encourir une peine: incur a punishment

enfreindre les prohibitions légales: to break the law^[103]

enlèvement: abduction; kidnapping

en matière correctionnelle: for major offenses; in cases involving major offenses^[103]

enquête de flagrance: expedited investigation (with extended powers)^[103]^[124] of recently committed offenses (within 16 days).^[125] Compare § enquête préliminaire.; the police investigation implemented in cases of flagrance, i.e. a restrictive definition of flagrante delicto.

enquête officieuse: Old name for § enquête préliminaire.

enquête préliminaire: ordinary police investigation^[125] (without special powers).^[103] Compare § enquête de flagrance.; an investigation by the judicial police^[126]

enquête de police: police investigation

entraver: impede^[103]

Équipes régionales d'intervention et de sécurité (ERIS): Special forces of the prison administration system who intervene in case of serious tensions at a prison. It is composed of about forty specially trained and equipped surveillance personnel who attempt to prevent incidents from escalating, participate in general searches and restore order if necessary.^[127]

ERIS: See § Équipes régionales d'intervention et de sécurité.

erreur d'appréciation: error of judgment; erreur manifeste d'appréciation ⟶ manifest error of judgment^[128]

erreur sur le droit: error of law

escroquerie: fraud^[103]

essorillement: cropping; removal of a person's ears as a physical punishment.^[129] See § mutilation, § peine afflictive et infamante.

état de droit: rule of law (lit. "state of law").^[130] État de droit is one of many ways that the principle of "rule of law" is rendered in French, including: prééminence du droit, primauté du droit, principe de droit, régime de droit, règne du droit, respect de la loi, principe de légalité, or communauté de droit. Although there is debate about the point, there is a general consensus that état de droit and rule of law are equivalent.^[131]

état civil: literally 'civil status', but no equivalent in English law. Designates a range of characteristics of a person that define both rights and duties based on age, nationality, parentage, adoption, premature majority (émancipation). These are kept in a special records office presided over by the officier de l'état civil.^[132]

étatique: derived from the state^[133]

être astreinte aux obligations du contrôle judiciaire: to be subjected to conditional bail^[103]

être assimilé à une arme: to be classed as a weapon^[103]

être astreinte aux obligations du contrôle judiciaire: to be subjected to conditional bail^[103]

être poursuivi: to be prosecuted^[103]

être puni de: to be punished with^[134]

être reconnu coupable: to be found guilty^[134]

exercer l'action publique: to bring a prosecution;^[134] see § action publique.

F

fait incriminé: criminal conduct^[134]

fait justificatif: See § justification.

faute caracterisée: established fault^[134]

faute contraventionnelle: the mens rea of minor offenses^[134]

faute d'imprudence: carelessness^[134]

faux témoignage: False testimony. Perjury is a very serious offense, since it undermines not only one of the parties to trial, but also the moral authority of justice. If it is committed for money, it is considered to be corruption.^[135]

fers: imprisoned; [condemned to] forced labor (§ travaux forcés); literally: "irons". (antiquated)^[136] Not to be confused with § marque au fer rouge.; Usage notes: Jeter quelqu'un dans les fers, le retenir dans les fers; mettre aux fers.; an old punishment, defined in the penal code of 1791 and retained in the Code des délits et des peines (Code of Offences and Penalties).

flagellation: whipping, or flagellation; a type of corporal punishment under the Ancien régime.^[137] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

flagrant délit: A crime in progress, or having just been committed; in flagrante delicto. If punishable by a prison term, the § parquet can bring the accused rapidly before the judge in a § comparution immédiate in order to be judged.^[138] See also § enquête de flagrance.

flétrissure: branding. A type of corporal punishment under the Ancien régime.^[139] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

FNAEG: The Fichier national automatisé des empreintes génétiques is a national system for managing the data about genetic traces of those convicted of certain crimes (rape, murder, drug-dealing) as well as those suspected of those crimes with strong evidence, in order to facilitate the identification and apprehension of perpetrators.^[138]

fol appel: See § appel.^[20]

fond

refers to the issues of fact in a case upon which the judge rules.^[138] See also: § jugement; contrast: § forme.

Usage:

droit pénal de fond – that part of criminal code which defines substantive issues.
sur le fond – in a French court judgment, means based on the substantive issues involved.^[102]

force exécutoire: that which can be enforced, if necessary, by the public force (Example: a judgment). Certain ordinances, notably administrative or notarial, can also be enforceable.^[138]

force majeure: An unforeseen, insurmountable event beyond a person's control that may relieve someone of legal responsibility for certain acts.^[138]^[140]; Usage note: often seen as cas de force majeure.

force publique: law enforcement; police. See also § agent de la force publique.

forclusion: Loss of a right which was not exercised within the prescribed time limit. Example: expiration of the time allowed to appeal a case.^[138]

forme

refers to the procedural issues in a case upon which the judge rules.^[138] See also: § jugement; contrast: § fond.

Usage:

droit pénal de forme – that part of criminal code which defines the procedures and jurisdictional issues.
sur le forme – in a French court judgment, means based on the procedural issues involved.^[102]

former un pourvoi: See § pourvoi.

formule: A boilerplate text serving as a model which can be used to draft legal documents of the same type. Example: a formule de testament is a boilerplate draft which can be used as a starting point for drawing up a testament.^[141]^{[example needed]}

formule exécutoire: the wording affixed by the § greffier (clerk) at the bottom of the copy of a court decision (judgment or ruling) intended for the party that won the case, to enable them to proceed with enforcement. This enforceable copy is called the "§ grosse".^[138]

fouille

search^[20]

Usage notes:

une fouille corporelle, or une fouille à corps: body search, personal search.^[20]
fouille des bagages: baggage search
fouiller : to frisk
in other contexts (plural only): fouilles: excavations, archaeological dig

frapper quelqu'un d'une peine: to impose a punishment on someone^[134]

frauduleux: with guilty intent.^[134] See also § intention frauduleuse.

fuite: escape^[134]

G

galères: A sentence of travail forcé (forced labor) as a galley slave (galérien), as a type of punishment under the Ancien régime.^[142] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

garde à vue (GAV): arrest; police custody during a police investigation. Normally, the detention lasts a maximum 24 hours;^[143]^[144]^[145]^[146] covered in § CPP article 62-2.^[147] Formerly, garde à vue applied to witnesses as well.^[125]; Usage note: mis[e] en garde à vue or placé[e] en garde à vue ⟶ "held in [police] custody", "taken into custody", "placed under arrest"

Garde des sceaux: An alternate name for the § ministère de la justice (Minister of Justice).^[148] ^[149] The Keeper of the Seals is a title held by the Minister of Justice. The Minister guards the Great Seal of France in their office. The Seal was used in 1958 to seal the Constitution of France. See also: § scellés.

Gendarmerie Nationale: National Gendarmerie. One of the two main corps of § police judiciaire, comprising two groups: the departmental gendarmerie, and the mobile gendarmerie.^[145] Compare National Police.

gens de loi: practicing lawyers; the legal community^[150]

grand tableau: official roll (of § avocats).^[149] Literally: "large table".

greffe: Registrar services of a court staffed by court officers who help the magistrates. The registry is directed by the chief registrar.^[151]^[143]^[152]^[153]; Usage: droit de greffe: registrar fee (e.g., for copies); greffe d'instance: regional court registry; greffer: to be an adjunct of; ^[154]

greffier: a judicial clerk; court clerk.^[149] Auxiliary officers who perform clerical duties, draw up documents, and ensure their authenticity and safekeeping. All informational acts by a § juge d'instruction must be performed with the assistance of his clerk.^[153]^[155]

grosse: A copy of a court decision bearing the § formule exécutoire, a draft of the order necessary to enforce it.^[143] The name derives from the fact that it in earlier times, the person delivering it was paid by the page, so it was to their advantage to write it in large letters to increase the number of pages and thus earn a higher fee. Now better known as the § copie exécutoire.^[156]

H

haute justice: highest of three levels of § justice seigneuriale under the Ancien régime

hauteur: á toute hauteur de la procédure ⟶ at any stage of the proceedings^[157]

heures légales: legal hours; hours in which process may be served (7 a.m. – 9 p.m.) and judgments executed^[158]

hiérarchie des normes

hierarchy of norms, or hierarchy of laws. An analysis which views laws as occupying a hierarchy in which laws base their validity upon a higher level norm, and so on, forming a hierarchy, such that laws are validated in a regression of validity ending in the Constitution.^[159] The notion was first developed by Hans Kelsen^[159] in his Pure Theory of Law and the hierarchy concept is often referred to in French legal texts. Often visualized as "Kelsen's pyramid".

homicide: homicide ^[134]

homicide volontaire: voluntary homicide^[134]

homicide involuntaire: involuntary homicide; voluntary manslaughter^[134]

huissier: bailiff, sheriff, process-server.^[149] a ministerial officer charged with writing certain documents, and implementing certain acts or judiciary decisions.^[160]^[161]^[162] Some functions are similar to that of an authorized bailiff, or an official process server authorized by the government.

I

immobilisation d'un objet: freezing of assets^[134]

impossibilité materielle: physical impossibility^[163]

imprudence: imprudence^[163]

impunité: impunity^[163]

imputabilité: The possibility of attributing an act to someone or something;^[164]^[165] blameworthiness, or the ability of someone to recognize their action as being unlawful.^[13] See also: § non-imputabilité, § élément moral, § aliénation mentale partielle

imputation

imputation is the action of attributing an action to a person^[166]

Usage note:

imputation diffamatoire – defamatory allegation; innuendo^[165]

inappellable: see § inattaquable

inattaquable: not subject to appeal, unchallengeable^[167]

incapacité

incapacity, disability, disqualification^[167]

of a private person: someone deprived—by law or by court order—of the enjoyment or exercise of certain rights. This is the case for minors or protected adults (majeurs protégés).^[168]

Usage notes:

incapacité d'ester en justice ⟶ lack of standing before the court^[167]
incapacité d'exercice ⟶ incapacity to exercise one's own rights without assistance; absence of legal capacity^[167]
fr:incapacité permanente ⟶ permanent disability

incarcération: imprisonment

incendiaire: arsonist^[167]

incendie volontaire: arson^[167]

incitation

Usage notes:

incitation au crime ⟶ incitement to commit a felony^[169]
fr:Incitation à la haine ⟶ incitement to ethnic or racial hatred
incitation au faux témoignage ⟶ subornation of perjury^[169]

incompétence ^[a]

lack of jurisdiction.^[169]^[149] Inability of a court to hear a case for reasons relating either to the nature of the case (e.g., the § tribunal correctionnel cannot try § crime (major crimes) ), or to the nature of the person involved (e.g., the correctional court cannot try minors), or to the geographical location of one or more of the parties (e.g., the correctional court cannot try an offense committed outside its § ressort (geographical jurisdiction) by a perpetrator who lives outside the jurisdiction)^[168] See also: compétent.

