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Jesús A. Villamor

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For the airbase, see Villamor Airbase.
Jesús Antonio Villamor
Villamor exiting a plane upon returning from Batangas Field.
Nickname(s)Jess[1]
BornNovember 7, 1914
Bangued, Abra, Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
DiedOctober 28, 1971(1971-10-28) (aged 56)
Washington, D.C., United States
Allegiance Philippines
 United States
Service / branchUnited States Air Force[2]
Philippine Army Air Corps[3][4]
Years of service1936[3]–1971[5]
RankColonel[2]
Unit
Commands6th Pursuit Squadron, Philippine Army Air Corps
Battles / wars
Awards (2x) Distinguished Service Cross with 1 Oak Leaf Cluster[3]

Legion of Merit[5]

Medal of Valor[5]
RelationsIgnacio Villamor (father)

Jesús Antonio Villamor (November 7, 1914 – October 28, 1971) was a Filipino-American pilot, spy, and Medal of Valor awardee who fought the Japanese in World War II.

Early life and career

[edit]

Jesús Villamor was one of six children of Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, Ignacio Villamor (the judge who convicted Philippine Independence Leader Macario Sakay) of Bangued, Abra, and Mariquita Flores.[3] He studied commerce at De La Salle College (now DLSU-Manila) in Manila, hoping to pursue a business career.[3]

During summer, he and his family went to Baguio and stayed in one of the government houses on Hogan's Alley, which are now assigned to Justice of Court of Appeals, just below Cabinet Hill along Leonard Wood Road. One of his playmates during this time was Roberto Lim, son of Brigadier General Vicente Lim. Roberto would later learn under Villamor in a Stearman plane. Villamor would also sign Lim's first civilian license.[6][7]

Jess (as one of his friends would call him), at the age of 14 to 15, was already an aviation bug. As his father and uncles were lawyers, his parents were not too keen over Villamor's desire to take up flying and encouraged him to follow the family tradition of the legal practice. After the death of his father, his mother relented and encouraged Villamor to take up flying. He was worried that because of his short height, he wouldn't pass the physical exam. Nevertheless, Villamor learned how to fly with a Cox-Klemin Aircraft at the Philippine Air Taxi Corp. in Grace Park that was located next to La Loma Cemetery. He earned his wings under PATCO's General Manager, Capt. William "Jitter Bill" Bradford, who was later to become the head of the "Bamboo Fleet" which served as the lifeline of the USAFFE during the Battle of Corregidor.[8] Villamor also learned under Instructor Pilots and World War I aviator veterans Bert Hall, Charlie Heston, and Don Kneedler.[9]

After completing 20 hours of solo flying, Villamor proceeded to the Bureau of Aeronautics to apply for his pilot license, but flunked the test. The Bureau's director, Capt. Russell Maughan, commented that Villamor's flying was unsafe and told Bradford that Villamor should never fly again. Hall on the other hand was in disgust over Maughan's rejection of Villamor. A few days later, Hall encouraged Villamor's mother to send him to the Dallas Aviation School in Texas. On the way to the United States, Villamor became acquainted with fellow students, Augsto Luciano and Rafael Roces Jr. Villamor would later earn his "Transport Pilot License" at the Dallas Aviation School.[9]

Upon returning to Manila, Villamor found that PATCO nor its competitor, Far Eastern Air Transport (FEATI), would have slots for him. Villamor then applied for a slot in the first batch of cadets of the Philippine Army Air Corps Flying School in 1936. He was joined with six other students, Lt. Antonio Alandy, Francisco Reyes, Ramon M.Zosa, Andres O. Cruz, Jacob Ouiranle, and Azarias M. Padilla. The first batch learned under Lt. William "Jerry" Lee on Stearman Model 73.[9][10]

Villamor along with Francisco Reyes were later sent to Randolph Field in San Antonio, Texas for further training in 1936. Enroute to the United States, they had a stopover in Tokyo where they had the chance to examine a Mitsubishi A5M naval fighter. Reyes would later wash out from the class, but Villamor persisted in flying with the class, earning him the monicker ""Little Chief Oompah." He would qualify in a Boeing P-12, and upon graduation on June 9, 1937, received the news that he was going to be commissioned as 3rd Lieutenant in the PAAC.[9]

Military service

[edit]

94th Pursuit Squadron

[edit]

