Shusha: Difference between revisions

Shusha (Azerbaijani: Şuşa, Armenian: Շուշի; translit. Shushi, Russian Шуша translit. Shusha, Persian: شوشی ; translit. Shusha) de-jure in territory of Azerbaijan, de-facto - in territory of self-proclaimed Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, next to the rayon of the same name.

Shusha was the second largest town in Nagorno-Karabakh, predominantly populated by Azeris. Situated 1400-1800 m above sea level on the picturesque Karabakh mountains ridge, Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort during Soviet Union.

Considered to be a historical capital of the Karabakh region, Shusha was one of the cultural centers of Azerbaijan. It was home to many Azeri intellectuals, poets, writers and especially, musicians. In 1977 it was declared reservation of Azerbaijan architecture and history. It is also of high religious and strategic importance to the Armenians, housing the Karabakh Armenian Cathedral and serving (along with Lachin district to the west) as a land link to Armenia.

According to the last population census in 1989, the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and the Shusha district had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of population of Shusha district and 98% of the town of Shusha were Azerbaijani.

The ethnic demographics of the town varied from time to time with Azeris constituting the majority from the late 18th century until mid-19th century and between 1920-1992 and Armenians constituting the majority from the second half of the 19th century till 1920. Following the Armenian seizure of Shusha in 1992 the Azeri population of the town fled and currently the population consists of roughly 3,000 Armenians ^[1], mainly refugees from other parts of Azerbaijan and some migrants from Armenia and Diaspora.

Foundation of Shusha

Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 (according to other sources, 1756-1757) by Panah Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh khanate (1748-1822), on a place of the ancient Armenian fortress Shoshva Snakh was the center of the Armenian princedom (melikdom) Varanda. Recent excavation of the Armenian archeologists have found out ruins of this fortress, and also the Armenian medieval sepulchral stones and antique ceramics. ^[2]^[3]

Melik of Varanda Shakhnazar II, being at enmity with others Armenian meliks, has entered the union with Pànàkh-khan and has given to it a place for the basis of capital. Initially the town was named Panahabad, after its founder. Later during the rule of Ibrahim Khalil khan (r. 1763-1806), son of Panah Ali khan, the town was renamed to Shusha, apparently after the name of the nearest Armenian village of Shosh.^{[citation needed]} The town was also largely known by the name "Qala" ("fortress" in Azeri).

The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly-established khanate from external threats, and especially from the invasions from Iran, he needed to build a new more reliable castle.

According to Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi (1773-1853), the author of Karabakh-nameh ('History of Karabakh'), one of the most significant chronicles on the history of Karabakh in 18-19th centuries, the Karabakh nobility assembled to discuss the danger of invasion from Iran and told Panah Ali khan: "We must build among the impassable mountains such an inviolable and inaccessible fort, so that no strong enemy could take it". Melik Shahnazar of Varanda, who was the first of Armenian meliks to accept suzerainty of Panah-khan and always remained his loyal supporter, suggested a location for the new fortress. Thus, Panahabad-Shusha was founded. According to the aforementioned chronicle, prior to construction of the fortress by Panah Ali khan there were no buildings at that location and it was used as a cropland and pasture by the people of the nearby Shushakend village.^[4]

Struggles against the invasions from Iran

In less than a year after Shusha was founded, the Karabakh khanate was attacked by Muhammed Hassan khan Qajar, one of the major claimants to the Iranian throne. During the Safavid Empire Karabakh was for almost two centuries ruled by the Turkic-speaking clan of Qajar, and therefore, Muhammed Hassan khan considered Karabakh his hereditary estate.

Muhammed Hassan khan besieged Shusha (Panahabad at that time) but soon had to retreat, because of the attack on his khanate of his major opponent to the Iranian throne Kerim khan Zend. His retreat was so hasty that he even left his cannons under the walls of Shusha fortress. Panah Ali khan counterattacked the retreating troops of Muhammad Hassan khan and even briefly took Ardebil across the Araks River in South (Iranian) Azerbaijan.