Usage notes:

déclaration d'incompétence ⟶ finding of lack of jurisdiction
incompétence a raison du lieu ⟶ lack of jurisdiction ratione loci such as the defendant's place of residence
se déclarer incompétent ⟶ refuse jurisdiction
incompétent ⟶ lacking jurisdiction

in concreto: subjective^[134]

inconduite: misconduct, immorality^[169]

incriminé

Usage notes:

décision incriminé ⟶ decision appealed against; decision of the court below^[169]
fait incriminé ⟶ offense charged; matter being complained of^[169]
jugement incriminé ⟶ judgement being appealed^[169]

inculpation: See § mise en examen.

inculpé: accused, defendant, person charged with a criminal offense.^[170]^[149] See also: § accusé, § auteur, § défendeur, § intimé, § prévenu.

indicateur: Informant, informer; someone who provides privileged information to law. enforcement.^[171] Also: informateur.

indices: clues. Traces, items, or material circumstances, which can be examined objectively and which may shed light on certain facts surrounding the commission of an offense.^[171]

individualisation des peines: a principle recognized by a decision of the Conseil constitutionnel (Constitutional Council (France) as deriving from article 8 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.^[172]

infamie: Infamie (disgrace) is a decision, action or omission that undermines a person's reputation, taints his honor, or stains him with dishonor. Doucet I-6. Roman law, and Ancient law after it, recognized the judicial decision of infamy, which subjected the person concerned to certain social degradations. This type of sanction can work with people concerned with their honor and reputation.^[173]; See § peine infamante.

information judiciaire: the phase of criminal proceedings that precedes a judgment and during which the § juge d'instruction, under the control of the § Chambre de l'instruction (Investigating Chamber), carries out research to establish the truth, gathers and assesses evidence, hears the persons involved or being prosecuted and the witnesses, and decides whether or not to charge a person (mettre en examen) and what action to take:^[168] See § instruction préparatoire.

informateur: See § indicateur.

infraction ^[a]: Offense.^[134] conduct prohibited by the criminal law and punishable by a penalty specified in the law. Offenses are divided into three categories: § contravention, § délit. § crime.^[71] Offenses are usually reported to the police, but may also be reported directly to the § ministère public (public prosecutor's office).^[94] See also: § porter plainte, § dénoncer, § sanction pénale

infraction contre un bien: offense against property^[134]

infraction contre la personne: offense against a person^[134]

infraction criminelle^[a]: a serious offense; a crime. Narrower in meaning than "criminal offense" in English, which can cover a variety of offenses from very serious to petty. See § crime, which also has a narrower meaning than English "crime", and § infraction.

infraction flagrante: offense giving rise to an expedited investigation^[134]

infraction formelle: complete offense that does not require a result^[134]

infraction matérielle: offense which only requires as a mens rea that the defendant's conduct be voluntary. The nearest UK equivalent is a strict liability offense.^[134]

infraction pénale: criminal offense^[134]; An offense is a behavior strictly forbidden by criminal law and sanctioned by a penalty provided for by it.^[71] Infractions are divided into three types; from most to least serious, they are: § crime, § délit, and § contravention. The English cognate infraction is less often used for this, and in fact is more often seen as the translation of contravention, as in Tomlinson's use of petty infraction to translate § contravention.^[75]

injonction thérapeutique: A measure ordered against a person convicted of a § crime or § délit, particularly in the case of a sexual or drug offense. It is pronounced by a magistrate after expert medical advice and upon the agreement of the convict. The convicted person then undergoes medical treatment and monitoring by a doctor.^[168]^[174]^[175]^[176]

injustifié: unjustified^[177]

inquisitoire: inquisitorial^[177] See § procédure inquisitoire.

instance: A dispute brought before a court of law, as well as the entirety of the proceedings, from the initial petition to the judgment. In principle, in the event of an appeal, the case gives rise to new instance, or set of proceedings before another court.^[168] The initial petition takes place before a court of first instance, and if appealed, that would be a court of second instance.

instruction^[a]: pre-trial investigation;^[149] judicial investigation;^[177] the investigative procedure in which a § juge d'instruction gathers evidence about the commission of an offense and decides on referral to the trial court of the accused parties. See also § instruction préparatoire.

instruction préparatoire: Also known as information judiciaire, or just information,^[178] this is the phase of criminal proceedings in which the § juge d'instruction uses all the means to gather everything necessary to establish the truth of the matter (expert reports, searches, hearings, confrontations), so the court can make an informed decision. The judge investigates evidence for and against the accused, i.e. he gathers all the elements in favor and against the accused. See also: § mise en examen, § témoin assisté, § commission rogatoire, § détention provisoire, § contrôle judiciaire, § juge des libertés et de la détention^[168]

instruit à charge et à décharge: investigate the charges and the defense; gather evidence both for and against; searches for incriminating and exculpatory evidence

intention: intention^[177] See also: § dol éventuel, § élément moral, § responsabilité pénale.; Intention frauduleuse ⟶ guilty intent^[177]

interdiction: banning^[177]

interjeter appel: See § appel.^[168]

interrompre l'execution d'une infraction: prevent the commission of an offense^[177]

intimé: respondent; party who is the defendant in an § appel (appeal proceeding). See also: See also: § accusé, § auteur, § défendeur, § inculpé, § intimé, § prévenu.

intime conviction: personal conviction^[177]

irrecevabilité: Impossibility for a court to study a request for justice, on the grounds that it does not respect the conditions required by law, whether they are a question of form (e.g., the time limit of the procedure not being respected) or of substance (e.g., a person claiming to be a victim does not provide proof of the alleged damage).^[168]

irresponsabilité pénale: Provisions of the law which exonerate a perpetrator from criminal responsibility for an offense and therefore exclude any conviction against him, in cases such as mental disorder, duress, self-defense, state of necessity.^[168] See § causes de non-imputabilité, § élément moral, § libre arbitre.

J

JAP: See § juge de l'application des peines.

JLD: See § juge des libertés et de la détention.^[179]

jonction: Fusion of two dossiers by a judge when they are sufficiently related, and one ruling suffices for both.^[180]

jour-amende: day-fine^[177]^[181]^[182]^[183]^[182]

juge de l'application des peines (JAP): probation judge;^[65]^[e] The judge responsible for supervising the implementation of prison sentences (leave, § libération conditionnelle (parole), semi-liberty, § bracelet électronique (electronic surveillance) with the goal of § réinsertion (reintegration into society) and the prevention of § récidive (recidivism).^[184]^[185] They review the sentence, assess the offender's employment and family situation, and any efforts they have made to make amends or reparations, and may decide on a different penalty than the one received at trial.^[90] See also: § tribunal de l'application des peines.

juge: judge, court.^[186] By metonymy, it may also be used to mean courts in general.^[187]^[f]

juge délegué: a judicial post that existed briefly between two reforms in 1993 before being abolished; was responsible for deciding whether to put someone into § détention provisoire ^[125]

juge des libertés et de la détention (JLD): judge responsible for deciding whether to place someone in § détention provisoire (pre-trial detention) or grant bail.^[177]^[184]^[179] Created by the 2000 § loi Guigou on the § présomption d'innocence (presumption of innocence).^[188]^[46]

juge d'instruction: Investigating judge. In criminal procedure, the magistrate in charge of gathering all the elements of an offense.^[189] In charge of the most complex criminal cases (mandatory for § crime (serious crimes) and optional for § délits (lesser crimes).) Directs the investigation and as such gives instructions to the police and gendarmes. Can put a person under investigation and place him under § contrôle judiciaire judicial supervision, or request that he be remanded in custody by the § juge des libertés et de la détention (JLD). Gathers evidence considered useful for establishing the truth, directs the interrogations, confrontations and hearings, and puts together the dossier that will be submitted to the § tribunal correctionnel (criminal court) or the § cour d'assise (court of assizes) for trial.^[184] The juge d'instruction handles about 2% of cases; the other 98% are under the § procureur.^[190]

juge du fond: judge dealing with law and fact; a court of first instance^[149]

jugement: a finding, ruling, or judgment; narrowly, a term for a decision by a court of first instance; more generally,a term for any decision by one or more judges.^[191]^[184] Compare: § arrêt, § décision de justice, § ordonnance, § relaxe. See also: § cour.

juger

to judge.

Usage notes:

juger en connaissance de cause ⟶ make an informed decision.

juré: juror.^[177]; In other contexts: "sworn", from the past participle of jurer.

juridiction: The collective name for a court or judicial body.^[102]; False friend warning: this is *not* the same as the English term "jurisdiction", for which the French term is § compétence.^[102]

juridiction administrative: See § ordre administratif.

juridiction judiciaire: See § ordre judiciaire.

juridiction pénale: criminal court^[177] See also § ordre judiciaire.

juridiction répressive: criminal court^[177] See also § ordre judiciaire.

jurisprudence: case law

jury: jury. A jury is used only in the case of a § crime.^[192]

justice: The French judicial system comes down from the French Revolution of 1789, and is based on principles and on written law voted in § Parlement (French Parliament) by elected deputies and senators. The justice system depends on the Civil code, the Penal code and all laws, including European and international texts. The Constitution affirms the independence of the judiciary from the § pouvoir exécutif (lit. 'executive power'; Government) and from the § pouvoir législatif (lit. 'legislative power'; Parliament).^[193]^[194]; Usage note: saisir la justice ⟶ go to court, file a case, bring legal proceedings. See § saisir.

justice seigneuriale: Feudal manorial justice (justice seigneuriale) was a medieval mode of organization of the judicial system in most of Europe in the Middle Ages. Seigniorial courts in the kingdom of France numbered around 20,000 on the eve of the Revolution, and constituted the basis of judicial organization, along with the provosts' courts (prévôtés, subordinate royal courts) which were abolished in the middle of the eighteenth century.

justification: Justification. A criminal defense where the defendant claims to have done nothing wrong because the fact of committing the crime promoted some social interest or asserted a right of such importance as to outweigh any wrongfulness of the crime.; Usage note: fait justificatif ⟶ such a defense; justification; objective defense^[134]

KL

larcin

theft of low value^[195]

Etymological note:

The English word larceny derives from the 13th century French larrecin or larcin meaning "theft, robbery".

légitime défense: A person is deemed to be acting in self-defense when they respond to an immediate and unjustified attack on their person, another person or their property, provided that the means of defense are proportional to the gravity of the attack. In this case, the person is not held criminally responsible for the harm that they may have caused in self-defense.^[196]

légitement: legally^[177]

lettre de remission: pardon^[177]

libération conditionnelle: A sentence adjustment, under the supervision of the § juge de l'application des peines (sentence enforcement judge), for convicts who show serious efforts at social rehabilitation. Similar to parole, or early release for good behavior.^[196]

libération sur parole: parole. A prisoner is paroled (French: libéré sur parole, lit. 'liberated on their word') when he is allowed to leave the place of detention under the sole condition of respecting certain commitments taken on honor. This term is mostly obsolete in modern France, except in some military contexts. It is similar to what is now called § libération conditionnelle.^[197]

liberté surveillée: a security measure taken against a juvenile offender who is placed under the supervision of an educator appointed by the juvenile judge.^[198]^[199]

libre arbitre: free will. A philosophical concept going back at least to Aristotle, and to Augustine in theological discussions about who has responsibility for evil acts. A person is said to have free will when they can, of their own volition, control their instincts and impulses, behave rationally, and act in accordance with moral and social laws. Classical criminological doctrine about guilt is based on this concept. From a legislative viewpoint, lawmakers generally presume that adults have free will, leaving it up to judges to determine how individual cases may depart from the general one. If they find that a § prévenu (accused) was under some irresistible constraint that deprived them of free will, a judge may declare them not responsible, given that there is a § cause de non-imputabilité.^[200] See moral responsibility, legal responsibility.

lien de causalité: causal link^[177]

lieu du crime

scene of the crime ^[201]

Usage notes:

se dépêcher sur les lieux ⟶ to hasten to the scene of a crime^[11]
se transporter sur les lieux ⟶ to go to the scene of the crime

loi: legislation enacted by § Parliament.^[202] Contrast: § décret-loi, § décret.; A law. A written rule of general and impersonal scope. It applies to all without exception. It is discussed, drafted, amended and voted on by the Parlement (Assemblée nationale and Sénat) in identical versions. It is promulgated (officially declared and published) by the § Président de la République and published in the Journal officiel (JO).^[196] Once it has been promulgated, a loi is not subject to judicial review of its legality or constitutionality.^[203]; a law passed by the legislature in times of peace;^[204] Lois, § réglements, and § ordonnances are constitutionally defined.^[204] Lois are subdivided into three: 1) § lois constitutionelles, including the constitution itself; 2) § lois organiques-establishment, form and function of public powers, used to fill out the constitution but not amend it; and 3) § lois ordinaires, passed by national assembly and Senate, according to § article 34.^[205] See also § décret.; The word § loi is used to express written law, (the word législation exists but is less used); loi has a broad meaning, encompassing the Constitution, international treaties, administrative réglements (regulations), etc.; as well as a narrower sense equivalent to English statute, meaning a law passed by the legislature.^[206] Loi is distinguished from § régles by having three fundamental properties; they are: 1) general in nature; 2) abstract; and 3) permanent.^[207]; A statute;^[208] traditionally, it is any law voted on by Parliament. However, § Article 34 of the 1958 Constitution limited Parliament's powers, due to Parlliamentary obstructionism in the Fourth Republic, to making laws which are particularly important in the way they affect the State or individuals; everything else is reserved to the government by § Article 37; these are known as § réglements autonomes, to distinguish them from réglements d'exécution des lois, to distinguish them from details about laws already passed by Parliament.^[208]; Since the 1958 Constitution, a statute is more constrained than it traditionally was, and Parliament's role is more constrained. Now, a statute must strictly conform to Article 34, otherwise it is within the purview of the government's regulatory power. In addition, where formerly statutes could not be reviewed once promulgated, the Conseil constitutionnel has chipped away at that in reforms since 1958 including establishing the § principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République including aggregating some power to itself which makes it a bit more analogous to the U.S. Supreme Court, whereas before 1958 Constitutions had less of a fundamental role in determining other laws because there had been so many of them. A fundamental difference between a statute and a regulation, is that a statute must be declared by the President of the Republic and published in the § Journal Officiel, and takes effect the next day.^[209]

loi d'habilitation: a new constitutional feature defined in § Article 38 of the 1958 Constitution.^[25] The loi d'habilitation is an enabling act in the form of a § loi (statute) which may be issued by § Parliament upon request of the government to temporarily delegate Parliament's constitutional law-making power to the government in a specifically defined subject area and for a specific length of time. While in effect, Parliament is blocked from issuing statutes in that area, and the government is permitted to draw up § ordonnances that normally would be beyond their remit. The ordonnance comes into effect immediately, but must be ratified by Parliament before the end of the period or it expires. Until ratification, the § ordonnance has the same status as a § réglement (regulation), and can therefore be challenged by the § Conseil d'État (Council of State); but after ratification, it takes on the same status as a statute (loi), and can no longer be challenged.^[25]^[210] In practice, there have been 23 such lois d'habilitation from 1960 to 1990, with effective periods from one month to three and a half years, resulting in 150 ordonnances; about a third of them are subsequently ratified by Parliament.^[25]

loi du talion: see § talion.

loi Guigou: see § loi sur la présomption d'innocence

loi ordinaire: a law second in importance, after § loi organique. An ordinary law voted on by Parliament regarding matters specifically ordained to it by the Constitution.^[79] See also: § ordonnance, § règlement.

loi organique: in the hierarchy of laws, this is the most important of three;^[79] a law relating to the Constitution.^[211] See also: § loi ordinaire, § ordonnance, § règlement.

loi sur la présomption d'innocence: a law of 15 June 2000 which modified the criminal procedure code to protect the rights of individuals under investigation. It also created the new judicial post of § juge des libertés et de la détention.^[212] It is mostly the creation of justice minister Élisabeth Guigou under the Jospin administration, and is also known as the loi Guigou. See also § présomption d'innocence.