Prior to returning to the Philippines, Villamor was sent to Selfridge Field in Detroit, to join the 94th Pursuit Squadron, under World War I top ace, Eddie Rickenbacker, flying Boeing P-26, along with World War II ace pilots John R. Allison and Philip Cochran.[9]

Philippine Army Air Corps

[edit]

Returning to Manila in 1938, Villamor was assigned as Stage Commander of the PAAC in Zablan Field in Camp Murphy, and by 1939 was promoted to 1st Lieutenant and Director of Flight Training. Here he would have the opportunity to train Lt. Col. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who would be the first President of the United States with a pilot's license, and Lt. Col. Richard Sutherland.[9][11][12][13]

He also began flying B-17's as part of the US Army Air Forces Strategic Bombing Squadron.[3]

Villamor was assigned to lead the 6th Pursuit Squadron (now 6th Tactical Fighter Squadron) in Nichols Airfield. On July 26, 1941, by order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Philippine Army was incorporated into the United States Army Forces in the Far East. Following this, PAAC was inducted into the Far East Air Force on August 15, with 141 pilots, 17 ground officers, 1,200 enlisted men, and 64 aircraft, with Maj. Basilio Fernando as its Commanding Officer. No less than Gen. MacArthur himself was the inducting officer.[14][15] Gen. MacArthur forecasted that Japan will commence with its attack in April 1942, and event at the earliest January 1942.

Battle of Zablan Field

[edit]
General Douglas MacArthur (left) is shown pinning a Distinguished Service Cross on Villamor for heroism in the air.

Eight hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, December 8, 1941 10:00am PST, bombers and fighters of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy took off from Takao Airbase in Formosa and attacked sites around Baguio and Iba Airfield in Zambales, with the second wave attacking Clark Air Base and Naval Station Sangley Point. The following day, the FEAF's capabilities were crippled as it found half of its aircraft inventory destroyed, the Japanese in turn only lost 7 aircraft in the two days of raids giving them practical air superiority over Northern Luzon.[16][17][18]

With the FEAF crippled, the 6th Pursuit Squadron at Nichols Airfield was one of the remaining units available to meet the enemy. At 11:30 am on December 10, while the unit was having lunch, general quarters was sounded, and the PAAC would have its baptism of fire.[19] Capt. Villamor, along with Lieutenants Godofredo Juliano, Geronimo Aclan, Alberto Aranzaso, and Jose Gozar met another wave of Mitsubishi G3M bombers and Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters over the skies of Zablan Airfield and Pasig with their Boeing P-26 Peashooters.[16][20][21]

Capt. Villamor was first to take off and meet the attackers, only to find himself greatly outclassed by the better Japanese fighters. A Japanese Zero gave chase, and Capt. Villamor maneuvered his aircraft to shake off his opponent. He dove his P-26 and hugged the tree tops of the Marikina Valley and even flew under high-tension wires. The Japanese pilot gave up the chase thinking he hit the ground. Capt. Villamor then pulled up only to find himself being pounced by another Japanese Zero. He swung his aircraft on a vertical left bank, putting it on a stall but training his guns towards a face-to-face engagement with the enemy. The Japanese pilot was surprised by the maneuver, but Capt. Villamor was able to fire off first hitting the wings of the Zero and bursting it into flames. This was the first confirmed kill by the PAAC.[9]

Despite the disadvantage, Villamor and his squadron was credited with four kills – one Mitsubishi G3M bomber and three Mitsubishi A6M Zeros. Two of them by Villamor himself. Upon landing his aircraft, Capt. Villamor was met by the Philippine Army Chief-of-Staff, Gen. Basilio Valdez, who asked of him if he was afraid the whole time, and Capt. Villamor confirmed the same.[22][23][24][25][9]

Battle of Batangas Field

[edit]

The following day, the 6th Pursuit Squadron moved to Batangas Airfield north of Batangas City. Around noon time of December 12, a force of 27 bombers and 17 fighters targeted Batangas Airfield. The PAAC flight group of 5 P-26s headed by Capt. Villamor scrambled to meet the closer flight of enemy bombers heading south. Lt. Cesar Basa two hours prior was sent on a reconnaissance mission, joined the flight as Capt. Villamor's wingman. Swooping from a higher elevation, the Capt. Villamor and the PAAC flight attacked the lead aircraft of the Japanese Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" bomber, scoring his second kill for the war. The Japanese Zeros pursued the defenders, and in the ongoing melee the PAAC relied on cloud cover and outmaneuvered the faster Zeros through tighter turns.[9]

