History of Caraquet

The history of Caraquet, located in the Canadian province of New Brunswick, begins six thousand years ago, when Paleoamericans started using the area as a settlement. After being visited by various European fishermen and merchants from the 13th century onwards, the Breton Gabriel Giraud dit Saint-Jean founded the town around 1731.

Toponymy

Map of localisation of Caraquet

Topographical map of Caraquet.

The confluence of the Caraquet River (left) and the Rivière du Nord (right).

In the 17th century, the settlement was called Habitation Pichiguy (Habitaçion Pichiguy), a toponym derived either from the Basque language or from the Basque-Algonquin pidgin used at the time for exchanges between Basques and Mi'kmaqs. Its meaning is uncertain..

The toponym Caraquet was first mentioned on December 18, 1664, during a trial in France between two groups of fishermen disputing the use of the port. Governor Nicolas Denys mentioned the toponym Caraquet in 1672, in his book Description géographique et historique des côtes de l'Amérique septentrionale, avec l'histoire naturelle de ce pays. He gives a brief description of two islands, mistakenly identified in his text as the îles de Tousquet but on his map as the îles de Caraquet - Caraquet Island and Pokesudie Island. Different spellings used over the years include Karaquet, Quaraqu, Carraquet and Caraquette.

Four theories attempt to explain the origin of the name Caraquet. The first is that the name comes from a word in the Mi'kmaq language, Kalaket or Pkalge depending on the source, meaning “the meeting of two rivers”, in reference to the confluence of the Rivière du Nord and the Caraquet river to the west of the town. It should be noted that today's Micmacs call the town Kalaket. According to the second theory, the name refers to a type of boat, the Carrack. According to historian Fidèle Thériault, this theory is the most plausible, as the Mi'kmaq language does not possess the “r” sound. The third theory, also introduced by Fidèle Thériault, relates it to the name of the Bahía de Caráquez in Ecuador. This Spanish origin could be explained by the Basque presence and the deformation of the name they gave to the Caraquet Island. The fourth theory, less widespread, attempts to explain the origin of the name by the fact that two French lieux-dits, one in Boursin and the other in Desvres, bear the name Caraquet.

The name is pronounced /'kara.kɛt/ in French.

Prehistory

Glacial retreat and settlement

Receding glaciers in North America.

All of Canada and part of the United States have undergone the Wisconsin glaciation, which reached the Atlantic provinces around 25,000 years ago and peaked around 18,000 years ago; the ice sheet reached several kilometers thick in central New Brunswick, while sea levels drop by more than 100 meters in some places. When the ice retreated, between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago, the water level remained low and formed a vast land called Northumbria. The climate is warmer, comparable to the southern United States, and the fauna is therefore different. The water level finally rose around 5,500 years ago as a result of post-glacial rebound and is still rising today.

Paleoamericans

The first humans arrived in North America at least 20,000 years ago and may have been living south of the glaciers at the same time. As the glaciers receded, Paleoamerican hunter-gatherers were attracted by the rich flora and fauna of the Maritime provinces around 11,000 years ago. Paleoamericans produced carved stone tools. No sites are yet known in Caraquet, but they were present as close as the Pokemouche River. Nor do archaeologists know whether the Paleoamericans moved on, or whether they are the ancestors of today's Amerindian peoples. However, there are similarities between some of their tools.

Great hiatus (-8000 to -3000)

The period from the 8th to the 4th millennium B.C. is poorly understood, as is the case for many regions of eastern Canada. Archaeologists know that Palaeo-Americans still inhabited this area, as arrowheads similar to their own have been found in several places, but there is no evidence of permanent settlements. The apparent lack of human presence is the result of a dense pine forest that grew during this period, greatly reducing the quantity of game and resources. Other archaeologists are opposed to this theory, citing the lack of conclusive evidence for the existence of this forest and the assertion that it did not occupy the entire territory, allowing certain groups to survive. However, people had been exploiting fishery resources since the 9th millennium BC. According to James A. Tuck, Paleoamericans would have lived on the Maritime shoreline throughout this period and even ventured inland. However, the steady rise in sea level has erased all traces of human presence.

Late pre-Ceramic period (-3000 to -500)

The Late Pre-Ceramic period is the earliest period for which archaeologists have been able to find numerous artifacts, at least in the rest of the Maritime Provinces. It began at the turn of the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, and lasted until the middle of the 1st millennium BC, corresponding to the Archaic period in the Americas; it should be noted that the adjective “archaic” applies poorly to the Maritimes, since agriculture never really existed there during prehistory.

Maritime Archaic culture extends along the coasts from New England to Labrador, presumably implying the presence of a maritime communication network. The oldest site, south of Labrador, dates from the 7th millennium BC, while sites further south date from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC; however, rising sea levels have caused most archaeological sites to disappear. Some artifacts discovered in Labrador are made of cut stone, suggesting a transition between Paleo-American and Maritime Archaic cultures. In addition, artifacts found in the L'Anse Amour burial mound suggest a seafaring lifestyle.

The Laurentian culture, so named because it was discovered on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, extends inland, mainly in central New Brunswick and to a lesser extent in Nova Scotia, probably because it spread eastwards from New England; a mixed forest, to which this people are adapted, would indeed have formed at this time. Laurentian sites can be recognized by three criteria: the lack of pottery, pipes, and traces of agriculture, the presence of specific polished stone objects and the presence of carved stone objects; sites in the Maritimes, dating from around -3000 to -500, meet all three criteria. It seems that this people was made up of small nomadic groups. They probably wore thick leather garments in winter and very light clothing in summer. Their beliefs include the wearing of amulets made from teeth or other animal remains, and particular care for funerals, with weapons, tools, and red ochre buried with the deceased.

At least two other peoples evolved in the Maritime provinces, but quite far from the Caraquet site: the Susquehanna culture and possibly the archaic Shield culture, from the 2nd millennium BC onwards. Between 2000 and 500 BC, the Maritime Archaic culture was displaced from Labrador by Palaeoeskimos from the Arctic, as well as by the Shield Archaic culture and Laurentian culture.

Ceramic period (500 BC to 1604)

Mi'kmaq people

Mi'kmaqs colonized the region at least 2,500 years ago. Caraquet was part of the Gespegeoag district, which encompassed the Chaleur Bay coastline. The main Micmac villages were located in Pokemouche, Tracadie, and Tabusintac. Little is known about their presence in Caraquet, and this is mostly based on oral tradition, which maintains that they camped at Pointe à Brideau, west of the port. Caraquet is the first natural harbor east of the Népisiguit River, which must have made it a popular spot in case of storms.