M

magistrat: a career magistrate, who can be either a § magistrat debout (standing magistrate), i.e., the § parquet), or one of the sitting judges, either a § juge d'instruction or a trial judge.^[125]

magistrature assise: trial judge. Also: juge du siège; literally, the "sitting" judiciary.^[125]

magistrature debout: public prosecutors, collectively; branch of the judiciary which addresses the court on behalf of the § ministère public;^[211] literally, 'standing judiciary'. See also: § parquet.

magistrature du parquet: public prosecutor's office; the prosecution.^[177] See also § ministère public, § parquet, § procureur.

magistrat instructeur: See § juge d'instruction.

magistrat répressif ^[a]: criminal court judge. See also: § répressif.

maison centrale: Prison for the most difficult convicts. The detention system is essentially focused on security.^[148]

maison d'arrêt: A detention center that receives convicts whose sentence or remaining sentence is two years or less.^[148]

maladresse: ineptitude^[177]

mandat: an act or warrant by which a magistrate (usually a § juge d'instruction) orders a person to be summoned, arrested, or detained.^[213]^[148]

mandat d'amener – order given by a § juge d'instruction to any law enforcement officer to bring a person before them; including with the use of coercive measures if required.^[213] Order given by the § juge d'instruction (investigating judge) to the police or § gendarmerie to immediately bring a person under investigation before him, including by force.^[148]
mandat d'arrêt – order given by a criminal court judge to any law enforcement officer to search for a person, arrest him or her and take him or her to a detention center^[213]^[148]
mandat de comparution – notice to appear before a § juge d'instruction on a certain day and time.^[213] The decision of the § juge d'instruction (investigating judge) to give formal notice to an accused person (§ mise en examen) to appear before him. It is a written document delivered by a § huissier de justice (bailiff) or an § agent de la force publique (law enforcement officer).^[148]
mandat de dépôt – Order given by a magistrate to the head or director of a penitentiary to receive, or to keep in detention, a person under investigation.^[148]
mandat d'exécution – see § ordre d'exécution.
mandat de perquisition – a "search warrant" does not exist in French law; this expression is only used when talking about foreign legal systems. Not to be confused with mandat de recherche.
mandat de recherche – warrant which may be issued for a person for whom reasonable grounds exist that he may have committed an § infraction. It is the order given to § force publique (police) to search for the person in question and to take him into custody (placer en § garde à vue).^[213] added in 2004.^[214] Not to be confused with a "search warrant" in common law; see mandat de perquisition.

maniement juridique: judicial transfer^[177]

manoeuvre fraduleuse: fraudulent tactic^[177]

manquement a une obligation de prudence ou de sécurité: failure to fulfill an obligation of care or of security;^[177]

marque au fer rouge: Literally, 'branding with a red hot iron';^[177]branding. A type of corporal punishment under the Ancien régime.^[139] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

médiation pénale: an alternative measure to criminal proceedings. At the suggestion of the public prosecutor, it brings together the perpetrator and the victim of a criminal offense in the presence of a third party mediator authorized by the justice system. It consists of finding a freely negotiated solution and defining the terms of reparation.

mémoire: brief; Written document addressed to the Court of Cassation or to the administrative courts in which the parties set out their respective claims and arguments.^[148]

menace: threat^[177]

mesure de sûreté: When a person is dangerous, the judge may decide to apply a penal sanction of a preventive nature, such as therapeutic treatment or placement under mobile electronic surveillance. (See PSEM).^[148]

mettre en cause: call into question^[215]

meurtre: murder^[177]

milieu fermé: lit. "closed environment". In a criminal justice context, "closed custody", "secure unit".^[216]; That portion of the prison administration that deals with convicts who remain detained until their term expires. Contrast § milieu ouvert.; In the context of medical treatment: "in-patient";^[216] in other contexts, a milieu fermé could be a ship, or a military regiment;^[217]

milieu ouvert: lit. "open environment". In a criminal justice context, "open custody", "non-custodial", "open institution".^[218]; That portion of the prison administration system that deals with penalties other than incarceration, such as community service (§ travail d'intérêt général), a citizenship course (§ stage de citoyenneté), work-release (§ semi-liberté), house detention with electronic surveillance (§ bracelet électronique), parole, and others. Contrast: § milieu fermé.; In the context of medical treatment: "out-patient".^[218]

mineur: minor^[177]

ministère publique: public prosecutor's office; the prosecution; see § magistrature du parquet, § parquet^[177]

minorité: The state of someone who is a § mineur (minor).^[148]

Ministère de la Justice: The Ministry of Justice is the ministry responsible for the administration of justice, and decides on reforms, and presents bills (§ projet de loi to Parliament. It defines criminal law policy in order to achieve equal treatment of citizens before the law, including monitoring public prosecutor's offices (§ Ministère public; § parquet), manages the courts, and appoints judicial officers—bailiffs (§ huissiers de Justice), notaries (notaires), solicitors (§ avoués), etc.^[177]^[148]

Ministère public: The ministère public, also known as the § parquet,^[188]^[163] is the authority which initiates § action publique (criminal proceedings) for § infractions (offenses) causing a disturbance to § ordre public (public order). It represents the interests of society before all courts of law.^[188]; The Public Prosecutor's Office. All magistrates working in the courts and tribunals of the § ordre judiciaire (judicial order), responsible for representing the interests of society and ensuring respect for public order and the application of the law. The § ministère public (Public Prosecutor's Office) is hierarchical (§ procureur général (public prosecutor), § procureur (public prosecutor), deputy public prosecutor (§ procureur-adjoint), vice-public prosecutor, and deputy public prosecutor) and subordinate to the Minister of Justice. It does not benefit from lifetime tenure. See § Procureur de la République, § Procureur général, § Poursuites (Prosecution).^[148]

mise en accusation: bring charges.^[177] A decision by the § juge d'instruction (investigating judge) or the investigating chamber to send a person § mise en examen (indicted) for a crime to the § cour d'assises for trial.^[148]

mise en danger deliberée de la personne d'autrui: deliberately putting someone in danger^[163]

mise en examen: A criminal charge against an accused (§ accusé) by the investigating judge § juge d'instruction that serious evidence exists making it probable that the accused may have participated, as perpetrator or accomplice, in the commission of an § infraction.^[219] Compare indictment. The term mise en examen replaced the earlier § inculpation in 1993.

mise en mouvement: set in motion; initiation; launch; la mise en mouvement de l'action publique ⟶ initiation of criminal proceedings.^[220]

mise en scène: scheming^[177]; Usage note: in other contexts (notably theater): "staging", "stage design"

motif: grounds, reason, motive^[177] for a judgment or judicial decision^[221]

mutilation: mutilation. A type of corporal punishment under the Ancien régime.^[222] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

N

non-imputabilité: absence of guilt. absence of criminal responsibility due to mental defect or duress.^[165]^[13] See also: § causes de non-imputabilité, § élément moral, § aliénation mentale partielle.

non-lieu: a decision that there is no case to answer;^[215]^[23] the abandonment of a judiciary action by a juge d'instruction when evidence from the § enquête (investigation) does not justify further action. See also: § classement sans suite, § opportunité des poursuites, § Irresponsabilité pénale) or when there is a justifying fact (e.g. § légitime défense).^[223]; Decision of an investigating court to put an end to criminal proceedings when it considers that an offense has not been established or that there is insufficient evidence against the perpetrator or accomplice of the offense; or when the accused is considered, for example, not to be criminally responsible at the time of the offense.^{[citation needed]}

O

obligation de soins: court-ordered treatment.^[174]^[175]^[176] See § injonction thérapeutique.

officier ministériel: A person holding an office conferred by the State and appointed by the decision of a minister. Ministerial officers include: solicitors at the courts of appeal, the bailiffs (§ huissiers de justice), the notaries (notaires), and the lawyers at the Council of State and at the Court of Cassation. Some of them are also public officers (§ officier public).^[224]

officier public: Officers with the power to authenticate legal or judicial acts and to implement court decisions. Examples: notaries, bailiffs.^[224]

O.P.J.: officiers de police judiciaire. See § police judiciaire. See also: § agent de police judiciaire.

opportunité des poursuites: Prosecutorial discretion. The right of the § procureur Public Prosecutor's Office, when a criminal offense is reported to it, to initiate or not to initiate public proceedings according to the particularities of the case, according to article 40-1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure.^[225] Related terms: § classer sans suite, nolle prosequi. See also: § principe de legalité.

opposition: A civil or criminal remedy that allows people who have been judged by default to be tried again.^[224]

ordonnance

Multiple meanings, in different contexts:

Under the Ancien Régime, a regulation issued by the king.^[226]
In legislative context, a third category of law, defined by § Article 38 of the French Constitution of 1958, and sitting beside parliamentary § lois defined by § Article 34 and governmental § réglements (by § Article 37). This new type of law is called an ordonnance, and provides the government with temporary power to make law equal to a parliamentary § loi when specifically authorized by parliament to do so. See § loi d'habilitation. According to the § hierarchie des normes (hierarchy of norms), ordonnances sit at the same level as lois ordinaires and réglements.^[227]
In legislative context, according to the § hierarchie des normes, the least important of three types of law.^[79] Compare: § arrêt, § décision de justice, § jugement, § relaxe. See also: § cour.
In a judiciary context, in criminal law, a decision taken by a single judge, for example the § juge d'instruction, such as an order of release (§ ordonnance) or an order of dismissal (ordonnance de non-lieu). (In civil law, the ordonnance is only provisional.)^[223]

Not to be confused with § ordonnance pénale (criminal ordinance).