Lt. Basa meanwhile kept on Capt. Villamor's tail, but was soon pounced on by a Japanese Zero. His aircraft was damaged and wings broke off, but Lt. Basa was able to bail out of his P-26. Basa's bullet riddled body was later found, and according to Capt. Villamor's account, the former was shot up by Japanese fighters while parachuting down. Lt. Basa became the first Filipino casualty from aerial combat.[26][27][20][28][9]

Lt. Antonio Mondingo meanwhile was also shot by a Japanese attacker, and was forced to bail out. Upon landing, he was rescued by civilians. Lt. Manuel Conde also suffered the same, but was able to land his P-26 in Zablan Field. However, his aircraft exploded moments after he exited and took cover from the onslaught of Japanese strafing. At the conclusion, the Japanese lost two bombers, while the PAAC lost 3 aircraft.[9]

The 6th Pursuit Squadron returned to Nichols Airfield on December 13 with 4 remaining P-26s, and on the following day, Lt. Gozar in turn for the last time in the war was able scramble by himself to meet the Japanese raiders. Lt. Gozar was able to survive the encounter against three Japanese Zeros with one unconfirmed kill, and land his battered aircraft.[29][30]

While greatly outclassed and outnumbered, the accomplishment of the 6th Pursuit Squadron has become of a legend and a source of encouragement among the ground forces and the civilians who witnessed their defense over the skies of Luzon. On December 15 Capt. Villamor, Capt. Colin Kelly, and Lt. Gozar were personally awarded by Gen. Douglas MacArthur the Distinguished Service Cross for their valorous defense of the airspace above Manila. Lt. Gozar's wingmate, Lt. Godofredo Juliano on the other hand received the Gold Cross.[31][32]

Retreat to Bataan

[edit]

Upon activation of War Plan Orange, the 6th Pursuit Squadron and the rest of the PAAC were ordered to destroy their aircraft inventory. Capt. Villamor and his unit were ordered to a strategic retreat to Bataan and transformed their mission to air defense. He would join Gen. MacArthur and Pres. Manuel L. Quezon on the ferry to Fort Mills on Corregidor Island on December 24, 1941. Capt. Villamor and his unit were still hoping to receive new aircraft from Australia.[33] However, the shipment of the Pensacola Convoy never came through.

For leading his squadron, Villamor was twice cited by the United States Army for bravery, receiving the Distinguished Service Cross for actions on December 10, 1941, and an Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a second award of the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) for actions on December 12, 1941.[3][34] Villamor is the only Filipino to receive the DSC twice.

Gen. Harold Huston George, head of the Far East Air Force was tasked by MacArthur to conduct an aerial photography mission over Ternate, Cavite and search out the artillery placement of Maj. Toshinori Kondo. George tasked Capt. Villamor for this mission. On February 9, 1942, Capt. Villamor conducted a reconnaissance mission over occupied Cavite in a PT-13 escorted by four American P-40 Warhawks. Capt. Villamor was on the student-pilot seat, while Sgt. Juan V. Abanes from the 5th Photographic Squadron volunteered to sit in and operate the camera. No sooner, 6 Japanese Zeros appeared. Capt. Villamor's aircraft damaged but was still able to land it safely. One P-40 was lost at the cost of 4 Zeros. Capt. Villamor's mission proved to be a success, as the films were delivered, the information was collated with the ground observers, and counterbattery fire was put into effect.[35][36][9]

Escape to Australia

[edit]

At the end of February 1942, orders were relayed that half of the PAAC and FEAF officers were to be evacuated from Bataan and Corregidor, and report to Del Monte Airfield in Bukidnon. Capt. Villamor was one of the selected officers, and they found themselves taking the SS Legaspi, which would run the Japanese blockade. Upon arrival in Mindanao, Capt. Gozar and the PAAC and FAEF officers reported to Del Monte Airfield.[9]