There appear to have been two peoples during the pottery period: the Etchemins, present in western and southwestern New Brunswick, and the Souriquois, present in the rest of the territory. Their territory is more or less the same as that of today's Mi'kmaqs and Maliseets, and it's almost certain that the Souriquois are the Micmacs, but the link between the Etchemins and the Maliseets is more tenuous. Today, the Maliseet and Micmac speak fairly similar Algonquian languages, suggesting that they derive from the same people. Their prehistory is also similar, but certain differences point to an early separation, probably even before the ceramic period. As for the Mi'kmaqs, their Augustine tumulus at Metepenagiag is associated with the Adena culture of the Ohio River valley, suggesting several cultural influences.

Mi'kmaq in 1873

Ceramics were introduced around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The Micmacs are thought to have imported it from Quebec, via the Gaspé. Although its introduction certainly improved the way of life, its bulkiness and fragility for semi-nomadic populations led several tribes to abandon this technique later on. This would also explain the eagerness with which copper pots were adopted after the arrival of Europeans. Ceramics in the Maritimes followed a similar pattern to those elsewhere on the continent. The earliest Micmac pots are the thinnest and hardest, and their decoration is made with a serrated tool, whereas later pots are thicker and more friable, and their decoration is made with a paddle wrapped around a string while the clay is still wet.

The Micmacs seem to have always had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, moving to the coast in late winter to fish. Migratory birds, apparently more numerous at the time, provide much of the food in spring, supplemented by the hunting of local animals. During the summer, they sometimes fished with hooks, in addition to occasionally collecting mollusks. Marine mammals are mostly hunted in summer, while migratory birds are also hunted in autumn. The Micmacs then move inland to fish for eels. Smoked or dried fish and eels are used as winter provisions, but land mammals are also hunted. The oldest seasonal camps have been discovered near Tracadie-Sheila, as well as in several places on Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, but the most important and oldest site - dating from the middle of the 1st millennium BC - remains the Oxbow site. It seems that the Mi'kmaq maintained a similar lifestyle throughout this period. Micmac artifacts are not very different from those of the Maliseet, but follow a slow evolution, the result of contact with other cultures. Archaeological digs have mainly recovered objects made of bone and stone, but they also made objects of antler, leather, and wood. Javelin and arrowheads were notched for fastening. Stone splinter knives generally kept the same shape as in the previous period; scrapers were common, but diminished in size over time. Bone or wooden points for spears, arrows, harpoons, and tridents came in a variety of shapes. The Micmacs made pendants from animal teeth, bone beads, and other decorative objects, probably with magical properties.

Prehistoric archaeology

A giant's skeleton was discovered near the lighthouse on Caraquet Island in 1893 by the keeper's son, but there is no material trace of it. The first professional archaeological digs in Caraquet were carried out by Charles Martijn in 1968 at the port of Caraquet but he found nothing. Further digs at the port in 1977 yielded no discoveries. Artifacts have been found by enthusiasts at Pointe à Brideau and Ruisseau à Chenard, around the harbor, but suggest that the Micmacs only used the site as a camp, a shortcut between Saint-Simon Bay and Chaleur Bay. Albert Ferguson carried out excavations on Caraquet Island in 1983 and, for the prehistoric period, found only a kind of stone scraper, which has not been dated. He points out that there are certainly prehistoric archaeological sites in Caraquet, but that they have been destroyed by erosion, and that only underwater digs, excavations in the foreshore, or the discovery of new sites in the sheltered hinterland could tell us more about the town's prehistory.

Contact (1000-1711)

Vikings

Pichiguy on Pierre Detcheverry's 1689 map (upside down).

The Vikings are thought to have been the first Europeans to visit the region, from the 11th century onwards. Indeed, walnut shells have been discovered at L'Anse aux Meadows. There are no walnut trees in Newfoundland, and the nearest place where this tree grows is on the east coast of Canada, including New Brunswick.

Basques, Bretons and Normans

According to Donat Robichaud, the region was visited by Norman and Breton fishermen as early as the end of the 13th century. The Bretons were well established before 1536. The Basques had been whaling in Europe since the eleventh century or earlier, but following the collapse of the cetacean population, began to hunt them in southern Labrador in the sixteenth century, in addition to fishing cod. These fishermen came mainly from the Spanish Basque country, but those from the French Basque country were becoming increasingly numerous. They were already well established by 1540, and contrary to popular belief, they did not hunt whales further and further away until they reached America but went there directly.

Around 1632, Basque cod fishermen moved to more remote areas, including Caraquet, Paspébiac, and Shippagan, to avoid attacks by Inuit and English or Danish pirates, but also because of the decline in the whale population and the opening of the Svalbard fishery. It is likely to have been interbreeding between the Basques and Micmacs, giving rise to the population known as the “Canadiens”, with Basque names and “European” manners, traveling in Basque rowboats and guarding hunting and fishing stations during the winter. The Canadiens' settlement is identified as Pichiguy in a 1689 map, and located on the north shore of Caraquet Bay. Basque fishing in Caraquet continued unhindered until the end of the 17th century.

French

Jacques Cartier

Jacques Cartier dropped anchor in the Miscou area in July 1534 and explored the region for a few days. The Mi'kmaq were accustomed to trading with Europeans, as they approached Jacques Cartier on July 6, 1534, in Gaspésie from the Acadian Peninsula, probably Grande-Anse. Cartier was frightened and fired warning shots, but ended up bartering with them the next day.

In 1619, the Bordeaux Merchants Association founded a fishing post at Miscou. Jesuits then came to evangelize the region's Amerindians. Nicolas Denys traded along the Chaleur Bay and Gulf of St. Lawrence coasts, including Caraquet. The association was subsequently dissolved, the Jesuits were recalled to France and Nicolas Denys was forced to leave the island for Nipisiguit.

On August 17, 1693, the Sovereign Council granted the Pokemouche concession to Philippe Hesnault, of Nipisiguit, adding three leagues in width on each side of the valley, for a total of eight leagues by four, a territory that included eastern Caraquet. Michel Degrez, who previously owned the seigneury, owed Hesnault 200 livres, which probably explains this decision. Hesnault did not settle in the area, and other merchants took advantage of the situation to hunt on his land. On August 30, 1705, Hesnault filed a complaint with the Conseil against Jean de Clarmont, general manager of the Compagnie de Mont-Louis. It is unclear what happened to the Pokemouche fief after Hesnault's death.