In other contexts: many other meanings, including: a pharmaceutical prescription, and many others. See also: § loi organique, § loi ordinaire, § règlement.

ordonnance pénale: A simplified procedure for § contraventions (minor offenses) and certain § délits, particularly those related to automobile traffic. The § tribunal de police (police court) or the § tribunal correctionnel (criminal court) decides, by penal order whether or not to sentence the offender to a fine, or to certain penalties such as driving license suspension without the offender appearing in court.^[223] Not to be confused with § ordonnance.

ordre administratif: The administrative order of jurisdiction is one of the two orders of jurisdiction in French law (the other being the § ordre judiciaire–judicial order–and comprises administrative courts of first instance), administrative court of appeal, with the § Conseil d'État (Council of State) at the top.^[130] See also § dualisme juridictionnel.

ordre des avocats: bar association.^[215] Also known as barreau.

ordre judiciaire: The judicial order of jurisdiction is one of the two orders of jurisdiction (§ dualisme juridictionnel) in French law—the other being the § ordre administratif (administrative order)—and comprises courts of first instance (§ tribunal de police, § tribunal correctionnel, § cour d'assises), court of appeal, and § Cour de cassation at the top.^[130] See also § dualisme juridictionnel.

ordre public

'public policy'^[215] is a rough equivalent in English, but the term is more central in French law and used more widely, comprising issues like public order, public morality, and public interest.^[9] A set of rules governing life in society and enacted in the general interest. A rule is characterized as being about "public order" when it is mandatory and imposed for imperative reasons of protection, safety or morality. Persons may not transgress these rules in any way and may not exercise any rights which would otherwise be available to them if they violate them.^[224]; the social condition characterized by tranquility, public health, and safety.^[228] Syn.: paix publique. See the Preamble to the 1848 Constitution, point IV^[229] (in French, in English). See also: § police administrative.
organ deliberant: decision-making body^[215]

organique: see § loi organique

ouï-dire: hearsay^[215]

P

parquet: The parquet is a collective term for § procureurs^[125] or the public prosecutor's office; the prosecution.^[163] It is a shorthand term used for § Ministère public.^[188]^[125]

partie civile^[a]: A civil plaintiff in a criminal proceeding. This is a person who considers himself to be the victim of an § infraction (offense) for which an § action publique (criminal proceeding) has been initiated in the criminal courts, and who wishes to obtain compensation for his loss. This is a specific type of procedure in which a criminal proceeding and an § partie civile (civil proceeding) are combined, namely when a criminal prosecution also has a civil portion involving damages attached to it.; This term also designates the procedure (the complaint by a civil party) allowing the victim to go either to the investigating judge or the competent court to obtain compensation.^[230]

Zone of customary law in the north and written law in the south

pays de droit coutumier: the "land of customary law" (pays de droit coutumier) in the northern part of France (roughly north of the Loire) during the Middle Ages where the law depended chiefly on a version of laws of Germanic origin.^[231]^[232] Contrast § pays de droit écrit.

pays de droit écrit: the "land of written law" (pays de droit écrit) in the southern part of France (roughly south of the Loire) during the Middle Ages where the law depended chiefly on a version of Roman law.^[233]^[232] Contrast § pays de droit coutumier.

peine: the penalty or sanction imposed on the § auteur (perpetrator) of an § infraction (offense). They can be § peines criminelles (criminal penalties), or § peines correctionnelles correctional penalties.^[234]
peine accessoire: an additional penalty automatically added to the § peine principale (main sentence); it cannot be imposed on its own, except when it is pronounced in place of the main sentence; it automatically follows from the main sentence. Since 2005, peine accessoires are prohibited by article 132-17 of the penal code.^[234]^[235]^[236] Contrast § peine complémentaire.

peine afflictive et infamante

penal sanctions under the Ancien régime for punishing middle-level crimes not involving prison terms, and including § amende honorable (public confession), § pilori (pillory), § fouet (whipping), § flétrissure (branding), § galères (galleys), § mutilation, and § torture.

peine afflictive (lit. 'afflictive punishment') – a punishment that targets the criminal in his person; originally corporal punishment (1501) but anything affecting the body including § réclusion, exile, or death.^[237]

a penal sanction pronounced to plunge the convicted person into pain and sadness. While the penal code of 1810 still used this term, the 1993 Code ignores it.^[238]

peine infamante (lit. 'punishment of dishonor') - A punishment is considered to be § infamante (defamatory; degrading; dishonorable) when it is detrimental to the honor of the convicted person, and more precisely to the reputation he enjoys in society. Article 6 of the penal code of 1810 described banishment and degradation as simply dishonorable sentences. The current code does not use this term.^[239]

peine alternative: A judge may substitute an alternative to a prison sentence or fine, such as § bracelet électronique (electronic monitoring), § travaux d'intérêt général (community service), or § suivi socio-judiciaire (socio-judicial follow-up) prison sentence.^[234]^[240]^[182] Contrast § peine complémentaire.

peine complémentaire: an additional penalty^[241] added to the main sentence and not merely implied by it (as is the case with § peine accessoire) it reinforces the main sentence and can be optional or mandatory.^[234] It may apply to § crimes or § délits, and one or more additional penalties may be added to the main sentence.^[242]^[182] Contrast § peine accessoire.

peine contraventionnelle: a penalty for a § contravention committed by a § personne physique (natural person). The main penalties are fines up to E3,750, divided into five classes^[243] and can under certain circumstances be combined with § peines complémentaires.^[244]^[245] Penalties for a § personne morale (legal person) are different, mainly a five-fold increase in the fine for a natural person.^[246] ^[247] ^[234]

peine correctionnelle: a penalty for a § délit committed by a § personne physique (natural person).^[248] The main penalties are imprisonment for two months to ten years,^[249]^[182] and fines over E3,750.^[250] The chief § peines alternatives (alternative penalties) are § détention à domicile (house arrest) under § surveillance électronique (electronic surveillance).^[251]^[252] the § jour-amende^[253] (day-fine), a workshop (stage) in citizenship, traffic school, drug usage, etc.^[254] and certain other penalties restrictive of rights or freedom.^[255]^[256]^[234]

peine criminelle: a penalty for a § crime committed by a § personne physique (natural person). The main penalties are custodial sentences (peines privatives de liberté)^[234]^[257] Other possibilities are fines (amende), additional penalties (§ peines complémentaires).^[258] Other penalties are defined for offenses committed by § personnes morales (legal persons).^[234]

peine de stage: A designation for any of several workshops established by the law § Perben II or thereafter as an alternative sentence for someone convicted of a § délit (middle-level offense) in areas such as: safe driving, drugs, domestic violence, sex trafficking, parental responsibility, sexism and equality of women and men, and combatting animal cruelty. See § stage de citoyenneté,^[259]^[260] and § stage de formation civique.

peine principale: the main penalty of the § infraction (offense); it can be pronounced alone and must be expressly stated in the decision.^[234] For § personnes physiques (natural persons), the main penalties^[248] are imprisonment on an eight-step scale from two months to ten years^[261] and a fine greater than €3,750.^[250]^[234] See § peine complémentaire, § peine accessoire.

perquisition: An investigative measure that consists of searching for evidence of an offense, at a person's home or in any location where it may be found.^[230]^[262] In the context of a § enquête de flagrance investigation, the consent of the occupant and the decision of the § juge des libertés are not necessary; beyond that, the concept of a search warrant as used in U.S. or Canadian law does not exist in French law.

personnalisation des peines: See § individualisation des peines.

personne morale: A legal person.^[230] An organization recognized as having a legal existence and that as such, holds rights and obligations (Example: a company, an association); Contrast: § personne physique.

personne physique: A natural person. A human being who is recognized as a § personnalité juridique (legal person), i.e., someone having the capacity to exercise a number of legal rights and to take legal action.

personne publique: A § personne morale (legal person) having a juridical status of § droit public conferred upon it by law.^{[citation needed]} such as a municipality or a government department for example^[193]

pièce à conviction: exhibit; evidence

pilori: Pillory. A type of public punishment under the Ancien régime.^[263] See § peine afflictive et infamante.

placement sous surveillance électronique (PSE): Electronic surveillance, such as an electronic bracelet, is a method of enforcing a prison sentence outside of a prison establishment. The bracelet, most often attached to the ankle, is an electronic transmitter that makes it possible to detect, at a distance, the presence or absence of the convicted person in a place and for a period previously determined in the context of the sentence.^[230]

placement sous surveillance électronique mobile (PSEM): A security measure that can be imposed for a period of two years as part of the § libération conditionnelle (conditional release) of a person sentenced to a long prison term for certain offenses. The § bracelet électronique (electronic bracelet), is generally worn on the ankle, and is supplemented by a GPS device. The device is managed by the prison administration and makes it possible to verify the person's location and that they respect the obligations and prohibitions set by judicial authorities. It promotes reintegration into society (§ réinsertion) by providing support and monitoring compliance with the obligations set by the § juge de l'application des peines (probation judge).^[230]

plaignant: complainant

plainte contre X: a complaint against 'X'.^[264] See § X.

point d'honneur

any act or word that calls into question the honor of a person, to the point that he can not let the outrage go unpunished. In the past it was legitimate cause for a duel, but since dueling was prohibited, the sole arbiter for attacks on the moral integrity of a person is the courts.^[265]

Usage note (in other contexts):

faire un point d'honneur [de] – to make a point of something.^[266]
mettre un point d'honneur [à] – emphasize; be committed to, dedicated to, devoted to; put special care into; make a point of.^[266]

police administrative: police involved with prevention of crime^[267] (not part of criminal law). Contrast: § police judiciaire.

police judiciaire: Judicial police are police involved with criminal investigation.^[267] Officers of the judicial police (O.P.J.) may include: mayors and their assistants, officers of the gendarmerie, inspectors general, deputy directors of active police, controllers general, police commissioners and police officers; senior civil servants of the police nationale (national police force), and directors or deputy directors of the judicial police or the gendarmerie.^[188]

porter plainte: Literally: to bring a complaint. When notice of an § infraction (offense) is given to the police or to the § procureur (public prosecutor's office) by the victim of the offense, the term used is porter plainte.^[94] Compare: § dénoncer.

poursuite: prosecution, in the sense of poursuite judiciaire^[268]; Usage note: in other contexts, it means "pursuit", or "continuation" (non-legal sense).

pourvoi en cassation: to appeal to the § Cour de cassation or the § conseil d'Etat (Council of State).^[138]; cause de pourvoi ⟶ grounds for appeal^[269]; former un pourvoi ⟶ appeal; lodge an appeal; appeal against^[138]

pouvoir exécutif: the government;^[270] the executive branch of the government (lit. "executive power")

préjudice

injury; Damage to a person's property, body, feelings or honor. There are four types:^[271]

préjudice d'agrément (of enjoyment) – : the damage that results, generally following a bodily injury, from the deprivation of the enjoyment of certain acts of everyday life, such as the exercise of an artistic activity, a leisure activity, or a sport.
préjudice corporel (bodily injury) – injury to the health or physical or mental integrity of a person. Example: wound, infirmity.
préjudice matériel (material damage) – Damage to property. Example: dégâts, damage, physical deterioration, loss of income.
préjudice moral (emotional or psychological harm) – damage of a psychological nature. Example: suffering linked to the loss of a loved one.

In common speech, a synonym for dommage (damages; a term from civil law), but legally distinct.

prescription: limitation period;^[11] statute of limitations. Elapsed time after which no proceedings may be instituted against the § auteur (perpetrator) of an § infraction (offense): ten years for a § crime, three years for a § délit, and one year for a § contravention. Terms are longer for offenses against minors.^[230]^[272] Also known as prescription de l'action publique.

président: president.; chief justice; e.g., when speaking of the judge who presides over the § Cour d'assises.

présomption d'innocence: Presumption of innocence. Any person suspected of having committed an § infraction (offense), or under prosecution, shall be considered innocent of the acts of which he stands accused, as long as he has not been found guilty by the court with the appropriate jurisdiction (§ compétent) to judge him.^[273] See also article 9 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and article 1 of the penal code.^[10] According to the European Convention on Human Rights, anyone accused of an § infraction is presumed to be without blame as long as his § culpabilité (guilt) hasn't been legally and definitively established.^[274]^[275]

prêter serment: to swear an oath.^[276] Syn.: assermentation.

prévenu: The accused person suspected or accused of an § infraction of a less serious type (i.e., § délit, § contravention). See also: § accusé, § auteur, § défendeur, § inculpé, § intimé.

principe à valeur constitutionnelle: any principle identified by the Conseil constitutionnel (Constitutional Council (France)) as having constitutional force, and consequently binding on the legislature as well as on other institutions of state.^[277] See also § bloc de constitutionnalité.

principe de légalité: The principle of legality is one of the most fundamental principles of French criminal law and holds that no one may be convicted of a criminal offense without a prior published legal text describing the offense and the penalty.^[278]^[279]^[280]^[279] Latin: Nullum crimen, nulla pœna sine lege, lit. 'no crime, no penalty, without a law'.

principe d'opportunité des poursuites: See § opportunité des poursuites.

procédure accusatoire et contradictoire: The adversarial system (or, "adversarial law"), is a system of justice whose rules of procedure are based on the parties to the litigation. Thus, the lawyers for the plaintiff and defendant are responsible for presenting their version of the facts and convincing the judge or jury of the merits of their case. This is the system used in common law countries, but is not used in France. Contrast § procédure inquisitoire.

procédure d'irrecevabilité: procedure opposing legislation outside the remit of Parliament^[281]

procédure inquisitoire: Inquisitorial system. A legal system in which the court is actively involved in investigating the facts of the case. Contrast § procédure accusatoire et contradictoire.^[282]

procédure pénale: criminal procedure.^[281] Focuses on how individuals accused of crimes are dealt with in the criminal justice system: how people are investigated, prosecuted, tried, and punished. In France, these procedural issues are codified in the French code of criminal procedure (§ code de procédure pénale).^[54] Contrast § droit pénal (criminal law).

procés: trial^[281]

procès-verbal (PV): In legal context: a legal act drawn up by a public official, usually a § greffier, that transcribes findings, statements, reports, or a situation. Examples: notes about an investigation, or a seizure)^[283]^[284]; In other contexts: minutes; record; transcript.^[285]

procureur de la République: senior public prosecutor^[163]^[281]

procureur général: public prosecutor^[281]

promulgation: promulgation; publication that brings into force^[281]

proxénétisme: procuring (prostitution).^{[citation needed]} See § racolage.