In 1756 (or 1759) Shusha and the Karabakh khanate underwent a new attack from Fatali khan Afshar, ruler of Urmia. With his 30,000-strong army Fatali khan also managed to gain support from the meliks (feudal vassals) of Jraberd and Talish (Gulistan), however melik Shahnazar of Varanda continued to support Panah Ali khan. Siege of Shusha lasted for six months and Fatali khan eventually had to retreat.

After Panah Ali khan's death his son Ibrahim Khalil khan became the ruler of the Karabakh khanate. Under him Karabakh khanate became one of the strongest state formations in 18th century Azerbaijan and Shusha turned into a big city. According to travellers who visited Shusha at the end of 18th-early 19th centuries the town had about 2,000 houses and app. 10,000 population.

In summer 1795 Shusha underwent major attack of Aga Muhammad khan Qajar, son of Muhammad Hassan khan who attacked Shusha in 1752. Aga Muhammad khan Qajar's goal was to end with the feudal fragmentation and to restore the old Safavid State in Iran and Azerbaijan. For this purpose he also wanted to proclaim himself shah (king) of Iran. However, according to the Safavid tradition, shah had to take control over the whole of South Caucasus before his coronation. Therefore, Karabakh khanate and his fortified capital Shusha, were the first and major obstacle to achieve these ends.

Aga Muhammad khan Qajar besieged Shusha with his 80,000-strong army. Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000. Women fought together with men. The Christian Armenian population of Karabakh also actively participated in this struggle against the invaders and fought side by side with Muslim population jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.

The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Muhammad khan ceased the siege and advanced to Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi), which despite desperate resistance was occupied and exposed to unprecedented destruction.

In 1797 Agha Muhammad shah Qajar, who by that time has already managed to declare himself shah (albeit he did not succeed in conquering the Caucasus as the tradition required) decided to carry out a second attack on Karabakh.

Trying to revenge for the previous humiliating defeat Qajar devastated the surrounding villages near Shusha. The population could not recover from the previous 1795 attack and also suffered from serious draught which lasted for three years. The artillery of the enemy also caused serious losses to the city defenders. Thus, in 1797 Aga Muhammed shah succeeded to seize Shusha and Ibrahim Khalil khan had to flee to Dagestan.

However, several days after seizure of Shusha, Aga Muhammed shah was killed in enigmatic circumstances by his bodyguards. The Iranian troops left without head run away and soon afterwards, Ibrahim Khalil khan returned to Shusha and restored his authority as khan of Karabakh.

19th century: Shusha within the Russian Empire

From the early 19th century Russian influence in the Caucasus began to rise. Following Georgia, many Azeri ruled khanates accepted Russian protectorate. In 1805, a Kurekchay Treaty was signed between the Karabakh khanate and the Russian Empire on the transfer of the Karabakh khanate to Russia.

The Russian Empire consolidated its power in the Karabakh khanate following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 and Treaty of Turkmanchay of 1828, when following two Russo-Iranian wars, Iran recognized belonging of the Karabakh khanate, along with many other Azerbaijani ruled khanates, to Russia.

The Karabakh khanate was eliminated in 1822. During the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828), the citadel at Shusha held out for several months and never fell. After this Shusha ceased to be a capital of a khanate and instead became an administrative capital of first the Karabakh province (1822-1840) and then of the Shusha district (uyezd) of the Yelizavetpol province (goubernia) (1840-1923).

The 19th century also brought significant alterations to the ethnic demographics of the region. Thus, if in 1795 before Aga Muhammad khan Qajar's attack, there lived more than 60,000 in Karabakh, in 1816 the population of the khanate totaled only 24,000 people. Thus, within twenty years from 1795 to 1815 the population of Karabakh decreased by 36,000, i.e. more than half.

Nevertheless, Shusha grew and developed. In 1851 the population of Shusha was 15,194 people ^[5], in 1886 - 30,000 ^[6], in 1910 - 39,413 ^[7] and in 1916 - 43,864 ^[8]. By the second half of the 19th century Shusha became the largest town in Azerbaijan and the second largest town in the Caucasus after Tbilisi. By March 1920 there were 12 thousand houses in Shusha, with approximate population of 60,000 ^[9].