Half of Caraquet Island was granted to Sieur Denis Riverin on November 24, 1696, for fishing by Pierre Rey Gaillard.

Permanent establishment (1711-1784)

Gabriel Giraud

Gabriel Giraud's village site, today in Bas-Caraquet.

Historical maps of Caraquet.

In 1713, under the Treaty of Utrecht, England gained control of the peninsular part of Acadia, with France retaining the territories to the north, including Caraquet. Around 1731, Frenchman Gabriel Giraud dit St-Jean was probably the first permanent settler in the region. He arrived around 1710 and was living in Miramichi by 1727. He was born in Brittany and lived on the east bank of Ruisseau Saint-Jean (now Isabelle), three-quarters of a league from the road, on the border between Caraquet and Bas-Caraquet. He married a Micmac woman and they had at least two children, Angélique (married Joseph LaBouthillier) and Jean-Baptiste, also married to a Micmac woman. Their name has disappeared, but they have a few descendants, mainly in Gaspé Peninsula. It seems that a few fishing families settled with the Girauds, forming the first nucleus of the village.

Seven Years' War

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  Monument commemorating the Great Upheaval
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The early years of Caraquet's history are closely linked to the Seven Years' War. To escape deportation, hundreds of Acadians took refuge from 1756 at Camp d'Espérance on Beaubears Island in the Miramichi. They spent a terrible winter there, and some 2,000 died of hunger and disease. In 1757, part of the population decided to settle on the southern shore of Chaleur Bay, between Népisiguit and Néguac. A village was founded in Caraquet by Alexis Landry, Olivier Blanchard, Olivier Légère, Louis Brideau, and their families, at a place called Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage.

In a letter mailed from Restigouche and dated September 7, 1760, commissioner Basagier wrote to Cardinal Mazarin that 150 people were living in Caraquet in 36 families. That same year, following the battle of the Restigouche, Captain Saint-Simon was given command of a privateer ship with a crew of 47 Norman and Acadian men. In October, they chased a British ship, which they captured. They were then pursued by a British frigate. They took refuge in Saint-Simon Bay to avoid capture. They scuttled their boat at a place called La Chaloupe, near the hamlet of Morais in Bas-Caraquet. Unable to return to Restigouche, they spent the winter in the region. In the spring of 1761, Saint-Simon returned to France, while some of his crew settled in Caraquet and Bas-Caraquet. Some later founded the village of Saint-Simon.

In July and August 1761, Pierre Du Calvet conducted a census of the region for Governor Murray. According to the census, 37 families (174 inhabitants) lived in Caraquet in three villages. There were also five inhabitants on Caraquet Island, but subsequent accounts seem to show that they were only seasonal fishermen.

Following this census and in retaliation for the battle, Captain Roderick MacKenzie captured most of the Acadians in the region between Nipisiguit (Bathurst) and Miscou. These people were imprisoned in Halifax (on George Island) and at Fort Cumberland. Caraquet was relatively spared, as 150 of the 170 or so inhabitants were left behind due to lack of space on the boats, or fled. Those who escaped the attacks settled in other parts of Chaleur Bay, such as Bonaventure or Miscou, on Landry Brook. The Girauds were suppliers to MacKenzie. Having not been deported, this would make Caraquet and Bas-Caraquet one of the oldest permanent settlements in New Brunswick and eastern Canada. The British merchant Gamaliel Smethurst would later recount these events. He witnessed the deportation of Nipisiguit and was subsequently abandoned by his captain. He made his way to Caraquet with the help of three Frenchmen hiding in the woods, probably members of Saint-Simon's crew. After haggling, Gabriel Giraud gave him a canoe and help from the Micmacs to get to Fort Cumberland. According to Gamaliel Smethurst, it was Jean-Baptiste Giraud, Gabriel's son, who wrote to MacKenzie asking him not to touch his compatriots.

Re-establishment of the town, followed by privateer attacks

In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, giving Great Britain the entire territory of Acadia. In 1764, the Royal Proclamation allowed deported Acadians to settle on uninhabited land. The Landry, Légère, Blanchard, Poirier, Cormier, Dugas, Gallien, Doiron, Gionet, Albert, Bouthillier, and Lanteigne families returned to Caraquet in 1766. The Dugués and Mallets decided instead to settle in Shippagan.

In 1762, Raymond Bourdages of Bonaventure founded a fishing post in Caraquet. These possessions made many jealous. In 1776, during the American Revolution, American privateers attacked merchants on Chaleur Bay, including the Bourdages post in Caraquet. John Allan stirred up the coastal Micmacs, and on March 22, 1779, 16 of their number attacked Caraquet.

19th century

Grand Concession

Caraquet's great concession in 1784.

In 1784, François Gionest walked to Halifax. The Grande Concession, also known as the Grande Grant, the legal occupation of land in Caraquet, was granted on March 19, a concession of 14,150 acres (57 square kilometers) for 34 families. Some of this land is now part of Bertrand or Bas-Caraquet. By this time, several Norman fishermen had settled in Caraquet. Some of the first settlers were Micmacs, so their descendants were of mixed race. Other Canadians followed. From then on, Caraquet's population split into two distinct groups: the Acadians to the west, and the Métis, Québécois and Normans to the east. For around 50 years, there was a certain amount of hatred between the two groups, and no marriages. This split had disastrous consequences during the riots of 1875.

Great Concession of 1784

Note: sources contradict each other on certain historical elements, in particular on the spelling of the founders' names.