Q

qualification judiciaire: Qualification judiciaire (lit.: 'judicial qualification') is a process of reasoning that seeks to establish that the particular acts which the suspect is accused of fall within the scope of a legal charge and therefore constitute a criminal offense which is within the jurisdiction of the criminal courts. The procedure consists of bridging the gap between the facts, and the law, to determine whether the de facto situation can be matched with some legal notion, and that the facts alleged by the prosecutor correspond in every respect to acts incriminated by the legislature.^[286]; Usage note: no established translation in English; terms seen include: penal qualification, penal categorization, penal status, to be criminal in nature, criminal qualification, classified as criminal, to be a matter for criminal law.

qualifié^[a]: "aggravating", when used with some crimes. The term crime qualifié or délit qualifié (roughly, "aggravated felony") is used to refer to an offense when there is an aggravating circumstance. Parricide, for example, is a felony murder;^[287] similarly, a vol qualifié (lit., "aggravated theft") is "armed robbery" or "aggravated robbery".; Usage notes:; In judgments by magistrates, the expression majorité qualifiée is used when a legislator requires a supermajority of 2/3.; In non-legal context, qualifié de means "characterized as" (or "by"), or "described as"; as a simple adj. or past participle, qualifié means "qualified", as in English.

quiconque: anyone who; everyone who; whoever. Used legally to emphasize that it applies to everyone, without exception. Judges use the term a lot for this reason, because it underlines the principle of § égalité devant la loi (equality before the law). ^[286]

R

racolage: solicitation of prostitution ^[288] abrogated by the law of 13 April 2016, which criminalized the clients of prostitution,^[289] and at the same time removed racolage from the criminal code.^[290] See § proxénétisme.

rappel à la loi: a warning; a reminder of the law as an alternative to prosecution.^[66]^[260] In the case of a minor infraction, the § ministère public (Public Prosecutor) can order a reminder of the law. The aim is to make the offender aware that they committed an illegal act, in order to prevent them from reoffending.^[122]^[291]

recel: concealment.^[292]^[293]^[294]^[295]^[296]^[297]^[296]

récidive: A previously convicted individual who commits, under certain conditions and within a certain period of time, a new offense that may result in a heavier sentence than usual.^[122] A repeat offender.

réclusion: imprisonment.^[123] See also § détention and § emprisonnement.^[d]

réclusion criminelle: imprisonment^[123]

réclusion criminelle à perpétuité: life imprisonment^[123]

reconnaissance préalable de culpabilité: See § comparution sur reconnaissance préalable de culpabilité.

recours: appeal. See also: § appel, § pourvoi.

régime

A term with a great many meanings in French; the nominal meaning is "the set of rules or factors that characterize the way something functions or runs", and derives from French regimen which goes back to 1285 with the meaning of "the action of governing or administrating".^[298]^[g] and in this sense is similar to the English regimen.

Usage:

Some examples are: régime matrimonial ("matrimonial regime"), régime parlementaire (parliamentary system), régime pénitentiaire ("prison system"; all the rules governing prison administration), régime de retraite ("pension plan"), régime de la sécurité sociale ("social security scheme"), and so on. When used to name a specific government or type of government, especially if there are negative connotations, English uses the cognate term: Régime de Vichy ("Vichy regime"), régime totalitaire ("totalitarian regime"), and similarly if the term is not translated: Ancien régime (English: "Ancien regime").

régime de semi-liberté: Work release program. See § semi-liberté.

réglementation: set of § règlements^[299] (regulations). Compare § loi, § ordonnance.

règlement

a regulation issued by the § pouvoir exécutif^[79] § pouvoir exécutif (government; executive branch). See also: § loi organique, § loi ordinaire. There are two types:

§ décret - issued by the Prime Minister or the President)^[79]
§ arrêté - issued by the executive branch members other than the President or Prime Minister, such as ministers, regional prefects, or mayors^[79]^[80]

Règlements are of a lower rank than a § loi, and may be annulled. But those règlements which fall into the domain defined by Article 37 of the Constitution are considered § règlements autonomes and not an adjunct to a particular loi.^[300] A règlement is of the same nature as a loi (i.e., abstract, general, and impersonal), but is one level lower in the § hiérarchie des normes (hierarchy of norms).^[301] Compare § loi, § ordonnance.

In other contexts: many other meanings, including "payment".

réhabilitation: A measure which erases a criminal conviction. It ends all forfeitures or limitations on the exercise of individual rights resulting from the conviction. It is acquired either after the expiration of the time limits prescribed by law, or by a decision of the investigating chamber in response to a request made by the convicted person.^[122]

relaxe: Decision of a § tribunal correctionnel (criminal court) or a § tribunal de police (police court) to declare a defendant not guilty^[302]^[122] either because he is innocent, or because there was a reasonable doubt.^[303] Also: § acquittement. Compare: § arrêt, § décision de justice, § jugement, § ordonnance. See also: § cour.

remettre en cause: See § mettre en cause.

remise: handing over^[123]

renvoi: Postponement of a hearing to another date.^[304]

répressif ^[a]: The term French: droit répressif, lit. 'repressive law' is another term for criminal law. A {{Section link}}: required section parameter(s) missing is a court that deals with stopping ("repressing") criminal activity after it happens. Contrast with administrative law, tasked with preventing criminal activity, rather than cracking down on it. See also: § agent de répression, § service de répression.

réprimer: to incriminate^[123]

réquisitions: Written or oral conclusions taken in the interest of society that the public prosecutor presents before the criminal court to justify the guilt of a defendant and the sentence requested. ^[122]^[305]

Usage note: Also used in forms of the verb requérir, such as requis: Le procureur a requis une peine de 1 an de prison avec sursis. ⟶ The prosecutor has requested a suspended sentence of 1 year in prison.^[122]

réquisitoire: a formal submission (by the prosecution)^[306]

réquisitoire introductif: application for judicial investigation^[123]^[307] One of the ways that the § procureur can initiate criminal proceedings (§ action publique), in particular, via § citation directe.; Written arguments by which the § ministère public (public prosecutor) asks the judge to apply the criminal law to a defendant or an accused person under investigation (mise en examen).^[122] See also § requete.

résolution de mise en accusation: decision to bring charges^[123]

responsabilité pénale: Criminal responsibility

ressort

the scope or extent of a court's jurisdiction in terms of the geography and nature of the disputes assigned to it by law.^[122] For example, the correctional court cannot try an offense committed outside its ressort and for which the perpetrator does not live in that region.^[308]
A court decision is said to be "en dernier ressort" (final) if it can no longer be appealed.

rétention de sûreté: detention of dangerous offenders beyond the term of their sentence.^[309]

rétroactivité: the characteristic of a legal norm that regulates situations that arose before its adoption.

révision: An appeal against a conviction that allows a case to be retried in light of new facts or elements unknown at the time of the initial trial that could rule out the guilt of the convicted person.^[122]

rogatoire: See § commission rogatoire.

ruse: fraud^[123]

S

saisine: Submission of a request to a jurisdiction, requiring a response in the form of a decision. Can be formulated as a § citation, § requête, or declaration to a § greffe.^[310] Example: reporting a § flagrant délit (crime in progress).

saisir

In non-legal context, saisir simply means: "seize", "grab", "grasp".

In legal context, there are many meanings, such as "confiscate", which are directly related to the non-legal sense; these are straightforward, and not explained here. However, there is one sense of saisir in legal context that occurs frequently and has no universally accepted single translation in English; the rest of this entry concerns this sense, corresponding to CNRTL sense II., A (law), 2.,^[311] and concerns a request made by an individual to an authority like a judge or a court to do something;^[311] or to refer a matter to a court.^[299]

The general form for this sense is: Person + saisit + Authority + Of (de, d'un, d'une) + Request, with these four parts:

subject: someone (a person, plaintiff, etc.) or institution who is the requester, i.e., the one who applies to or requests something (optional)
form of verb saisir (required)
object: someone or something in authority who may grant or act on a request: the judge, the court, the tribunal, etc. (required)
the request, usually as a prep. phrase with de, pour, etc. (optional)

Annotated examples:

La mère saisit le juge d'une demande de garde concernant les quatre enfants.
- The mother^[subj] applies to^[saisit] the court^[obj] for custody of all four children^[request].

Le parquet a saisi le juge d'instruction du premier cabinet pour qu'il instruise l'affaire et délivre un mandat de dépôt contre les inculpés.
- The prosecutor^[subj] instructed^[saisit] the examining magistrate of the first chamber^[obj] to investigate the case^[request-1] and issue arrest warrants for the accused^[request-2].

How to translate saisir depends a lot on context, and may use terms like "apply to", "take to", "go to", "bring before", "approach", "request", "refer to", "submit", or other expressions, and the word order in English may be different:

saisir le juge aux affaires familiales ⟶ refer the matter to the judge for family affairs
le droit constitutionnel de saisir le juge ⟶ the constitutional right to go to court
il était loisible de saisir le juge ⟶ it was possible to bring the case before the judge
saisir le Tribunal d'une ordonnance de cesser et de s'abstenir ⟶ bring a cease and desist order before the Court
Toute personne qui objecte à cette ordonnance peut saisir le tribunal. ⟶ Anyone who objects to the order has recourse to the court.
Le médiateur peut également saisir le Tribunal constitutionnel ⟶ The Ombudsman can also submit cases to the Constitutional Court.
Les travailleurs victimes de discrimination peuvent saisir le tribunal de travail ⟶ Workers who are victims of discrimination may apply to the Labor Tribunal.

In the passive, the pattern uses the participial form saisi and inverted word order, often with optional parts missing:

le juge saisi de l'affaire ⟶ (lit.) "the judge applied to/requested [by someone] regarding the case", or in more usual English word order: "the judge handling the case", or, "the judge on the case"
la décision du juge saisi de la requête ⟶ the judge for the motion

There is no exact translation for saisit (or in past participle form, saisi) in English, and how it appears in English translation is highly variable, and depends on the context (and the translator). Sometimes the best translation involves leaving the word out entirely. Also, the order of the elements is not always the same, and the request often comes before the authority-object.

ANF avait saisi le Juge d'Instruction de Marseille d'une plainte avec constitution de partie civile concernant des faits supposés par l'ancien fournisseur... ⟶ ANF^[subj] had filed^[saisir] a complaint^[request] with the Marseilles investigating magistrate^[obj] bringing civil action against alleged acts committed by the supplier...

The request can be omitted, so just the subject, verb saisir, and object are present. In the abstract, the subject may be omitted:

Saisir le tribunal; saisir la justice. ⟶ Going to^[saisir] court^[obj]; seeking^[saisir] justice^[obj]. Other translations include: bring legal proceedings, initiate a court case, file a case, go to court, refer [the case] to court.

Usage notes:

The form saisi des faits is often seen, and translation depends on context. The word faits means "facts", and depending on whether "saisi des faits" is a syntactic constituent in the sentence, the word "facts" may or may not appear in English translation. A literal translation of the passive construction might be: "[an authority] who had been applied to [by someone, unstated] with the facts [of an unstated (legal) request]"; but in free translation, this might come out simply as "[the judge] on the case", and may be expressed very differently in specific contexts. Some examples:^[312]

La cause peut alors être entendue par un tribunal de compétence provinciale, qui est saisi des faits par un procureur de la Couronne.
⟶ The case would then proceed within the provincial jurisdiction to a crown attorney, who takes the facts to court.
En d'autres termes, [il] doit être saisi et considérer des faits nouveaux ou contestés pour confirmer une décision effective au client.
⟶ In other words, [he] must be involved and must consider new or contested facts in order to confirm an actual ruling to the client. Note: not a syntactic constituent; must use the word facts here.
il se peut qu'il en arriverait à une conclusion différente s'il était saisi des mêmes faits aujourd'hui.
⟶ if the same facts were before it today, with that Code available to it as an adjudicative tool, it might arrive at a different conclusion. Not a constituent.
Le procureur européen, informé ou saisi de l'ensemble des faits, ne poursuivrait alors qu'au titre de l'infraction communautaire...
⟶ The European Public Prosecutor, receiving information or a referral, would prosecute only the Community offence...

sanction pénale: criminal sanctions; sentence; penalty.

sanction-réparation: A "reparation sanction": is an alternative sentence which obliges the perpetrator to repair the damage caused to the victim through financial compensation or reparation in kind.^[313]

scellés

1. an order that evidence be placed under seal. Also refers to the practice of a wax seal to an item.^[310]

Usage notes: in legal terminology, almost always plural. In the singular, it refers to the sealing material itself, such as wax.

