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Union of Myanmar

Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw
Anthem: Kaba Ma Kyei
Location of Myanmar
CapitalNaypyidaw
Largest cityYangon (Rangoon)
Official languagesBurmese
GovernmentMilitary junta
• Chairman, SPDC
Sr. Gen. Than Shwe
Gen. Soe Win
Independence 
From the United Kingdom
• Date
January 4, 1948
• Water (%)
3.06%
Population
• July 2005 estimate
50,519,0001 (24th)
• 1983 census
33,234,000
GDP (PPP)2005 estimate
• Total
$76.2 billion (59th)
• Per capita
$1,800 (150th)
HDI (2003)0.578
medium (129th)
Currencykyat (K) (mmK)
Time zoneUTC+6:30 (MMT)
Calling code95
ISO 3166 codeMM
Internet TLD.mm
1Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.

Myanmar, officially the Union of Myanmar (pronounced [pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà nàinŋàndɔ̀] in Burmese), is the largest country in geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Also known as Burma or the Union of Burma by bodies and states which do not recognize the ruling military junta, it is bordered by the People's Republic of China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 km (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.

Myanmar's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, its history, and its demographics in modern times. Its political system remains under the tight control of the State Peace and Development Council, the military government led by Senior General Than Shwe since 1992. Colonised as part of the British Empire until 1948, Myanmar continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions, overcome coup d'états and emerge as a democracy. However, its culture, heavily influenced by regional neighbours, has endowed upon its peoples a rich and unique heritage.

Etymology

Main article: Explanation of the names of Burma/Myanmar

The name "Myanmar" comes from the two words "myan" (pronounced [mjə] or [bə]), which translates as "swift", and "ma" (pronounced [mà]), which translates as "strong".[1] It also refers to a resident or citizen of Myanmar, or more specifically, a person from the majority Bamar ethnic group.

In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former capital city from Rangoon to Yangon. However, the official name of the country in the Burmese language, Myanmar, did not change. The renaming proved to be politically controversial.[2] Because the military junta was not legitimately elected, some governments have contended that it did not have the authority to officially change the name in English. Acceptance of the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow; usage of Burma is still common. Major news organisations such as the BBC and western governments, including those of the United States and the United Kingdom, still officially refer to the country as Burma.[3][4] The Economist and The New York Times are among several Western publications to regularly use the term "Myanmar", as does CNN.

History

Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, which was capital of the Pagan Kingdom.

The Mon are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley. By the mid 900s, they were dominant in southern Burma.[5] The Pyu arrived in the 1st century BC. They established several city kingdoms and traded with India and China. The most powerful Pyu kingdom was Sri Ksetra, which was subsequently abandoned in 656. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid 800s were invaded by the Nanzhao kingdom. The Burmans, or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley to the area from present-day Tibet sometime prior to the 800s. By 849, they had established a powerful kingdom centred on Pagan. During the reign of Anawratha (1044-1077), Burman influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental Southeast Asia were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly referred to as the First Burmese Empire. In the late 1200s, Mongols under Kublai Khan invaded the Pagan Kingdom. By 1364, the Burmans re-established their kingdom at Ava, where Burmese culture entered a golden age. However, in 1527, the Shan pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the Mon re-established themselves at Pegu, which became a major commercial and religious centre.

Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531 at Toungoo, under Tabinshwehti, who re-unified Burma and founded the Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre. Bayinnaung expanded the empire by conquering the states of Manipur, Chiang Mai and Ayutthaya. Internal rebellion and lack of resources necessary to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of the Toungoo Kingdom. Anaukpetlun, who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new dynasty at Ava in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon, who were aided by the French, led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.