1. Joseph Dugas, married to Agathe Landry, daughter of Alexis Landry (no. 6).
2. François Landry, son of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married to Adélaïde Bourg.
3. Pierre Landry, son of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married Marguerite Allain, niece of Olivier Léger (no. 13).
4. Anselme Landry, son of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married Marie-Thérèse Brideau, daughter of Louis Brideau (no. 20).à
5. Thadée Landry, son of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married to Madeleine Marie Légère, daughter of Olivier Léger (no. 13).
6. Alexis Landry, married to Marie Terriot.
7. Jean Cormier, son-in-law of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married to Marie Anastasie Aucoin.
8. Pierre Thibodeaux, married to Anne-Marie Landry, daughter of Alexis Landry (no. 6).
9. Charles Poirier, married to Madeleine Landry, sister of Alexis Landry (no 6).
10. Joseph Boudreau, married to Marie-Jeanne Haché.
11. Charles Gauvin, married Marie-Angélique Paulin, son of Jean-Baptiste Paulin (no 22).
12. Olivier Blanchard, married Catherine-Joseph Amirault.
13. Olivier Léger, married to Marie-Joseph Hébert, then Hélène Poirier.
14. René Haché dit Gallant, married Marguerite Blanchard, daughter of Olivier Blanchard (no. 12).
15. Alexis Cormier, son-in-law of Alexis Landry (no. 6), married Élisabeth Isabelle Gauthier.
16. Rémi Landry, son of Alexis Landry (no 6), married to Charlotte Doiron.
17. Gabriel Albert, Angélique Geneviève Boutheiller, sister of René Lebouthillier.
18. Pierre Albert, son of Gabriel (no 17), married Genevieve Denis.
19. Michel Parisé, nicknamed Sieur, probably an officer, was a member of Saint-Simon's crew. Married to Marie Albert, daughter of Gabriel Albert (no. 17).
20. Louis Brideau, married Marie Thérèse Thomas Pépin Bigaouet. He sold his land to the Robin company in 1793 and moved to Tracadie.
21. Henri Chenard, married Thérèse Agnès Canivet, niece of René Lebouthillier (no. 31).
22. Jean-Baptiste Paulin, first married Isabella Gasse, second Agnès Canivet.
23. Pierre Frigault, married Marie-Josephte dit Josette Bouthillier, sister of René Leboutillier (no. 31) and granddaughter of Gabriel Giraud.
24. Jacques Morais, married Agnès Boutillier, sister of René Leboutillier (no. 31) and granddaughter of Gabriel Giraud.
25. Louis de Lanteigne, born in Virey, now Saint-Hilaire-du-Harcouët, Normandy. Lanteigne is now the most common family name in town. Son of Nicolas de Lanteigne, he married Marguerite Chapados around 1758. In 1760, François Bourdon, commander of the Ristigouche garrison, was godfather to his son Eustache.
26. Louis Mailloux, married Suzanne Huard.
27. Zacharie Doiron, married to Anne Le Vicaire, daughter of the widow Boulet (no. 34).
28. Joseph Chiasson, lived in Miscou for a time before settling in the east end of town. Married to Anne Haché dit Gallant, cousin of René Haché dit Gallant (no. 14).
29. Adrien Gallien, son of Pierre (no 30). Married Marguerite Duguay.
30. Pierre Gallien, fisherman from Normandy, from Gaspésie. Father of Adrien Gallien (no. 29). Married Angélique Giraud dit St-Jean, widow of René Lebouthillier (no 31) and daughter of Gabriel Giraud.
31. René Lebouthillier, married to Geneviève Chiasson.
32. François Gionet, born in France. He is probably one of the three Frenchmen who helped Gamaliel Smethurst escape. First marriage to Marie Albert, daughter of Gabriel Albert (no. 17), second to Marie-Anne Le Vicaire, daughter of the widow Boulet (no. 34).
33. Widow Giroux, wife of Jean-Baptiste Giraud dit Saint-Jean, son of Gabriel Giraud.
34. Widow Boullet.

George La Roque lived east of Caraquet, but received no land. He married Genevieve Boutheiller. His descendants can be found in Shippagan.

Establishment of the Church and industrial fishing

Robert Young (1834-1904)

Priests began visiting the town in 1768. Previously, Caraquet residents celebrated white masses, led by Alexis Landry. The first church was built in Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage in 1791. A fire destroyed several buildings and food supplies on August 28, 1795; the population appealed to Quebec for help. The Confrérie Notre-Dame des Agonisants was founded in 1804 by French missionary René-Pierre Joyer; it was probably the first French-speaking association in Acadia. In July 1811, Bishop Joseph-Octave Plessis visited Caraquet for a few days. He reported that meat was scarce and bread of poor quality, but that people fished well. He also said that the people to the west were pure, but that those to the east had a lesser reputation, that they went out in Paspébiac, and that they had allied themselves with “savages”, without being barbarians. Some people from Caraquet took part in the War of 1812. Louis Gauthier, a veteran of the Battle of Waterloo with Napoleon's Grande Armée, settled in Caraquet after the war. In 1817, Father Thomas Cooke became Caraquet's first resident priest. A second church was built in 1818. Being the only one in the region at the time, it contributed to the town's prosperity.

A fishing post was founded on Caraquet Island in 1821 by Marcel Martin. In the 19th century, many Jersey, Scottish, and English settlers came to Caraquet. Most left after a few years, or left very few descendants. Nevertheless, they controlled the local economy and politics for over a hundred years. The Robin Company was established in 1837 and remained in business until 1958. A post office was inaugurated in 1850. By 1870, postal service to Caraquet was one of the worst in the province, with three mail deliveries a week from Bathurst. The arrival of the Intercolonial Railway improved postal service, but by 1909 the Acadian peninsula was still only served six times a week. English merchant Robert Young settled in Caraquet in 1850. Philip Rive and William Fruing followed a little later. In January 1857, three English boats were trapped in the ice behind Caraquet Island; the sailors were rescued by people from Caraquet and Bas-Caraquet. Later in the year, Saint-Pierre-aux-Liens church is built. A major storm kills several sailors in July 1857. A typhoid fever epidemic ravaged the town in the winter of 1863-1864. In 1865, Jean-Louis Landry opened the region's first flour mill. It operated for 35 years. He also owned a wood mill and a wool carding mill.

Louis Mailloux case

The main events in the Louis Mailloux Affair.

On May 5, 1871, the provincial government passed the Common School Act, which, among other things, put an end to religious education in schools. Supported by the province's Irish, a few members of parliament, and the clergy, the inhabitants protested and demanded a network of Catholic schools. This crisis led to the defeat of several provincial and federal MLAs, weakened John A. Macdonald's government, and contributed to his downfall. Caraquet's fishermen were impoverished by the companies' method of payment, which involved tokens that could only be exchanged at their stores. The companies only gave the fisherman enough to survive, not enough to emancipate himself. This situation, combined with the discontent caused by Bill 87, led to an uprising among some of the population. This degenerated into two weeks of rioting. The police intervened with the help of the militia. Two people were killed in a shoot-out on January 27, 1875: John Gifford, a 22-year-old militiaman from Newcastle, and 17-year-old Louis Mailloux.