The reason for this rapid population growth was not only economic development, but also Russian-sponsored Armenian settlement in Karabakh and other parts of Azerbaijan that took place throughout the 19th century. Virtually every Russo-Turkish war produced new waves of Armenian refugees who resettled in many parts of Russian ruled Caucasus, including Shusha. Thus, a Russian shauvinistic author Shavrov wrote in 1911: "Of 1 million 300 thousand Armenians living nowadays in South Caucasus, more than 1 million don't belong to the indigenous population of the region and were settled by us [i.e. Russians]" ^[10].

A Shushavian from a noble family. Picture by V.Vereschagin, a Russian traveller to Shusha in 1865.

According to first Russian-held census of 1823 conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, the number of Azeri ("Muslim") families in Shusha was 1,111 (72.5%) whereas the number of Armenian families reached 421 (27.5%) ^[11]. Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Azeri families in Shusha decreased to 963 and the number of Armenian families increased to 762^[12]. By the end of the 1880s the percentage of Azeri population living in the Shusha district (part of earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886.

Beginning from 1830s the town was divided into two parts: Azeris lived in eastern lower quarters, Armenians settled in relatively new western upper quarters of the town. The "Muslim" part of the town was divided to 17 mahallas (quarters). Each mahalla had its own mosque, Turkish bath, water-spring and also a mahalla representative, who would be elected among the elderlies (aksakals), and who would function as a sort of head of present-day municipality. The Armenian part of the town consisted of 12 quarters, five churches, town and district (uyezd) school and girls' seminarium.

The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest center of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh in general was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts.

At the same time the Armenian population of Karabakh was engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade and actively good formation aspired to educate the children. Therefore in Shusha there were Armenian schools and any Muslim; there was an Armenian theatre (founded in 1891), newspapers were published in the Armenian language and in general the cultural life of city had exclusively Armenian character.

Early 20th century: Shusha turns into an Armenian-Azeri battlefield

File:Nagorno-Karabakh Family.jpg

Old portrait of an early 20th century Armenian family in Karabakh.

Beginning of the 20th century marked the first Armenian-Azeri clashes throughout Azerbaijan. This new phenomenon had two reasons. First, it was the result of increasing tensions between the Muslim and Christian Armenian population, which significantly increased in numbers throughout the 19th century. Second, by the beginning of the 20th century peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. That is why, if the beginning of the 20th century in Russia itself was a period of bourgeois and Bolshevik revolutions, in the peripheries these movements have acquired a character of the national liberation movement.

First clashes between the Armenians and Azeris took place in Baku in February 1905. Soon, the conflict spilled over to other parts of the Caucasus, and on August 5, 1905 first conflict between the Armenian and Azeri population of Shusha took place. As a result of mutual pogroms and killings, hundreds of people died, more than 200 houses were burned.

After the World War I and subsequent collapse of the Russian Empire, Karabakh was declared part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918-1920), a decision hotly disputed by neighboring Armenia.

Since summer 1918 till the spring 1919 Susha was capital of "Armenian Karabakh " - de-facto independent formation which ruled Armenian National Council in Susha.

In January 1919 the government of Azerbaijan decided to create a governorship in Karabakh with a regional capital in Shusha. Khosrov bey Sultanov, a native of Karabakh was appointed the general-governor of Karabakh. He had three Armenian and three Azeri aides. Later same year the Entente Allies provisionally recognized Karabakh's de facto ownership by Azerbaijan and the authority of the Karabakh general-governor and decided that the ultimate status of Karabakh was pending final decision in Paris Peace Conference.

Armenian National Council long disagreed to recognize authority of the Azerbaijan governor, but Armenians have been compelled to surrender under pressure of Englishmen and the Azerbaijan armies Following this decision, in August 1919, under strong British pressure, the VII Congress of the Karabakh Armenians recognized the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh would be settled at the Paris Peace Conference.