At Del Monte Airfield, Capt. Villamor continued to conduct reconnaissance missions in the Visayas and Mindanao area in a Stearman. In one occasion he would witness a Japanese aerial attack on a lone PT Boat in the waters off Bohol. After the Gen. Edward P. King surrendered the USAFFE in Bataan, Capt. Villamor would witness the last attempts at aerial counterattack in the Philippines on April 11 by the Royce Mission's bombers. By April 14, Capt. Villamor was evacuated to Australia on a B-25 Mitchell Bomber along with Nat Floyd of the New York Times and Col. Chi Wang, the Chinese military attaché to the Philippines.[9]

After arriving in Australia, Capt. Villamor had the opportunity to report to Gen. MacArthur and Pres. Manuel Quezon. He begged to be given aircraft for his squadron and return to the Philippines to continue with the fight. MacArthur only gave him his word that he will return to the Philippines soon. A few days later Capt. Villamor received instructions to report to the 35th Fighter Group in Williamstown near Melbourne, where he would be assigned as Director of Ground Training and Senior Flight Instructor on Curtiss P-40 Warhawks. Here he would reconnect with an old friend and aviation maverick Paul "Pappy" Gunn, who was known to have made supply runs to Corregidor from Del Monte Airfield. Both men wanted to return to the Philippines and continue with the fight. Capt. Villamor approached another old friend in MacArthur's staff in Brisbane, Maj. Joseph Ralph McMicking, a Filipino-Scottish-American reserve officer with the PAAC. Capt. Villamor taught Maj. McMicking in Zablan, and both shared some time in the PAAC prior to the war.[9][37][38]

Maj. McMicking listened to Capt. Villamor, and agreed that he could become useful for another mission to the Philippines. McMicking lead Villamor to an office and was introduced to Col. Allison Ind. Villamor then realized that this was the Allied Intelligence Bureau. Col. Ind knew who Capt. Villamor was, and told him of the need by the Allies to connect with the guerrillas in the Philippines, and brought him his superior, BGen. Charles Willoughby. Within that meeting, it was decided to give Villamor a cover story that he was to be transferred to the 91st Air Depot Group in Amberly.[9]

Intelligence service

[edit]

From August to December, Villamor now serving with the Allied Intelligence Bureau identified and trained with other Filipino officers in commando operations and espionage with Australian special operations units. During this period SWPA was also able to connect with guerrilla leaders, namely Lt. Col. Macario Peralta. On Christmas Day 1942, Villamor was promoted to major.[39][9]

On December 27, 1942, Villamor and his team, now called Planet Party boarded the submarine USS Gudgeon at the Brisbane River docks, and sailed towards the Philippines, and arriving in Hinboa-an on the southwestern shores of Negros Island on January 27, 1943.[40][23][3][5][41] The Planet Party initially made contact with Roy Bell on Negros.[42]: 88–93  Villamor went on to work with Bell, who would then make contact with James M. Cushing in 1943. Villamor's party was hosted by Filipino-Spanish mestizo Estanislao Bilbao.[43]

Villamor would leave Hinoba-an for Sipalay to identify a safe location for their radio station, hiking through the hills to avoid Japanese spies. He then tasked his guerilla liaison to contact the guerilla leader in the area, Maj. Salvador Abcede in the Tantauayan Mountain area of Cauayan. Abcede provided Villamor a thorough briefing of the guerrilla forces in the Visayas, and their current situation, disclosing to him also his contention with Maj. Placido Ausejo, who recognized the authority of Lt. Col. Wendell Fertig. At this time, Fertig also promoted himself to General, and Abcede believed that this was unauthorized. Villamor felt that he needed to meet with the various factions and bring everyone under tactical unity.[9]

After a month of conducting initial surveys and contacts with guerillas in the Visayas, Villamor's Planet Party was able to establish a chain of direct communication from the Philippines with General Douglas MacArthur. Villamor would later coordinate the activities of various guerrilla movements in Luzon, Mindanao and the Visayas.[3][44] Completing his mission Villamor returned to Australia.[39][45] Villamor's reports from the field were met with indifference by some within the SWPA, but were later publicly lauded by President Eisenhower.[46][3]

Military Assistance Advisory Group

[edit]

After World War II, Villamor served with the Military Assistance Advisory Group in the State of Vietnam during 1951 and 1952, and once again in 1955.[2]

Death

[edit]