Industrial revolution

The Old Convent in 1880

At the request of the city's merchants, the Montreal Telegraph Co opened a telegraph service in 1872. The convent of the Congrégation Notre-Dame, now called the Vieux Couvent, for the education of girls, was built in 1874. An epidemic of “picote”, or smallpox, hit the town in 1874; a makeshift hospital was set up in Charles Coghlan's house.

Canadian Confederation hurts the Maritime economy. To counter both the exodus of Acadians to the West or the United States and the fishing companies' control over the population, the clergy mobilized to found new farming villages, such as Paquetville.

Collège Sacré-Cœur

French Consul General Kleszkowski visits Caraquet in August 1899.

Engineer Sanford Fleming proposed to the federal government that the Intercolonial Railway pass through the town and build a port at Pokesudie. The route was eventually diverted to Halifax, but a more modest railroad was inaugurated in November 1887. In December, the Caraquet Flyer train derailed at Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage, killing eight people. The opening of the railroad led to an economic boom in Caraquet, with the construction of several factories, workshops, shops, and a hotel, including the Château Albert, built in 1907. In 1895, Henri A. and Nazaire Dugas opened a sawmill and later a door and window factory, a shingle factory, and a three-story flour mill. The quality of their products was renowned throughout the region. Boats were built by Charles Chenard and Théotime Albert. There was also a confectionery, the Fitzpatrick tannery, a foundry, a boucanerie, lobster canneries and a bakery. In 1919, Jos L. Blanchard opened the first commercial craft shop. There was a quarry near the church, from which stone was extracted for the construction of institutional buildings. Most of these factories no longer exist. The telephone arrived in Caraquet around 1891.

Collège Sacré-Cœur opened its doors in 1899.

20th century

From college opening to municipal incorporation

In 1905, the 5th Acadian National Convention was held in Caraquet. By the early 20th century, there were no permanent settlements on Caraquet Island. On June 5, 1914, during a heavy storm, 13 fishermen from Caraquet, 6 from Bas-Caraquet, and some 15 from Lamèque lost their lives. In 1906, the Banque du Peuple, the first bank in northern Acadia, opened a branch in Caraquet. It was replaced by the Provincial Bank of Canada in 1910. Collège Sacré-Cœur was destroyed by fire in 1915. After a long debate over whether the college should be rebuilt in Caraquet, it was finally moved to Bathurst in 1921. Electricity arrived in Caraquet around 1939. In the 1940s, the federal government purchased the Caraquet Wharf, partly ending the British merchants' stranglehold on the local economy. In 1945, a bus service was introduced. Three vehicles operated domestic routes, and another provided the Bathurst-Tracadie-Shippagan link. Local service continued until the 1970s. Branch #56 of the Royal Canadian Legion was inaugurated in 1946. The 1950 Eucharistic Congress attracted over 20,000 participants. In 1959, the Caraquet Regional School (later called La Nacelle, after its student newspaper) was built on the ruins of Collège Sacré-Coeur. Previously, the town's students had been spread over several schools that were too small. That same year, the École des Pêches was set up in the basement.

City building and effervescence

Enfant-Jésus Hospital.

The Caraquet Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1948. This organization was particularly involved in the social and economic life of the town. It proposed daylight saving time, and took an interest in town planning and nationalism, opposing a unilingual English sign on a construction site. Some of her early proposals, such as a second main road south of the city, have yet to be realized. The Morano Cinema opened in 1949; it was renamed the Bellevue Cinema when it was bought out in 1994. In 1958, the Chamber of Commerce formed a hospital committee. Numerous donations were collected, but the government refused to pay the hospital's interest and depreciation. The citizens of the town, through the Chamber of Commerce, with Dr. Blaise Duguay as president, asked that the town be incorporated as a municipality, which was done on November 15, 1961. In 1962, the new municipality agreed to finance part of the hospital's costs for 35 years. Dr. Blaise Duguay was one of the architects of Caraquet's Enfant-Jésus Hospital. He was a member of the hospital's construction committee for ten years and served as secretary to the Board of Directors.

Over the following months, new sidewalks were built, hydro poles were removed from the north side of the boulevard to clear the view, and the dial telephone system was installed. By-elections were held on December 15, 1961, when the first council was elected by acclamation, with Alban Blanchard as mayor. The council took up residence in the basement of the regional school, which also housed the fisheries school. Administrative details such as the division of the town into wards were settled in the same month. General elections were held on February 20, 1962, with Alban Blanchard retaining his title of mayor. A police force was established in 1962, with Antoine Landry as chief.

Caraquet's first Acadian festival was held in 1963. During the two weeks of the festival, the two buildings that led to the town's incorporation were inaugurated: the new campus of the New Brunswick School of Fisheries and the L'Enfant-Jésus Hospital. The Musée acadien was also inaugurated on August 13. In 1965, Caraquet hosted the XIVth Acadian National Convention. Delegates focused on the development of Acadian vitality. Current issues and the needs of the population were studied. In 1966, the municipal council initiated several major projects, including the construction of a water supply system. Villa Beauséjour, a vast residence for the elderly, was inaugurated in 1967. The Colisée Léopold-Foulem was built the same year.

Political and economic instability

The Marais area, in the west of the port, has undergone profound transformation since the late 1950s, and is home to many of the city's institutions.

The first municipal elections were unopposed. The abolition of the Gloucester County Municipality on November 9, 1966, had a beneficial effect on municipal election turnout. On June 12, 1967, the contest was very close in some wards, and some of the favorites lost the election. Prominent candidates included Lorenzo Morais, Clarence LeBreton, and Mathilda Blanchard. The distribution of sometimes virulent flyers and the formation of informal political parties were also on the rise. The mayoral race was led by two candidates from the same ward, Lucien Boudreau and Dr. Raymond Savoie, both incumbents in Ward #2. Dr. Savoie was the winner. The year also saw the creation of school boards, with 17 candidates standing for election.

During the Confederation Centennial celebrations in 1967, the new Musée acadien building was inaugurated. One of Mayor Savoie's major achievements was the construction of the Colisée Léopold-Foulem, inaugurated on December 15, 1968, and dedicated to Léopold Foulem and Donat Cormier, who had been involved in amateur sports for 35 years. In the June 9, 1969 election, the three candidates were the incumbent mayor, Rhéal Leblanc, and Lorenzo Morais. Savoie's council was weakened by the departure of two members in 1968, and Morais, the least promising candidate, won the election. Morais led the city with dynamism and firmness, but his popularity waned. The Polyavlente Louis-Mailloux was inaugurated in 1970. Only one of the councilors elected in 1969 stood for re-election in 1971, and many accused Morais of ruling without consultation. The campaign was difficult and confusing, but Morais won against Olivier Légère.