placé sous scellé ⟶ placed under seal

2. The part of the § greffe (judicial registry) where evidence is stored.^[310]

3. Other meanings apply in civil law, having to do with sealing off buildings, rooms, etc. Breaking such a seal duly placed by civil authorities is punishable under criminal law.^[310]

sciemment: knowingly^[123]

semi-liberté: work release; day parole; lit: "semi-freedom". A criminal sanctions program that authorizes a convicted person to carry out activity outside the prison, which may be professional activity, training, internship, or medical treatment. At the end of each day, the convict returns to the detention center.^[310]^[314] See also: § centre de semi-liberté.; Usage note: often seen in the expression, § régime de semi-liberté.

service de répression^[a]: law enforcement agency. See § répression.

signification: An act by which a party brings to the attention of his adversary an act or a decision of justice by means of a § huissier de justice (judicial officer).^[310]

soustraction: appropriation^[123]

stage de citoyenneté: A citizenship workshop. An alternative sentence for someone convicted of a § délit (middle-level offense) which provides for completing a citizenship workshop, in lieu of prison time. Other laws introduced from 2004 to 2021 introduced training workshops in other domains; collectively these became known as a § peine de stage (workshop sentence). Introduced as part of the law 2004-204 of 9 March 2004, better known as the § loi Perben II.^[259]^[260]

stage de formation civique: A civic education training workshop is an educational measure aimed at reminding minors of the obligations resulting from the law, as well as making them aware of civil and criminal responsibilities and the duties involved in living in society. The minor is reminded of all these notions during short group training sessions relating to social organization or civic values for a duration not to exceed 30 hours.^[310]

stupéfiant: drug^[123] See also § cession de stupéfiants

suivi judiciaire: See § suivi socio-judiciaire.

suivi socio-judiciaire: Socio-judicial supervision is a measure pronounced by the § tribunal correctionnel (criminal court) or the § cour d'assizes against the perpetrator of a § crime or § délit (major or serious offense) of a sexual nature.^[310]^[315] This measure allows for judicial and optionally also medical follow-up after the prison sentence has been served. It forces the convicted person to submit, under the supervision of the § juge de l'application des peines to measures of surveillance and assistance as well as to certain obligations, such as the prohibition on going to certain places, or to be around minors.^[310]^[316]^[175]^[174]^[175] Failure to comply is grounds for reimprisonment.^[310]^[317] May also be a stand-alone sentence. No universally recognized term in English; some terms seen are: socio-judicial surveillance, socio-judicial supervision, or probation.^[318]^[317] See also: § peine alternative.

supplice: torture^[123]

sur le fond: See § fond.^[102]

sur le forme: See § forme.^[102]

sursis: sursis simple suspended sentence; sursis avec mise à l'épreuve with certain conditions such as geographic restrictions or interaction restrictions

surveillance: supervision^[123]

surveillance électronique: A § peine alternative (alternative penalty) such as a § bracelet électronique;^[251]^[252] See § placement sous surveillance électronique.^[230]^[234]

T

talion, loi du: law of retaliation^[123] Originally, and dating to the Code of Hammurabi, it restricts a victim from taking vengeance in a disproportionate manner; "an eye for an eye".^[319]

témoin: witness^[123]^[320]

témoin assisté: represented witness^[123]; an intermediate witness status, between that of a simple § témoin (witness) and someone § mis en examen (criminally charged); introduced in 1987, later included in the § loi sur la présomption d'innocence. This is a person who is listed as a witness, but at the same time is named either in the § réquisitoire introductif or in the initial complaint by the victim. Because of their status as a possible suspect, the law requires them to be heard only in presence of their lawyer.^[321]^[322]; A person who is the subject of a complaint, accused or prosecuted by the § Parquet (Public Prosecutor's Office), against whom there are some clues (insufficient for an indictment) that make it likely that he or she has committed a crime or an offense. His lawyer has access to the case file. When heard by the investigating judge, the assisted witness may ask to be confronted with the person or persons implicating him. If the judge considers that the witness should be placed under judicial supervision or in pre-trial detention, or be referred to the criminal court or the assize court to be tried, he or she will then proceed with the examination.^[320]

témoin instrumentaire: a legal witness; a witness required for the official recording of certain transactions.^[323]

tentative

attempt^[123]

A § crime or § délit interrupted in act by an event beyond the control of its perpetrator. The attempt is punishable by the same penalties as if the offense had been fully carried out.^[324]

Usage notes:

tentative achevée ⟶ failed attempt^[123]
tentative stérile ⟶ failed attempt^[123]

torture: torture.^[123] A type of punishment used in the Ancien régime.^[325] See also: § supplice, § peine afflictive et infamante.

travail d'intérêt général (TIG): community service;^[123] carrying out unpaid work, within a specified time, for the benefit of a public body or an approved association, as part of a sentence by an adult or juvenile court.^[273] One of several alternative penalties that are sometimes ordered instead of incarceration.^[313]

travaux forcés: Penal labor; forced labor as a judicial punishment.

tribunal: court;^[123] a court composed of one or more judges, charged with settling disputes and rendering a § décision de justice (legal judgment).^[320]

tribunal correctionnel: a court of first instance, responsible for judging § délits (major offenses). If necessary, it rules on the request for compensation made by the victim (called the § partie civile (civil party))^[123]^[320]

tribunal de grande instance (TGI): a court having general jurisdiction in civil matters.^[326]

tribunal de police: a court that tries minor offenses;^[123] a court of first instance, ruling with a single judge. It judges 5th class offenses. The police court is the criminal court of the § tribunal d'instance (district court).^[320]

tribunal des conflits: A high jurisdiction made up equally of magistrates from the § ordre administratifand § ordre judiciaire (administrative and judicial orders), whose mission is to resolve conflicts of jurisdiction between the courts of the judicial order and those of the administrative order. For example: these two orders claim to be simultaneously competent or incompetent for the same case.^[320]

tribunal répressif ^[a]: criminal court.^[123] See § repressif.

trouble neuropsychique: neuro-psychological illness^[123]^[106]

trouble psychique: psychological illness^[123]^[106]

tuer: to kill^[123] See § homicide.

UV

valeur constitutionnelle: See § principe à valeur constitutionnelle.

verdict: A solemn declaration by which the magistrates and § juré (jurors) of the § cour d'assises answer the question of the guilt of a defendant, and set the sentence, if any. The verdict can be an § acquittement (acquittal), or a § condamnation (guilty verdict).^[271]

victime: victim.^[327] A person who personally and directly suffers a physical, moral or material § préjudice (injury).^[271]

viol: rape;^[327] In the classic sense, rape consists in the fact of a man having a carnal relationship with a non-consenting woman, or in circumstances where she cannot manifest her § volonté (will).^[328]

violation: breach;^[327] violation. In the former sense, compare § effraction. In the latter sense, can be a synonym for § infraction (offense).

violer: to breach;^[327] to rape.

visite domiciliaire: house search^[327]

voie de fait: offense of violence^[327]; Note: has an entirely different meaning in administrative law.

vol: theft^[327]^[329]^[330]

volontairement: intentionally^[327]

volonté: will; ^[327] In criminal law, volonté (will) is a firm and definite determination in a person's mind to do something that will have an effect in the outside world. The term § intention indicates the purpose for which the will is directed.^[331]

WXYZ

X: X represents an unknown person, a 'John Doe', used in a criminal complaint when the name of the person is not known.; Usage note: plainte contre X ⟶ a complaint against 'X'.^[264] Analogous to a "John Doe defendant", or a John Doe lawsuit.

References

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s This headword has a significant likelihood of being mistranslated when using automatic translation. Machine translation can have difficulty with individual words or expressions for many reasons, including false friends, false cognates, literal translation, neologisms, slang, idiomatic expressions and other unrecognized compounds, words with multiple meanings, words with specialized meanings in certain knowledge domains different from a common meaning of a word in a more general context, and other reasons. These issues can be difficult for human translators as well. In addition, some expressions in French criminal law, criminology, or government have no exact equivalent in English, because the legal, penal, and governmental systems are so different. In some cases, no brief translated expression in English is possible, as it would either be opaque, or misleading.
^ The term action publique is translated in various ways in English sources, depending on context. The literal, word-for-word translation is "public action", which if used, is used with an explanation, as it has little meaning in English, outside the literal translation of this concept of French law. What the term action publique actually refers to is "criminal proceedings", or "public prosecution", which itself can be confusing unless one understands that it is the public prosecutor (procureur) who is responsible for prosecutions carried out on behalf of society, and thus the term procureur is generally rendered in English as "public prosecutor", or generically as the "public prosecutor's office". An equivalent term for procureur is § ministère public, rendered in English sources sometimes as "Public ministry" and sometimes left in the original French.
^ There is no agreement in English sources about how to refer to délit in English. The tripartite division of infractions in French law does not line up well with concepts in common law, and translations of délit into English vary. For further details, see French criminal law.
^ ^a ^b ^c Imprisonment – Three terms in French with very similar meanings all translate to imprisonment in English: § emprisonnement, § réclusion and § détention. The word emprisonnement is a generic term, and means the same as its cognate in English in the normal sense, that is, to be deprived of one's liberty by being held in a prison. The other two words have specific meanings defined in the penal code which are nearly identical: both réclusion and détention mean to be imprisoned for a fixed term of at least ten and at most thirty years (more than that, and it's called § réclusion a perpétuité because there is no fixed prison term exceeding 30 years). The difference between the two is not the sentence, but the crime involved: if you are convicted of a political crime, the sentence is called § détention criminelle, and if for any other type of infraction other than a political crime, it's called § réclusion criminelle, even if the two sentences are otherwise identical.
^ There is no general agreement among English sources about how to represent this term in English. At least one source (adjacent) uses this term.
^ French legal language and expression tends to be a lot more abstract than usage in common law, including widespread use of metonymy and synecdoche. Examples include terms like § le juge, which may refer to all courts in general, or le législateur, which may mean the law-making body more generally. While one becomes familiar with some usage in time after reading French jurisprudence and other legal texts, sometimes this type of language may leave the intended meaning unclear to all but experts in French law. Where a French text refers to "le juge des saisies", even after carefully studying the context, it might mean: a) all courts which have the right to rule on questions of distraint of property; b) one particular court having this power; c) all courts which have the specific power to order distraints; or d) one such court. This type of abstract use of language can be problematic when reading French jurisprudence.^[187]
^ Definition II of régime: Façon de régir; ensemble de règles, de facteurs qui caractérisent le fonctionnement, le cours de quelque chose.CNRTL 2012, régime