Ret. Col. Villamor died on October 28, 1971, in Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., United States, and was buried with military honors at the Libingan ng mga Bayani in Fort Bonifacio, Taguig, which is located about two kilometers from the Philippine Air Force Headquarters which bears his name.[47]

Awards

[edit]
Villamor Air Base Monument

For his bravery as a pilot and ingenuity as an intelligence officer, President Ramón Magsaysay awarded Lieutenant Col. Villamor the Medal of Valor, the highest Philippine military bravery decoration, on January 21, 1954.[48] In addition, Villamor was a two-time recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross, and one-time recipient of the Distinguished Conduct Star.[48] The Philippine Air Force's principal facility in Metro Manila which was first known as Nichols Field, then later Nichols Air Base, was renamed Col. Jesús Villamor Air Base in his honor.[5]

Distinguished Service Cross Citation

[edit]
AWARDED FOR ACTIONS DURING World War II

Service: Foreign
Battalion: 6th Pursuit Squadron, Division: Philippine Army Air Corps
Headquarters, U.S. Army Forces in the Far East, General Orders No. 48 (1941)

The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Captain (Air Corps) Jesus A. Villamor (ASN: 0-888072), Philippine Army Air Corps, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy while serving as Pilot of a P-26 Fighter Airplane in the 6th Pursuit Squadron, Philippine Army Air Corps, attached to the Far East Air Force, in aerial combat against enemy Japanese forces on 10 December 1941, during an air mission over Batangas, Philippine Islands. In the face of heavy enemy fire from strong air forces, Captain Villamor led his flight of three pursuit planes into action against attacking Japanese planes. By his conspicuous example of courage and leadership at great personal hazard beyond the call of duty his flight was enabled to rout the attacking planes, thereby preventing appreciable damage at his station. Captain Villamor's unquestionable valor in aerial combat is in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service and reflects great credit upon himself, the Philippine Army Air Corps, and the United States Army Air Forces.[49]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Phillips, Sky (1992). Secret Mission to Melbourne, November, 1941. Sunflower University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-89745-148-2. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d "Overview of the Jesus A. Villamor papers". The Online Archive of California is an initiative of the California Digital Library. The Regents of The University of California. 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Jesus A. Villamor". Hall of Valor, Military Times. Gannett Government Media Corporation. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  4. ^ Karsten, Peter (1998). The Training and Socializing of Military Personnel. Taylor & Francis. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8153-2976-3. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Ostlund, Mike (2006). Find 'Em, Chase 'Em, Sink 'em: The Mysterious Loss of the WWII Submarine USS Gudgeon. Globe Pequot. p. 391. ISBN 978-1-59228-862-5. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  6. ^ P51, Pushing the Envelope, A Biography of Roberto H. Lim, Composed of Collected Letters, Emails and Photos
  7. ^ Lim, Adelaida (2010). Pushing the Envelop: A Biography of Capt. Roberto H. Lim. Mapua Publishing House. p. 35.
  8. ^ Zimmerman, Dwight. "The "Bamboo Fleet" Shuttle Service to Corregidor". Defense Media Network. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Villamor, Jesus; Snyder, Gerald (1968). They Never Surrendered. Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, Inc. p. 3.
  10. ^ Guardian of Philippine Skies 1917-1970. Pasay City: PAF Historical Committee. 1970.
  11. ^ "From Pilot to President". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  12. ^ Jean Edward Smith (21 February 2012). Eisenhower in War and Peace. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 130–132. ISBN 978-0-679-64429-3.
  13. ^ Alcaraz, Ramon (11 June 1941). "Diary of Ramon Alcaraz – June 11, 1941". The Philippine Diary Project. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  14. ^ Alcaraz, Ramon (15 August 1941). "Diary of Ramon Alcaraz – August 15, 1941". The Philippine Diary Project. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  15. ^ "The Philippine Air Force". The Filipinas Heritage Library. Ayala Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  16. ^ a b "History of the Philippine Air Force". The Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Office of the President. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  17. ^ Manchester, William (1978). American Caesar : Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (1st ed.). Little, Brown. pp. 205–212. ISBN 978-0-316-54498-6.
  18. ^ Correll, John T. "Disaster in the Philippines". Air Force Magazine. US Air Force. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  19. ^ Nemenzo, Eldon (1992). The Philippine Air Force story. Philippine Air Force. pp. 74–80.