The Gorton Pew fish processing plant is bought out by local interests, including Lorenzo Morais. Boulevard and Portage Street were extended. Difficulties continued for Morais, as six of the eight councilors resigned between 1972 and 1974. Morais ran in the 1972 provincial election, where he became Caraquet's first Conservative MNA in many years. Morais wanted to benefit his town but was forced to resign from the cabinet due to disagreements with other members. Despite the difficulties, Morais was re-elected to the municipal council in 1974 with only 26 more votes than Germain Blanchard. His council was again plagued by resignations.

The industrial park took shape on June 12, 1974, with the opening of the Cirtex spinning mill. The plant created 109 jobs outside the fishing season. The plant had already created a scandal in 1972 when Councillor Fidèle Thériault discovered that the municipality had offered $500 per job created to the promoter. Trouble flared up again when employees formed a union affiliated with the Union canadienne de l'industrie des pêches et des travailleurs affiliés (Union of Canadian Fishermen and Allied Workers in English). After several threats from employees and the employer, a strike broke out on December 3, 1974. Under the leadership of Mathilda Blanchard, the employees refused to give in. Mayor Morais resigned on January 12, feeling that he no longer had the support of the population. Councillor Philibert Landry came to the employer's defense, prompting him to resign as well. Fidèle Thériault's accusations resurface at the council, prompting the resignation of two other councilors and the municipality's general manager. In the March 1975 by-election, Germain Blanchard, a popular school principal, won a large majority for mayor over Normand Sirois. The missing councilors are elected in the September by-election. The strike at the Cirtex factory continues into the autumn of 1975, making constant headlines. Lorenzo Morais demands Mathilda Blanchard's resignation. Blanchard refused, calling the situation in town a “reign of terror”. The union was subsequently decertified and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court. The plant finally closed in December 1976. The plant was owned by the Japanese company Ataka, and the closure of their oil refinery in Come by Chance, Newfoundland, had hurt their business too much.

Despite his victory, Germain Blanchard would be questioned in 1976. The resignation of Police Chief Edgar Landry prompted a group of citizens to denounce the municipal administration. A pamphlet distributed to all citizens addressed the resignation, the Cirtex factory, and 19 other issues, claiming that there was a conspiracy and a secret mayor. The council remained in place despite the accusations. In the May 9, 1977 election, Lorenzo Morais again ran for mayor against Germain Blanchard. The campaign focused on reopening the factory and expanding the port. The construction of a second shopping center at Pointe-Rocheuse did not meet with unanimous approval, but Morais had retained his support and the fight was close. Nevertheless, Blanchard was re-elected by a slim majority.

The Village Historique Acadien was inaugurated in 1977. The port was renovated for $3.5 million, and the new town hall was inaugurated on September 18, 1978. The factory was bought by Chanel Fabrics, who reopened it on December 3, 1979. A few years later, the plant had to close again, this time for economic reasons. The Blanchard administration introduced a land-use plan and zoning by-law. Despite a request by some councilors for an official inquiry into the municipality's administration, Blanchard's mandate was stable and the town was in the public eye.

École Marguerite-Bourgeoys was inaugurated in 1981. The daily l'Acadie Nouvelle was founded in 1984.

The 1980s and 1990s saw the end of English-Canadian control of the fishing industry. The Vieux-Couvent, home to most of the region's cultural and community organizations, was destroyed by fire in 1992. Caraquet hosted the 15th Jeux de l'Acadie in 1994. The Caraquet police force was abolished in 2001 and replaced by the RCMP. In 2003, following the crab crisis, Micmac fishermen moved into Caraquet harbour to ensure their safety. The same year, a protest movement in New Brunswick and Quebec was formed to prevent the construction of an incinerator by Bennet Environmental in Belledune, to treat soil contaminated with hydrocarbons and creosote oil. Risks to the environment and the health of residents of the Chaleur Bay communities were cited. Faced with public pressure, the New Brunswick government demanded several actions from the company, including a public consultation, before giving the green light to construction.

Capital of Acadia

In 1992, Roberta Dugas won the municipal election against Germain Blanchard, who had led the city since 1975. Roberta Dugas was elected by acclamation on May 8, 1995. She won by a large majority over Bernard Robichaud on May 11, 1998.

In 1993, Caraquet was one of 3 towns selected to participate in the Rural and Small Towns program. The downtown committee carried out several projects over the following years, including the development of plazas and the organization of activities. The Heritage Preservation Committee was created. The adoption of a heritage preservation by-law in 1999 made it a municipal committee. Posting regulations were modified, and a directory of historic sites and an information brochure were produced. Caraquet declared itself the cultural capital of Acadia in 1993, adopted a cultural policy, and formed a cultural commission in 1994. The commission's goal was to “provide the cultural organizations and events in its territory with structures and tools for grouping and concertation that would support their development”.

Work on Foley Beach began in 1994. In 1995, a movement of citizens and cockle fishermen, supported by Mayor Dugas, attempted to impose a moratorium on fishing, considering the Caraquet flats to be part of the local heritage. A demonstration was held at the Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage tidal flats on July 18, 1995, against fishermen who were not residents of the town. The La Nacelle middle school closed its doors in 1996; a committee was formed in 1997 to find a new use for the building, and the idea of setting up a call center was already mooted. In the municipal election of May 11, 1998, Roberta Dugas won against Patrick Albert.

Under Roberta Dugas's mandate, the industrial park was developed and several businesses were established. In 1998, Système Erin opened a factory. The company manufactures and assembles screening and granulometric selection systems. A peat bog project was canceled in 2000 following opposition from residents. The outdoor center was destroyed by fire in 2000 but rebuilt the same year. The Wink factory closed in 2000. Despite opposition from the municipality and employees, the plant, now owned by syndic Price-Waterhouse-Coopers, was bought out in the summer of the same year by the Pakistani company Medina Mills. Medina Mills laid off most of its employees.

21st century: between disappointment and hope

Caraquet cultural center.