Citations

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 213.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 5.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 5–6.
^ Legifrance, Civil procedure code, 32-1.
^ Legifrance, Commercial code 420-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w Elliott 2001, p. 231.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, A.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 311.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 23.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab Elliott 2001, p. 233.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 20.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 152.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 122-1.
^ Tomlinson 1999b, p. 38.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 312.
^ ^a ^b Bridge 1994, p. 16.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 178.
^ MDLJ-Appel 2008.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bridge 1994, p. 138.
^ Dalloz-Time 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f de Noblet 2004, p. 28.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 319.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 75.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 8–9.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 214.
^ CNRTL 2012, assigner 2.a.2.
^ CNRTL 2012, assigner 2.b.
^ Doucet 2019, A-12.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 132-67.
^ Tomlinson 1999b, p. 79.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 313.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af Elliott 2001, p. 232.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 21X.
^ Hodgson 2005, p. 253.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 242–243.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 249.
^ CNRTL 2012, baïonnette.
^ Doucet 2019, B-1.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, B.
^ ^a ^b Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 314.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q MDLJ-Lexique 2008, C.
^ CNRTL 2012, carcan.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 30.
^ Doucet 2019, Cau.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Law 2000-516 of 15 June 2000.
^ Doucet 2019, Ci.
^ Justice-Lexique, C.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 35.
^ Bermann & Picard 2008, p. 136.
^ Legifrance, law 57-1426 of 31 December 1957.
^ Kock & Frase 1988, p. xv.
^ ^a ^b Merle & Vitu 1984.
^ ^a ^b ^c Garé & Ginestet 2022, pub. blurb.
^ Code Instr Crim 1808.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 315.
^ Justice-Lexique, rogatoire internationale C.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 151.
^ Doucet 2019, C-12.
^ Hodgson 2005.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 152.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 215.
^ CNRTL 2012, comparution.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 395.
^ ^a ^b ^c Champion 2008, p. 79.
^ ^a ^b Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 229.
^ de Noblet 2004, p. 29.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 121-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Tomlinson 1999b, p. 36.
^ Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 223.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e MDLJ-Infrac 2008.
^ ^a ^b Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 216.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 27.
^ Bouscau 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c Tomlinson 1999t, p. xxi–xxii.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l MDLJ-Lexique 2008, D.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 37.
^ Legifrance, Constitution Article 37.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Isom 2022.
^ ^a ^b Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 8.
^ Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 27.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 69.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 31.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 220.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 379-3.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 410.
^ CNRTL 2012, délation.
^ Larousse, délictuel.
^ ^a ^b Jacopin 2021, p. 59.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 224.
^ Dongois 2010, p. 251.
^ Champion 2008, p. 78.
^ Newman 2010, p. 147.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hodgson 2005, p. 170.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 432-15.
^ Tomlinson 1999e, p. 226.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 227-7.
^ Tomlinson 1999c, p. 149.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 314-5.
^ ^a ^b Tomlinson 1999d, p. 177.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 314-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 25.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Elliott 2001, p. 234.
^ Doucet 2019, Dol.
^ Doucet 2019, Do.
^ ^a ^b ^c Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 321.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 19–21.
^ Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 6, 9.
^ ^a ^b Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 16.
^ Sauvé 2016.
^ CNRTL 2012, écrou 2..
^ Doucet 2019, Ea.
^ Duroché & Pedron 2019, §335.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 724.
^ ^a ^b ^c CNRTL 2012, effraction.
^ Dalloz-EMateriel 2022.
^ Elliott 2001, p. 59.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 121-1.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 121-3.
^ Dalloz-EMoral 2021.
^ Elliott 2001, p. 59, 64.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j MDLJ-Lexique 2008, R.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac Elliott 2001, p. 238.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 53.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Hodgson 2005, p. 254.
^ Legifrance, CPP art. 75-78.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, E.
^ Bermann & Picard 2008, p. xxxiv.
^ Doucet 2019, E-11.
^ ^a ^b ^c Beaudoin 2021.
^ Jurgens 2007.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 24.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 323.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w Elliott 2001, p. 235.
^ Doucet 2019, F-5.
^ CNRTL 2012, fers.
^ Doucet 2019, F-12.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j MDLJ-Lexique 2008, F.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, M.
^ CNRTL 2012, force I.B.4..
^ CNRTL 2012, formule.
^ Doucet 2019, G-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c MDLJ-Lexique 2008, G.
^ MDLJ-Gav 2008.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, Ga.
^ Justice-Lexique, Z.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 62-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, M.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 218.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 145.
^ Justice-Lexique, G.
^ CNRTL 2012, greffe.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, Gre.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 146.
^ CNRTL 2012, greffier.
^ Doucet 2019, Gr.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 149.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 150.
^ ^a ^b Bindreiter 2002, p. 11.
^ Doucet 2019, Hu.
^ Justice-Lexique, H.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, H.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Elliott 2001, p. 237.
^ CNRTL 2012, imputabilité.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bridge 1994, p. 157.
^ CNRTL 2012, imputation.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bridge 1994, p. 158.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, I.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Bridge 1994, p. 159.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 160.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, I-4.
^ Legifrance, Cons. cost. #2005-520 DC of 22 July 2005.
^ Doucet 2019, I-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Legifrance, Penal code, 132-45.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Tomlinson 1999b, p. 72.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, D47-33.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad Elliott 2001, p. 236.
^ Laronde-Clérac 2021, Partie 5, § 176.
^ ^a ^b MDLJ-Metiers-JLD 2011.
^ Justice-Lexique, J.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 131-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Tomlinson 1999b, p. 40.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 131-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d MDLJ-Lexique 2008, J.
^ MDLJ-Metiers-JAP 2011.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 231.
^ ^a ^b Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 22.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e MDLJ-Acteurs 2008.
^ MDLJ-Metiers-JI 2015.
^ Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 226.
^ Justice-Lexique, J.
^ Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 227.
^ ^a ^b MDLJ-OrgJustice 2021.
^ MDLJ-OrgJustice-en 2013.
^ Doucet 2019, La.
^ ^a ^b ^c MDLJ-Lexique 2008, L.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, Li.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, l.
^ Doucet 2019, Li.
^ Doucet 2019, Libr.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, Libr.
^ Bell 2008, p. 20.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 33.
^ ^a ^b Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 27.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 32.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 28–29.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 29.
^ ^a ^b Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 7.
^ Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 6–8.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 72–73.
^ ^a ^b Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 219.
^ MDLJ-Bulletin 2001.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 122.
^ Doucet 2019, M.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 220.
^ ^a ^b Linguee 2023, milieu fermeé.
^ CNRTL 2012, Mot.
^ ^a ^b Linguee 2023, milieu ouvert.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 80-1.
^ Dalloz-ActionPublique 2022.
^ CNRTL 2012, motif.
^ Doucet 2019, M-12.
^ ^a ^b ^c MDLJ-Lexique 2008, MO.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d MDLJ-Lexique 2008, O.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 40-1.
^ CNRTL 2012, ordonnance B.2..
^ Bell 2008, p. 21–22.
^ Legifrance, General code of Territorial Authorities, 2212-2.
^ Doucet 2019, Ord.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g MDLJ-Lexique 2008, P.
^ Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 2–3.
^ ^a ^b Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 5.
^ Dickson & Hübner 1994, p. 1–2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Dalloz-Peines 2022.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 132-17.
^ Tomlinson 1999b, p. 65.
^ CNRTL 2012, [1].
^ Doucet 2019, A-7.
^ Doucet 2019, P-3.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 131-6.
^ Bridge 1994, p. 42.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 131-10.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-13.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-16.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-17.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-40.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-41.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-3.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 131-4.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 381.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Loi n° 2019-222 du 23 mars 2019.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-4-1.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-5.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-5-1.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-6.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-7.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-1.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-10.
^ ^a ^b Legifrance, Penal code, 131-5-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 41-1.
^ Legifrance, Penitentiary code, 131-4.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 56.
^ Doucet 2019, P-6.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, X.
^ Doucet 2019, H-5.
^ ^a ^b Linguee 2023, point d'honneur.
^ ^a ^b Elliott 2001, p. 11, 237.
^ CNRTL 2012, poursuite 3..
^ Bridge 1994, p. 31.
^ MDLJ-Fondements 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c MDLJ-Lexique 2008, V.
^ Justice-Lexique, P.
^ ^a ^b MDLJ-Lexique 2008, X.
^ Doucet 2019, P-12.
^ Dalloz-Innocence 2022.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 332.
^ Dalloz-PVC 2022.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 111-2.
^ ^a ^b Tomlinson 1999a, p. 13.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 112-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 333.
^ Dammer & Albanese 2013, p. 149.
^ CNRTL 2012, procès-verbal.
^ Doucet 2019, P-15.
^ Linguee 2023, procès-verbal.
^ ^a ^b Doucet 2019, V.
^ Doucet 2019, Q-1.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 225-10-1 of 18 March 2003.
^ Legifrance, Law 2016-444 of 13 April 2016 reinforcing the fight against prostitution.
^ Legifrance, Art. 15 of the law 2016-444 of 13 April 2016, abrogation 'racolage'.
^ Justice-Lexique, R.
^ Doucet 2019, R-3.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 321-1.
^ Tomlinson 1999d, p. 180.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 434-6.
^ ^a ^b Tomlinson 1999e, p. 240.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 434-7.
^ CNRTL 2012, régime.
^ ^a ^b Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 221.
^ Dadomo & Farran 1996, p. 27, 33.
^ Doucet 2019, R-6.
^ Justice-Lexique, R.
^ Doucet 2019, R.
^ Justice-Lexique, R.
^ CNRTL 2012, requérir.II.A.3.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 255.
^ Cairns & McKeon 1995, p. 366.
^ MDLJ-Lexique 2008, Incompétence.
^ Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 222, 224.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j MDLJ-Lexique 2008, S.
^ ^a ^b CNRTL 2012, saisir.
^ Linguee 2023, saisi des faits.
^ ^a ^b Hodgson & Soubise 2016, p. 231.
^ Justice-Lexique, S.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 706-47.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 132-44.
^ ^a ^b Delmas-Marty & Spencer 2002, p. 261.
^ Meijer 2019.
^ Doucet 2019, T-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f MDLJ-Lexique 2008, T.
^ Doucet 2019, T-2.
^ Legifrance, Criminal procedure code, 113-2.
^ Bermann & Picard 2008, p. 135.
^ Justice-Lexique, T.
^ Doucet 2019, T-4.
^ Elliott, Jeanpierre & Vernon 2006, p. 87.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Elliott 2001, p. 239.
^ Doucet 2019, V.
^ Legifrance, Penal code, 311-1.
^ Tomlinson 1999d, p. 163.
^ Doucet 2019, V-9.

Works cited

Bindreiter, Uta (31 December 2002). Why Grundnorm?: A Treatise on the Implications of Kelsen's Doctrine. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-90-411-1867-7. OCLC 1120367947.

Beaudoin, Franck (15 October 2021). "French law: quick overview". Retrieved 3 March 2023.
John Bell; Sophie Boyron; Simon Whittaker (27 March 2008). Principles of French Law (2 ed.). OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-101889-3. OCLC 865331945.
Bermann, George A.; Picard, Etienne, eds. (1 January 2008). Introduction to French Law. Kluwer Law. ISBN 978-90-411-2466-1. OCLC 219574344.
Bridge, F. H. S.; Council of Europe (1 January 1994). The Council of Europe French-English Legal Dictionary. Council of Europe. ISBN 9789287124968. OCLC 1232989547.
Bouscau, Franck (1 October 2011). "Les lois fondamentales du Royaume de France : genèse de l'institution royale" [The Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom of France: genesis of the royal institution]. Vive le Roy (in French). Retrieved 4 July 2023.
Cairns, Walter; McKeon, Robert C.; McKeon, Robert (1995). Introduction to French Law. Cavendish. ISBN 978-1-85941-112-4. OCLC 246842627.
Champion, Dean J. (2008). Sentencing: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-087-2. OCLC 1151269945.
Doucet, Jean-Paul, ed. (2016) [1st pub. Le Moniteur Universel:1808]. "Code d'instruction criminelle de 1808, Deuxième partie, Livre II - de la justice" [1808 Code of Criminal Procedure, Part II, Book II - Justice]. Le droit criminel (in French).

"Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales" [National Center of Textual and Lexical Resources]. CNRTL.fr (in French). 2012.

Dadomo, Christian; Farran, Susan (1996) [1st pub. 1993]. The French legal system (2nd ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell. ISBN 0-421-53970-4.
"Action publique - Fiches d'orientation" [Action publique - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. Retrieved 5 March 2023. L'action publique est l'action en justice portée devant une juridiction répressive pour l'application des peines à l'auteur d'une infraction. Même si elle peut être mise en mouvement par la partie civile, elle est toujours exercée par les magistrats ou par les fonctionnaires auxquels elle est confiée par la loi. [Action publique is the legal action brought before a criminal court for the application of penalties to the perpetrator of an offense. It may also be initiated by a civil party to a criminal case, but it is always exercised by the magistrates or by the civil servants to whom it is entrusted by law.]
"Élément matériel de l'infraction - Fiches d'orientation" [Material element of the infraction - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
"Élément moral de l'infraction - Fiches d'orientation" [Moral element of the infraction - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. July 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
"Présomption d'innocence - Fiches d'orientation" [Presumption of innocence - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. August 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
"Peines - Fiches d'orientation" [Penalties - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. September 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
"Principe à valeur constitutionnelle - Fiches d'orientation" [Principle of constitutional force - Fact sheets]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. May 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2023. Un principe à valeur constitutionnelle est un principe dégagé par le Conseil constitutionnel et dont le respect s'impose au législateur comme aux autres organes de l'État. Il est une norme juridique à part entière. [A principle of constitutional force is a principle identified by the Constitutional Council, the respect of which is binding on the legislator as well as on the other organs of the State. It is a legal norm in its own right.]
"Application de la loi pénale dans le temps | Fiches d'orientation" [Application of the law in time | Fact sheet]. Dalloz (in French). Paris: Editions Dalloz. 2 September 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021. La question de l'application de la loi pénale dans le temps se pose dès lors que des faits ont été commis et n'ont pas encore été définitivement jugés lors de l'entrée en vigueur d'une loi nouvelle. [The question of the application of criminal law with respect to time arises when acts have been committed and have not yet been finally judged when a new law comes into force.]
Dammer, Harry R.; Albanese, Jay S. (4 January 2013). Comparative Criminal Justice Systems (5 ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 149–. ISBN 978-1-285-63077-9. OCLC 828929176.
Delmas-Marty, Mireille; Spencer, J. R., eds. (17 October 2002). European Criminal Procedures. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59110-2. OCLC 1025272735.
de Noblet, Christel (2004). French legal methodology. Leicester, U.K.: Institute of Art and Law. ISBN 9781903987049. OCLC 74813080.
Dickson, Brice; Hübner, Ulrich (1994). Introduction to French law. London: Pitman. ISBN 9780273601401. OCLC 3479836.
Dongois, Nathalie (15 January 2010) [2008:Temple]. "Wrongful Convictions in France: The Limits of "Pourvoi en Revision"". In C. Ronald Huff; Martin Killias (eds.). Wrongful Conviction: International Perspectives on Miscarriages of Justice. Temple University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-1-59213-646-9. OCLC 502419498.
Doucet, Jean-Paul (11 April 2019). "Dictionnaire de droit criminel" [Dictionary of Criminal Law] (in French). Archived from the original on 7 January 2023.
Duroché, Jean-Philippe; Pedron, Pierre (2019). Droit pénitentiaire [Penitentiary law] (4 ed.). Paris: Vuibert. ISBN 978-2-311-40062-5. OCLC 1127907672.