A British 1825 lithography of Shwedagon Pagoda reveals early British penetration in Burma during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

Alaungpaya established the Konbaung Dynasty and founded the Third Burmese Empire in the 1700s.[6] In 1767, King Hsinbyushin conquered Ayutthaya which resulted in Thai culture greatly enriching that of the Burmans. The Qing Dynasty of China, fearful of growing Burman power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. Later monarchs lost control of Ayutthaya, but acquired Arakan and Tenasserim. Under the reign of King Bagyidaw, in 1824, Mahabandoola captured Assam, adjacent to British territory in India, prompting war. In the Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1826, 1851–1852 and 1885–1886), Burma lost territory to the British and became a province of British India. On April 1, 1937, Burma became a separately-administered colony, independent of the Indian administration. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, led by Aung San, founded the modern Burmese Tatmadaw, the Armed Forces.[7] The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan.[7]

During World War II Burma became a major front in the Southeast Asian Theatre. After initial successes by the Japanese in the Burma Campaign, during which the British were expelled from most of Burma, the Allies retaliated. By July 1945 had retaken the country. The Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles and in other formations such as the American-Kachin Rangers fought for the Allies. The Burmese National Army under the command of Aung San fought for the Japanese to drive the British out, but subsequently switched sides to drive the Japanese out in 1945.

In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitory government. However, in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[7] On January 4, 1948, the nation became an independent republic, known as the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not join the British Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities.[8] The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[9]

File:National League for Democracy flag.png
The flag of the National League for Democracy is represented by a 'fighting peacock', a symbol of freedom.[10]

Democratic rule ended in 1962 with a military coup d'état led by General Ne Win who ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policys under the Burmese Way to Socialism. In 1988, General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état. He formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, martial law was declared after widespread protests. Plans for People's Assembly elections were finalised on 31 May 1989.[11] In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years. The NLD, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 485 seats, but the election results were voided by SLORC, which refused to step down.[12] SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the English language in 1989. Led by Than Shwe since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with the most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new constitution through the National Convention, which began 9 January 1993.[13] In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the National League for Democracy, have been excluded, and little progress has been made.[13] On March 27, 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana, officially named it Naypyidaw, meaning "seat of kings".[14]

Politics

Template:Morepolitics

File:Propagandamandalay.jpg
A government slogan at Mandalay Palace stating "Tatmadaw [Armed Forces] and the people, cooperate and crush all those harming the union."

Myanmar has been under military rule since 1962. The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." Khin Nyunt was prime minister until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by Gen. Soe Win. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.[15]

File:Daw Aung San Suu Kyi.JPEG
Aung San Suu Kyi, who is under house arrest, continues to yield major influence in Burmese politics.[16]

US sanctions against the military government have been largely ineffective, due to loopholes in the sanctions and the willingness of Asian nations to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to buy Myanmar's oil despite the European Union's sanctions on Myanmar.[17] Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by Total, the American company Unocal and the Tatmadaw.[18] American-led sanctions have been criticised for their adverse effects mainly on the civilian population rather than on the military rulers.[19] [20]

According to several organisations, including Human Rights Watch, the regime is accused of having a poor human rights record.[21] There is no independent judiciary in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Internet access is highly restricted, through software-based filtering that limits the material citizens can access on-line, including most political opposition and pro-democracy web pages.[22] [23] Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are common, and political dissent is not tolerated.[24]

In 1988, protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression were violently repressed. On August 8 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as 8888 Uprising. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently invalidated by the regime. The National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, won 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule in Myanmar, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under house arrest, although in recent years the regime has been willing to enter into negotiations with the National League for Democracy. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure by ASEAN, the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons de jure.[25] [26] The junta faces increasing international isolation. Myanmar's situation was referred to the UN Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in Myanmar.[27] Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers, in particular China.[28] [29]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Myanmar
File:MyanmarAdministrativeDivisions.png
The 14 states and divisions of Myanmar.

Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions.[30] Divisions (File:Tain.png) are predominantly Bamar. States (File:Pyinè.png), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages. Major cities are divided into districts called townships.

Divisions

States

Geography

Main article: Geography of Myanmar

Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia. Myanmar is located between Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Assam and Manipur of India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with Tibet and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi).[31] Myanmar is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter.[31]

File:Satellite image of the Ayeyarwady delta.jpg
The Ayeyarwady delta, which is approximately 50,400 sq. km in area, is largely used for rice cultivation.[32]

In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 mi), is the highest point in Myanmar.[33] Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[34]The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, Thanlwin, and the Sittang rivers.[32] The Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2170 km (1348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[34] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

Much of Myanmar lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. Myanmar lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (197 in) annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Myanmar, is less than 1,000 mm (39 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21°C (70°F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32°C (90°F).[32]

Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49 percent of the country.[35] Other trees indigenous to the region include rubber, acacia, bamboo, ironwood, mangrove, coconut, betel palm. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[35] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is much more sparse and stunted.

Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards are common in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, wild boars, deer antelopes and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity, for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, herons, and paddybirds. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[36]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Myanmar
File:Sakuratoweryangon.jpg
The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment.

Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu attempted to make Burma a welfare state. His administration adopted the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure.[37] The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralising economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy.[38] Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign corporations which have partnered with the government to gain access to Myanmar's natural resources.

Goods in urban areas are often transported by coolies, as seen in Yangon's Chinatown.

Myanmar was designated a least developed country in 1987.[39] Tourism has been encouraged by the government. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.[40] Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the Tatmadaw. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States, Canada, and the European Union, have imposed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand.[41]

Under British administration, Burma was one of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia. It was the world's largest exporter of rice and supplied oil through the Burmah Oil Company. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak, and had a highly literate population.[2] The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.[2]

Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-Thai border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the Ayeyarwady River. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s.[42] Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.[42] Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. Myanmar is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of narcotics, including amphetamines.[43] Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, metals, oil and natural gas. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.[44]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Myanmar
A flat in downtown Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market. Much of Yangon's urban population reside in densely-populated flats.

Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million.[45] Current population figures are rough estimates because the last nation-wide census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs, was taken in 1983.[46] There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.[47] Myanmar has a population density of 75 persons per km², one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being Rohingya, Kayin, and Karenni.[48]

A girl from the Padaung minority, one of the many ethnic groups that make up Myanmar's population.

Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups, the actual number is much lower.[49] The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.[3] 10% of the population are Shan.[3] The Kayin make up 7% of the population.[3] The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.[50] [3] Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer.[3] Overseas Indians comprise 2%[3] The remainder are Kachin, Chin, and other ethnic minorities.

Myanmar is home to 4 major linguistic families: Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, Tai-Kadai, and Indo-European.[51] Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese. The primary Tai-Kadai language is Shan. Mon is the major Austronesian language spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.[52]

According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official literacy rate as of 2000 was 89.9%.[53] Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. To qualify for least developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.[54] However, the U.S. Department of State estimates that funtional literacy is at 30%.[3]

Buddhism in Myanmar is predominantly of the Theravada sect intermingled with local beliefs. It is practised by 89% of the population, especially among the Bamar, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. Christianity is practised by 4% of the population, primarily among the hill-dwelling Kachin, Chin and Kayin, and Eurasians because of missionary work in their respective areas. Most Christians are Protestants, in particular Baptists of the Myanmar Baptist Convention. Catholicism is practised by the remaining 1%. 4% of the population practises Islam, mainly of the Sunni sect.[55] Muslims are divided amongst Indians, Indo-Burmese, Persians, Arabs, Panthays, and Rohingyas. The Muslim and Christian populations are socially marginalised and are widely segregated.[55] [56] Small segments of the population practise Hinduism or animism.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Myanmar
An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in Mandalay is one of the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.

Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the dominant culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.[57] Buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.[58]

In a traditional Burmese village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time.[59] Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies (File:Nathwin.gif) at the same time.[59] Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.[60] Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.

British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of Great Britain. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.[61] Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast, and the Kachin and Chin who populate the north and northwest, practise Christianity as a result of missionary work.[62]

Members of the Buddhist monkhood are venerated throughout Myanmar, which is one of the most predominantly Theravada Buddhist countries in the world.

Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to Tibetan and to the Chinese languages.[52] It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which comes from the Mon script. The Burmese alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 700s. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 1000s. The script is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism. The Burmese script is also used to write several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.[63] The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of honorifics and is age-oriented.[60] Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in monasteries. Secondary and Tertiary education take place at government schools.

Burmese cuisine has been influenced by Indian, Chinese, Thai, and other ethnic cuisines.[64] The staple of Burmese cuisine is rice. Noodles and breads are also eaten. Burmese cuisine often utilises shrimp, and fish, fermented fish paste, pork and mutton.[64] Beef, which is considered taboo meat, is rarely eaten. Curries, such as masala and chilli are also used. Mohinga, widely considered Myanmar's national dish, consists of curried catfish broth with chickpea flower, rice vermicelli and fish sauce.[65] Tropical fruits are often served as desserts. Major cities offer a wider variety of cuisines, including Shan, Chinese, and Indian.