In 2000, following the resignation of Bernard Thériault, Mayor Roberta Dugas entered the race for the Liberal nomination in the riding of Caraquet. After 9 years as the head of the municipality, Roberta Dugas stepped down in 2001. At the time, the town was experiencing an economic and demographic crisis. Unemployment reached 16%, and although the population grew slightly, it was set to fall by 500 by 2006. In the municipal elections of May 14, 2001, Antoine Landry won over Claude L'Espérance. Antoine Landry's mission was to pursue the development of culture, tourism, and economy. Landry was elected by acclamation on May 10, 2004. He won again on May 12, 2008, against Odile Mallet, a negotiator in the hospital affair.

The Bellevue cinema was demolished in 2002. On May 8, 2003, for its commitment to the development of arts and culture, the city was awarded the title of “Cultural Capital of Canada-2003” by Canadian Heritage. A first for the country, the city was awarded the title again in 2008. In 2003, a cultural center was set up in the La Nacelle school building, which had been purchased in 2000. The building was enlarged in 2005, allowing the opening of three movie theaters, the city having had none since 2002. Caraquet's Saint-Pierre-aux-Liens church became a provincial historic site in 2005. In 2006, Roberta Dugas became Chair of the Board of Directors of the Workplace Health, Safety and Compensation Commission (WHSCC), now WorkSafe NB. The town's official name, formerly Town of Caraquet, was changed to Caraquet on September 9, 2009.

Saving the hospital

Maternity and surgical services were threatened with cuts in 2000. In 2004, the provincial government and Health Minister Elvy Robichaud restructured healthcare in the province. Several hospitals, including Caraquet, were to be closed. First opened in 1963, Caraquet's Enfant-Jésus Hospital lost its emergency services on March 2, 2004, becoming a community facility open 12 hours a day. Obstetrics and surgical services were transferred to Bathurst.

During the move, the people of Caraquet mobilized to preserve their hospital. Numerous demonstrations took place, and a commission for the restoration of the emergency service named 'SOS Hôpital' (Action H shortly afterward) was formed. Together with residents of other towns, the New Brunswick Rural Health Care Coalition was formed. The town of Caraquet became involved in taking the provincial government to court over the potential damage of this closure. Although an offer between the government and one of Caraquet's key negotiators, Claude L'Espérance, was put on the table, the result was a failure.

A lawsuit was nevertheless filed by an independent group, arguing that service to Bathurst could adversely affect the quality of service in French for a region that uses the language almost exclusively, but the verdict was also unsuccessful. Judge Roger Savoie asserted that it is the role of the New Brunswick legislature and government, not the courts, to protect and promote the equality of English and French in the province in the first instance.

In 2006, Shawn Graham and his ministers, newly elected to power, had no intention of converting the community health center back into a hospital. The service was gradually improved. There are still rumors of a complete reopening. This debate led to the idea of a central hospital in Pokemouche, which would offer better service to the population of the Peninsula. The ambulance stop and emergency room were re-established on April 16, 2012.

Economic diversification

Construction of an access road from Route 11, in 2015.

Gradually abandoned, the railway saw its passenger service cancelled in 1954, its freight service in 1986, and was finally dismantled in 1994. Peter Swire, an Ontario developer, plans to build a new $350 million rail network on the Acadian Peninsula. Facilities in Caraquet would include offices and workshops. The line would link the town with Shippagan, Tracadie-Sheila, and Bathurst. In May 2008, a group of businessmen, including the same Peter Swire, purchased land in the industrial park for the symbolic sum of one dollar. By the end of the year, they plan to build a $15 million, 9,000 m2 appliance recycling plant. The plant could process 1,000,000 appliances delivered by truck or train, and create 30 to 40 jobs.

In 2008, a proposed 12-hectare blueberry farm on Rue du Portage prompted the city to amend its pesticide-spraying bylaw. In the same year, the town experienced significant economic growth. From May 15 to 17, the city hosted the Sixth Francophone Conference of International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), in preparation for the Francophonie Summit in Quebec City.

In the municipal election held on May 12, 2008, incumbent mayor Antoine Landry was re-elected against Odille Maillet, with a 63% majority (1474 votes). There are 4 candidates for the position of councilor in wards 1 and 2, and 5 candidates in ward 3. Candidates in Ward 4 were elected by acclamation. The current city council was elected in the May 14, 2012, quadrennial election. A second count on May 24 confirmed the election of Councillor Rosaire Labrie over Denise Dumaresq.

Work on the Route 11 bypass began in 2012, linking Bertrand to Rue du Portage in 2017 at an estimated cost of $45 million.

Timeline

1731: Breton Gabriel Giraud founds Caraquet.

1757: A group of Acadians led by Alexis Landry settle in Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage.

1761: A group of privateers led by Captain Saint-Simon take refuge in Caraquet.

1761: During Roderick MacKenzie's raid, 20 Caraquetois are deported. Most inhabitants took refuge elsewhere in the region.

1762: Raymond Bourdages establishes a fishing post in Caraquet.

1766 : Refugees return to Caraquet.

1776: American privateers attack the Port of Caraquet.

1779: Micmacs led by John Allan attack Port of Caraquet.

1784: François Gionet travels on foot to Halifax. Land ownership granted to 34 families.

1781: Construction of the first church in Sainte-Anne-du-Bocage.

1837: The Robin Company establishes itself in Caraquet.

1871: Outbreak of the New Brunswick School Question.

1874-1875: Louis Mailloux affair. Smallpox epidemic.

1887: Opening of the Caraquet & Gulf Shore Railway Company.

1899: Opening of Collège Sacré-Cœur.

1905: Fifth Acadian National Convention.

1915: Collège Sacré-Cœur burns down.

1948: Foundation of the Caraquet Chamber of Commerce.

1958: The Robin Company closes its fishing establishment.

1959: Founding of the New Brunswick School of Fisheries.

1961: Incorporation of the town.

1963: First Acadian Festival and opening of the Enfant-Jésus Hospital and Musée Acadien.

1965: XIVth Acadian National Convention.

1984: Foundation of L'Acadie nouvelle.

1993: Caraquet proclaims itself Cultural Capital of Acadia.

1994: 15th Jeux de l'Acadie.

2003: Caraquet is named Cultural Capital of Canada. The cultural center is built with the help of the grant.

2004: The Enfant-Jésus hospital loses most of its services.

2008: Most services are restored to the hospital. The city is named a Cultural Capital of Canada for the second time.

Municipal

Territorial evolution of the parish of Caraquet.

1724: Foundation of Caraquet, part of the territory of Acadia, New France.