Elliott, Catherine (2001). French Criminal Law. Portland OR: Willan. ISBN 978-1-135-99307-8. OCLC 49494876.
Elliott, Catherine; Jeanpierre, Eric; Vernon, Catherine (2006). French Legal System (Second ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-1161-3. OCLC 70107160.
Garé, Thierry; Ginestet, Catherine (September 2022). Droit pénal. Procédure pénale 2023 [Criminal law. criminal procedure 2023]. HyperCours (in French) (14 ed.). Paris: Editions Dalloz. ISBN 978-2-247-22075-5. OCLC 1346591522. Retrieved 10 September 2023. p. pub. blurb: Le droit pénal général étudie les principes généraux de la répression des infractions, la responsabilité et la peine. La procédure pénale régit le déroulement du procès pénal. Ces droits doivent assurer à la société une protection suffisante, sans sacrifier les libertés individuelles. [General criminal law deals with the general principles of punishment, liability and sentencing. Criminal procedure governs the conduct of criminal trials.]
Hodgson, Jacqueline (8 November 2005). French Criminal Justice: A Comparative Account of the Investigation and Prosecution of Crime in France. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84731-069-9. OCLC 1048749661.
Hodgson, Jacqueline; Soubise, Laurène (21 June 2016). "Understanding the sentencing process in France". Crime and Justice. 45 (1). Univ. of Chicago: 221–265. doi:10.1086/685538. ISSN 0192-3234. OCLC 6914375713.
Isom, David (16 November 2022), Legal System - French Legal Research Guide - Guides at Georgetown Law Library, Georgetown Law Library, retrieved 1 March 2023 see 'loi'
Jurgens, Erik (6 July 2007). The principle of the Rule of Law (Report). Council of Europe. 11343. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
French Ministry of Justice (2023). "Lexique | Justice.fr" [Glossary | Justice.fr]. Ministère de la Justice (in French).
Kock, Gerald L.; Frase, Richard S. (1988). The French code of criminal procedure. American series of foreign penal codes, 29 (revised ed.). Littleton, Colo: F.B. Rothman. ISBN 9780837700496. OCLC 1080434512.
"Dictionnaire Français en ligne - Larousse". Larousse.fr. Paris: Éditions Larousse.
République française; Secrétariat général du gouvernement (19 October 2022). "Légifrance Le service public de la diffusion du droit" [The public service for dissemination of the law]. Légifrance. Direction de l'information légale et administrative. ISSN 2270-8987. OCLC 867599055.
Laronde-Clérac, Céline (2021). Procédure pénale. Spécial droit (in French). Paris: Ellipses. ISBN 9782340058330. OCLC 1268488252.
"Linguee | Dictionnaire anglais-français (et autres langues)" [Linguee English-French Dictionary (and other languages)]. Linguee.fr. Cologne: DeepL SE. 2023.

Jacopin, Sylvain (2021). "Fiche 1. La définition légale de l'infraction" [Sheet 1. The legal definition of an offense]. In Jacopin, Sylvain (ed.). Droit pénal général [General criminal law]. Tout-en-un droit (in French). Paris: Ellipses. pp. 59–109. ISBN 9782340057036. OCLC 1269458347.

French Ministry of Justice (16 December 2008). "Les acteurs de la justice pénale" [Participants in the criminal justice system]. Ministère de la Justice (in French).
French Ministry of Justice (9 December 2008). "Justice | Portail | La garde à vue" [Justice | Portal | Police custody]. Ministère de la Justice (in French). [Police custody is the situation in which a person, suspected of having committed or attempted to commit an offense punishable by imprisonment, is held by the police or gendarmerie as part of a judicial investigation. It is a measure that deprives a person of liberty for a strictly limited period of time.]
French Ministry of Justice (4 December 2008). "L'infraction". Ministère de la Justice (in French). Archived from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
French Ministry of Justice (15 September 2021). "L'organisation de la justice en France" [Organization of justice in France]. Ministère de la Justice (in French). Les juridictions françaises se répartissent en deux ordres : un ordre judiciaire et un ordre administratif. Les juridictions de l'ordre judiciaire sont compétentes pour régler les litiges opposant les personnes privées et pour sanctionner les auteurs d'infractions aux lois pénales. ... Les juridictions de l'ordre administratif sont compétentes dès qu'une personne publique est en cause (une municipalité ou un service de l'État par exemple). [The French courts are divided into two orders: a judicial order and an administrative order. The courts of the judicial order are responsible for settling disputes between private individuals and for punishing the perpetrators of criminal offenses. ... The administrative courts have jurisdiction as soon as a public entity is involved (a municipality or a government department for example).]
French Ministry of Justice (6 August 2008). "Les mots-clés de la Justice - Lexique" [Key words of Justice - Lexicon]. Ministère de la Justice (in French). Archived from the original on 31 March 2023.
Merle, Roger; Vitu, André (1984). Traité de droit criminel. Vol. 1 (5 ed.). Paris: Cujas. no. 146. ISBN 9788792002754. OCLC 263103447. l'ensemble des régles juridiques qui organisent la réaction de l'État vis-a-vis des infractions et des délinquants [the set of legal rules that govern the State's response to offenses and offenders]
Newman, Graeme R., ed. (19 October 2010). Crime and Punishment around the World [4 volumes]: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1. OCLC 1010964660.

French Ministry of Justice (15 December 2008). "L'appel" [Appeal]. Ministère de la Justice (in French). Archived from the original on 5 January 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2023.

Ministère de la Justice (April 2001). "Bulletin Officiel du ministère de la Justice n° 80 (1er octobre - 31 décembre 2000)" [Official bulletin of the ministry of Justice #80 (1 October - 31 December 2000)] (in French). Archived from the original on 22 January 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.

French Ministry of Justice (29 June 2010). "Justice / Portail / Les fondements et principes".

French Ministry of Justice (3 January 2013). "Justice in France".

French Ministry of Justice (11 July 2011). "Justice / Métiers et concours / Le juge de l'application des peines" [Justice / Professions and competitions / Sentencing judge]. Ministère de la Justice (in French).

French Ministry of Justice (11 July 2011). "Justice / Métiers et concours / Le juge des libertés et de la détention" [Justice / Professions and competitions / Investigating judge]. Ministère de la Justice (in French).

French Ministry of Justice (2 January 2015). "Justice / Métiers et concours / Juge d'instruction" [Justice / Professions and competitions / Investigating judge]. Ministère de la Justice (in French).

Meijer, Sonja; Annison, Harry; O'Loughlin, Ailbhe, eds. (27 June 2019). Fundamental Rights and Legal Consequences of Criminal Conviction. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5099-2098-3.

Sauvé, Jean-Marc (28 September 2016). "Le dualisme juridictionnel : synergies et complémentarité" [Jurisdictional dualism: synergies and complementarity] (in French). Conseil d'État. Retrieved 3 March 2023.

"France, French Penal Code of 1994 as Amended as of January 1, 1999". American Series of Foreign Penal Codes. 31. Translated by Tomlinson, Edward A. Littleton, Colorado: F. B. Rothman. 1999. ISSN 0066-0051. OCLC 1480723 – via HeinOnline.
Tomlinson. "Translator's Preface". In Tomlinson (1999), p. xxi–xxii.
Tomlinson. Introduction. In Tomlinson (1999), p. 1–28.
Tomlinson. "Book I General Provisions". In Tomlinson (1999), p. 29–88.
Tomlinson. "Book II Felonies and Misdemeanors against the Person". In Tomlinson (1999), p. 89–160.
Tomlinson. "Book III Felonies and Misdemeanors against Property". In Tomlinson (1999), p. 161–196.
Tomlinson. "Book IV Felonies and Misdemeanors against the Nation, the State, and the Public Peace". In Tomlinson (1999), p. 197–268.
Tomlinson. "Book V Other Felonies and Misdemeanors". In Tomlinson (1999), p. 269–.

v t e Hierarchy of norms in French law
Constitutional block Bloc de constitutionnalité	Constitution of 1958 Declaration of the Rights of Man Preamble of the French Constitution of 1946 Charter for the Environment Fundamental principles recognized by the laws of the Republic Principles having constitutional status^[fr] Objective of constitutional value^[fr]
Bloc de conventionnalité ^[fr] Treaties and international agreements	European Union law European Convention on Human Rights Treaty
Bloc de légalité ^[fr] parliamentary or governmental laws	Organic law Ordinary law^[fr] Ratified ordonnance Règlement autonome ^[fr]
Règlements ^[fr] Executive branch regulations	Unratified ordonnance Décret Arrêté ^[fr]
Administrative acts^[fr] Circulars, directives, etc.	Circulars^[fr] Directives^[fr]
Hierarchy of norms^[fr] Sources of French law^[fr] General principles of French law

v t e Law enforcement in France
National Gendarmerie	Departmental Gendarmerie Mobile Gendarmerie Republican Guard Air Gendarmerie Air Transport Gendarmerie Maritime Gendarmerie GIGN Security Group for the Presidency of the Republic
National Police	Co-ordination Unit of the Fight against Terrorism Central Directorate of Border Police Central Directorate of the Judicial Police Central Directorate of Public Security National Police Intervention Groups Research and Intervention Brigades Banditry Repression Brigades National Police Intervention Force Bouches-du-Rhône Police Prefecture Protection Service Republican Security Companies RAID
Other	General Directorate for Internal Security Paris Police Prefecture Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes National Forests Office Municipal Police Rural Guard/Rural Police Police ranks of France

v t e Law in Europe
Sovereign states	Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Vatican City
States with limited recognition	Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria
Dependencies and other entities	Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard
Other entities	European Union

v t e Law
Core subjects	Administrative law Civil law Constitutional law Contract Criminal law Crime Deed Doctrine Equity Evidence International law Law of obligations Private law Procedure Civil Criminal Property law Public law Punishment Corporal Restitution and unjust enrichment Statutory law Tort
Disciplines	Abortion law Agricultural law Aviation law Amnesty law Banking law Bankruptcy Commercial law Competition law Conflict of laws Construction law Consumer protection Corporate law Cyberlaw Drugs law Election law Energy law Entertainment law (Media law) Environmental law Family law Financial law Financial regulation Health law Immigration law Intellectual property International criminal law International human rights International slavery laws International trade law Jurimetrics Labour Landlord–tenant law Law of war Legal archaeology Legal fiction Maritime law Marriage law Military law Nationality law Probate Estate Will and testament Product liability Public international law Refugee law Reparations Space law Sports law State of emergency Tax law Transport law Trust law Unenforced law Women in law
Sources of law	Charter Legal code / Statutory law Constitution Custom Divine right Divine law Human rights Letters patent Natural law Natural and legal rights Case law Precedent Law reports Legal treatise Regulations
Law making	Ballot measure Codification Decree Edict Executive order Proclamation Legislation Delegated legislation Regulation Rulemaking Promulgation Ratification Repeal Treaty Concordat Statutory law Statute Act of parliament Act of Congress Basic structure doctrine
Legal systems	Civil law Common law Chinese law Legal pluralism Religious law Canon law Catholic canon law Hindu law Jain law Jewish law Parsi law Sharia Roman law Byzantine law Socialist law Statutory law Xeer Yassa
Legal theory	Anarchist Contract theory Comparative law Expressive function Feminist Law and economics Legal formalism History Libertarian International legal theory Principle of legality Principle of typicality Pseudolaw Rule of law Rule of man Sociology
Jurisprudence	Adjudication Administration of justice Constitutionalism Criminal justice Court-martial Dispute resolution Fiqh Lawsuit/Litigation Legal opinion Legal remedy Judge Justice of the peace Magistrate Judgment Judicial review Jurisdiction Jury Justice Practice of law Attorney Barrister Counsel Lawyer Legal representation Prosecutor Solicitor Question of fact Question of law Trial Trial advocacy Trier of fact Verdict
Legal institutions	Barristers' chambers Bureaucracy The bar The bench Civil society Court Court of equity Election commission Executive Judiciary Law enforcement Agency Legal education Law school Legislature Military Police Political party Tribunal
History	History of the legal profession History of the American legal profession
Law portal Category Index Outline

Introduction

Scope

Disclaimer

Style

Glossary

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

KL

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

UV

WXYZ

See also

References

Works cited

Further reading