Traditional Burmese music is melodious and without harmony. Musical instruments include wind, clapper, and string instruments, which are often assembled in orchestras.[59] The saung gauk, a boat-shaped string instrument consisting of silk strings and mica glass decorated along its neck has long been associated with the Burmese culture.[66] Since the 1950s, westernised music has gained popularity, especially in large cities.[67]

See also: Cuisine of Myanmar, Literature of Myanmar, and Music of Myanmar

Notes

  1. ^ Toe, Tet. The Tet Toe English-Burmese Dictionary. pp. 1966, 1927.
  2. ^ a b c Steinberg, David L. (2002). Burma: The State of Myanmar. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-8784-0893-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h "Background Note: Burma". Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. U.S. Department of State. 2005. Retrieved 2006-07-07. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ "Country Profile: Burma". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 2006-07-07.
  5. ^ George Aaron Broadwell; Dept. of Anthropology; University at Albany, Albany, NY; accessed July 11, 2006
  6. ^ An Account of An Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava by Michael Symes,1795.
  7. ^ a b c Houtman, Gustaaf (1999). Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy. ISBN 4-8729-7748-3.
  8. ^ "The Constitution of the Union of Burma". DVB. 1947. Retrieved 2006-07-07.
  9. ^ Smith, Martin (1991). Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 42–43.
  10. ^ "Honoring those who fought for freedom "Golden Anniversary"". Mainichi Daily News. National Coalition Government of Union of Burma. 1998-01-12. Retrieved 2006-07-10.
  11. ^ "PYITHU HLUTTAW ELECTION LAW". State Law and Order Restoration Council. iBiblio.org. 1989-05-31. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
  12. ^ Khin Kyaw Han (2003-02-01). "1990 MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY GENERAL ELECTIONS". National League for Democracy. iBiblio.org. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
  13. ^ a b "The National Convention". The Irrawaddy. 2004-03-31. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
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  15. ^ "Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments: Burma". Central Intelligence Agency. 2006-06-02. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
  16. ^ McCain, John (2003-05-11). "Crisis in Rangoon". National Review Online. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  17. ^ "The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar". European Union. Retrieved 2006-07-13.
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  19. ^ "How Best to Rid the World of Monsters". Washington Post. 2003-06-23. Retrieved 2006-05-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |firstname= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |lastname= ignored (help)
  20. ^ "Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar". Ibiblio. Reuters. 1999-05-10. Retrieved 2006-06-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Brad Adams. "Statement to the EU Development Committee". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
  22. ^ "Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study". OpenNet Initiative.
  23. ^ "Burma bans Google and gmail". BurmaNet News. 2006-06-27. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
  24. ^ "Myanmar: 10th anniversary of military repression". Amnesty International. 1998-08-07. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  25. ^ The Irrawaddy (2006-05-27). "Suu Kyi's Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 2006-05-27. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ The Irrawaddy (2006-05-27). "Opposition Condemns Extension of Suu Kyi's Detention". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 2006-05-27. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ "About Us". ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  28. ^ Poon, Khim Shee (2002). "The Political Economy of China-Myanmar Relations: Strategic and Economic Dimensions" (PDF). Ritsumeikan University. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  29. ^ Selth, Andrew (Spring 2002). "Burma and Superpower Rivalries in the Asia-Pacific". Naval War College Review. Retrieved 2006-07-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  30. ^ "Administrative divisions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2006-06-29. Retrieved 2006-07-09.
  31. ^ a b CIA Factbook
  32. ^ a b c Thein, Myat (2005). Economic Development of Myanmar. ISBN 9-8123-0211-5.
  33. ^ Dr. Patrick Hesp; et al., eds. (2000). Geographica's World Reference. Random House Australia. pp. 738, 741. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor= (help)
  34. ^ a b Than, Mya (2005). Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience. ISBN 9-8123-0210-7.
  35. ^ a b Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules BurmaLibrary.org Accessed July 15, 2006
  36. ^ "Flora and Fauna" at Myanmars.net
  37. ^ Watkins, Thayer. "Political and Economic History of Myanmar (Burma) Economics". San José State University. Retrieved 2006-07-08.
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 ASEAN

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