1763: Caraquet becomes part of Sunbury County, Province of Nova Scotia, British North America.

1784: The province of New Brunswick is created from Sunbury County in Nova Scotia. Caraquet is now part of Northumberland County.

1786: The parish of Alnwick, of which Caraquet is now a part, is formed in Northumberland County.

1814: The parish of Saumarez, of which Caraquet is now a part, is formed from the parish of Alnwick.

1826: Gloucester County is formed from Northumberland County. Caraquet remains part of Saumarez parish.

1831: Caraquet parish is formed from Saumarez parish.

1851: Shippagan parish formed from Caraquet parish.

1867: Canadian Confederation.

1897: Paquetville parish formed from portions of Caraquet and Inkerman parishes.

1961: The town of Caraquet is incorporated. County and parish governments abolished in 1966

Bibliography

Documentaries

• Blanchard, Corinne Albert (1967). Caraquet: quelques bribes de son histoire. Caraquet: Comité du centenaire de Caraquet.
• Blanchard, Louise-Andrée; Cormier, Yvon (2009). L'art du tintamarre: Caraquet 1979-2009. Caraquet: Éditions Louise-Andrée. ISBN 978-2-9811259-0-3.
• Cormier, Yvon; Thériault, Bernard (2012). Festival acadien de Caraquet, cinquante ans de culture en fête. Lévis: Les Éditions de la Francophonie. ISBN 978-2-89627-308-9.
• Friolet, J. Antonin (1978). Caraquet, village au soleil. Fredericton: Fidèle Thériault.
• Ganong, William Francis (1948). The History of Caraquet and Pokemouche. Saint John: New Brunswick Museum.
• Landry, Nicolas (2005). Éléments d'histoire des pêches: La Péninsule acadienne du Nouveau-Brunswick (1890-1950). Sillery: Éditions du Septentrion. ISBN 2-89448-443-7.
• Landry, Nicolas (2009). Une communauté acadienne en émergence: Caraquet (Nouveau-Brunswick), 1760-1860. Éditions Prise de parole. ISBN 978-2-89423-245-3.
• Landry, Nicolas (2014). Un collège classique en Acadie du Nouveau-Brunswick: Le Sacré-Cœur de Caraquet, Bathurst, 1899-1975. Lévis: Éditions de la Francophonie. ISBN 978-2-89627-384-3.
• LeBreton, Clarence; Thériault, Bernard (1981). Caraquet 1961-1981: du plus long village du monde à la plus longue rue des Maritimes. Caraquet: Ville de Caraquet.
• LeBreton, Clarence (2011). Caraquet: un album de famille, 1961-2011. Québec: Éditions GID. ISBN 978-2-89634-123-8.
• LeBretona, Clarence (2002). La Révolte acadienne. Moncton: Les Éditions de la Francophonie. ISBN 2-923016-03-3.
• LeBreton, Clarence (1990). Le Caraquet Flyer: histoire de la Caraquet Gulf shore railway company, 1871-1920. Montréal: Les éditions du Fleuve. ISBN 2-89372-038-2.
• LeBreton, Clarence (1991). Le collège de Caraquet, 1892-1916. Montreal: Les Éditions du Fleuve.
• Léger, Médard J. (1962). Notes, documentaires sur certains aspects historiques de la région du Bas-Gloucester. Moncton: Société historique acadienne.
• Légère, Martin J. (1987). Une idée qui vient de loin. Caraquet: Caisse populaire de Caraquet.
• Légère, Martin J. (1987). Villa Beausejour Inc, historique 1967-1987. Ser d'Imprimerie A Roy.
• Robichaud, Donat (2008). Éphémérides du Grand-Caraquet: incluant Bas-Caraquet, Caraquet, Haut-Caraquet. Bertand: Paquetville, D Robichaud.
• Saint-Cyr, Gérard (1998). L'école et l'industrie des pêches du Nouveau-Brunswick. Éditions Faye. ISBN 2-921824-09-4.
• Thériault, Fidèle (1985). Les familles de Caraquet. Caraquet: Fidèle Thériault.

Articles

• "Société historique Nicolas-Denys". Index des Mariages de Caraquet. 1979.
• Cormier, Rhéal (2002). "Le field hockey dans le Bas-Gloucester". Société historique Nicolas-Denys.
• Haché, Louis; Thériault, Fidèle; Robichaud, D. O. (1996). "Le mystère du Saint Bocage". Société historique Nicolas-Denys.
• Dugas, Pauline; Robichaud, D. O.; Thériault, Fidèle (2003). "Prés et aboiteaux de la Rivière-du-Nord". Société historique Nicolas-Denys.
• Robichaud, Omer (2001). "Hôtellerie de la Péninsule". Société historique Nicolas-Denys.

Plays

• Branch, James E. (1928). Vive nos écoles catholiques ou la résistance de Caraquet. Moncton: Imprimerie l'Évangéline.
• Duguay, Calixte; Boudreau, Jules; Mailloux, Louis (1994). Moncton. Éditions d'Acadie. ISBN 2-7600-0258-6.

Novels, poetry and biographies

• Gionet, Albert (1987). Middle Caraquet: The Lean Years: A Memoir. Pompano Beach: Exposition Press of Florida. ISBN 0-682-40353-9.
• Haché, Odette (2001). Le vécu de ma famille: poignée de souvenirs de 1909 à 2001. Caraquet: Jeanne Cormier-Mourant.
• Landry, Edmond L. (2003). Alexis. Lévis: Les Éditions de la Francophonie. ISBN 2-84964-022-0.
• Le Bouthillier, Claude (2004). Le Feu du mauvais temps: roman historique. Montreal: XYZ éditeur. ISBN 2-84964-022-0.
• Léger, Édith (1993). Du temps de la grise. Caraquet: Éditions Franc-jeu. ISBN 2-921517-03-5.

Other sources used

• Keenlyside, David L. (1999). "Glimpses of Atlantic Canada's Past"". Revista de Arqueología Americana (16).
• Landry, Nicolas; Lang, Nicole (2001). Histoire de l'Acadie. Sillery: Septentrion. ISBN 2-89448-177-2.
• Tuck, James A. (1984). Maritime Provinces prehistory. National Museums of Canada. ISBN 0-660-10759-7.

Filmography

2007: On a tué l'enfant-Jésus, documentary by Renée Blanchar, National Film Board of Canada, color, 62 min.

See also

• History of the Acadians
• History of New Brunswick