  20. ^ a b Smith, Peter C. (2014). Mitsubishi Zero : Japan's Legendary Fighter. Pen & Sword Aviation. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-78159-319-6.
  21. ^ "Speech of President Corazon Aquino at the 50th Anniversary of the Philippine Air Force". The Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Office of the President. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  22. ^ John Toland (17 August 2016). But Not in Shame: The Six Months After Pearl Harbor. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 110–113. ISBN 978-1-101-96929-8.
  23. ^ a b "Jesus Villamor: Soldier, Spy". www.filipinaslibrary.org.ph. Filipinas Heritage Library. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
  24. ^ Yenne, Bill (2019). MacArthur's Air Force : American airpower over the Pacific and the Far East, 1941–51. Barnes & Noble. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-4728-3323-5.
  25. ^ McGowan, Sam (29 December 2018). "Japanese Attack on the Philippines: The "Other" Pearl Harbor". Warfare History Network. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  26. ^ "Fighting Filipino pilot". Library of Congress. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  27. ^ Alcaraz, Ramon (15 December 1941). "Diary of Ramon Alcaraz – December 15, 1941". The Philippine Diary Project. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  28. ^ Quezon, Manuel L. "A Record of Heroic Deeds". www.ibiblio.org. Ibiblio. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  29. ^ Neri, Francis Karem Elazegui. "PAF History: Lt. Jose Gozar". Armed Forces of the Philippines – AFP on Facebook. Facebook. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  30. ^ Craven, Wesley; Cate, James Lea (1979). The Army Air Forces in WWII: Vol. I--Plans & Early Operations [Chapter 6]. University of Chicago Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-405-12135-7. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  31. ^ Alcaraz, Ramon (17 December 1941). "December 17, 1941". The Philippine Diary Project. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  32. ^ Baclagon, Uldarico (1980). Filipino Heroes of World War II. Agro Printing & Publishing House. p. 310.
  33. ^ Alcaraz, Ramon (7 January 1942). "January 7, 1942". The Philippine Diary Project. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  34. ^ "Roll of Honor". Times. 12 (7). Times Inc.: 57 1942. ISSN 0024-3019. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  35. ^ John Gordon (1 September 2011). Fighting for MacArthur: The Navy and Marine Corps' Desperate Defense of the Philippines. Naval Institute Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-61251-062-0.
  36. ^ Morton, Louis. "US Army in WWII: Fall of the Philippines [Chapter 27]". www.ibiblio.org. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  37. ^ Cannon, M. Hamlin (1954). War in the Pacific: Leyte, Return to the Philippines. Government Printing Office. p. 19. LCCN 53-61979. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
  38. ^ Helen Madamba Mossman (22 October 2014). A Letter to My Father: Growing Up Filipina and American. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-0-8061-8611-5.
  39. ^ a b Karsten, Peter (1998). The Training and Socializing of Military Personnel. Taylor & Francis. pp. 112–113. ISBN 978-0-8153-2976-3. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  40. ^ Villamor, Jesus; Snyder, Gerald (1982). They Never Surrendered. Quezon City: Vera-Reyes, Inc. p. 1.
  41. ^ The Reports of General MacArthur. Tokyo: Department of the Army. 1950. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  42. ^ Mills, S.A., 2009, Stranded in the Philippines, Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 9781591144977
  43. ^ Dirk Jan Barreveld (19 July 2015). Cushingês Coup: The True Story of How Lt. Col. James Cushing and His Filipino Guerrillas Captured Japan's Plan Z. Casemate. pp. 144–147. ISBN 978-1-61200-307-8.
  44. ^ John Glusman (25 April 2006). Conduct Under Fire: Four American Doctors and Their Fight for Life as Prisoners of the Japanese, 1941–1945. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 346–348. ISBN 978-0-14-200222-3.
  45. ^ Alfred W. McCoy (2002). Closer Than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy. Yale University Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0-300-17391-8.
  46. ^ Schmidt, Larry S. (28 October 1982). American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance Movement on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945 (PDF) (Master of Military Art And Science). U.S. Amy Command and General Staff College. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 10, 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
  47. ^ "Memorandum Order No. 261, s. 1971". The Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Office of the President. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
  48. ^ a b 1958 Congressional Record, Vol. 104, Page 13122 (July 8)
  49. ^ "Jesus Villamor – Recipient -". valor.militarytimes.com. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
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