At night with 22 for 23 March 1920, the population of Armenian Karabakh has risen against authority of Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan garrisons in Khankendi and Askeran have been attacked. Simultaneously Azerbaijan armies and the population have arranged massacre of Armenians in Shusha and have burnt the Armenian quarters. More than 7,000 houses were burned and Shusha was virtually cleansed of its Armenian population. " The most beautiful Armenian city has been destroyed, crushed up to the basis; in wells we have seen corpses of women and children " - recollects Soviet communistic leader G.K. Ordjonikidze ^[13] The officer of the Azerbaijan army Alimardanbekov wrote to his brother in his letter, which was preserved in archives, "Ermeni Shusha (i.e. Armenian Shusha), which you saw, has been completely burned down. Only 5-10 houses were left intact. More than 1000 Armenians were taken as prisoners. All men have been killed, all famous and wealthy people, even Khalif (the Bishop). The Muslims robbed innumerable wealth of the Armenians and got so rich that has become impudent". ^[14] " ^[15].

Pogrom in Shusha was kept in historical memory of the Karabakh Armenians as largest of the accidents gone through by them.

As a result of rout, Shusha has come to the pitiest situation. Its population was reduced up to 9.000, and by the end of 20th and up to 5.000 person ^[16] (and so never and has not risen above 17.000 in 1989). ^[17] Nadezhda Mandelstam so describes Shusha 20th years: " everywhere the same: two houses without a roof, without windows, without doors. (...)Speak, that after slaughter all wells have been hammered by corpses. If who has escaped, ran from this city of death. On all mountainous streets we did not see and have not met any person. Only below - on a market square - pottered about small group to people, but among them there was no Armenian, only moslems ". ^[18]

Shusha from 1920s till present

In 1920 Russian Red Army first invaded Azerbaijan and then Armenia and put an end to the national de facto governments existing in these two countries. Beginning from this period, conflict over control of Karabakh and its central town of Shusha, moved from the battlefields to diplomatic sphere.

In order to attract Armenian public support, promised that they would allot Karabakh to Armenia, along with Nakhichevan, and Zangezur (the latter separates Nakhichevan from Azerbaijan proper). However, Moscow also had far-reaching plans concerning Turkey, hoping that it would, with a little help from Russia, develop along Communist lines. Needing to appease Turkey and Armenia at the same time, Moscow agreed to a division that transferred Zangezur to Armenia, while leaving Karabakh and Nakhichevan as parts of Azerbaijan.

On July 5, 1921 the Caucasus branch of the Communist Party adoptd the following decision regarding the future status of Karabakh: "Proceeding from the necessity of national peace between the Muslims and Armenians, and economic links of the upland and lowland Karabakh, its constant link with Azerbaijan, to leave the Mountainous Karabakh within the Azerbaijan SSR, having granted it a broad regional autonomy with the administrative center in the town of Shusha included in the autonomous region." As a result, Mountainous (Nagorno-)Karabakh Autonomous Region was established within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923.

The decision to leave Karabakh within Azerbaijan has been largely possible by a firm position of the then Soviet Azerbaijan leader Nariman Narimanov, who resisted pressures from Stalin to concede Karabakh and Nakhichevan to Armenia.

File:Shusha-ruins-2005.jpg

Ruins of portions of abandoned present-day Shusha.

Following 1920 Armeno-Azeri clashes and burning of the town, Shusha reduced to a small provincial town of some 10,000. Khankendi (renamed Stepanakert after an Armenian communist Stepan Shaumyan), which previously was a small village, became a new regional capital and soon turned into the largest town within Mountainous Karabakh Autonomous Region.

The town remained half-ruined until 1960s, when the town began to gradually revive to due to its recreation potential. In 1977 Shusha was declared reservation of Azerbaijan architecture and history and became one of the major resort-towns in former USSR.

With the start of the Armenian-Azeri conflict in 1988 Shusha became the most important Azeri stronghold in Karabakh, where from Azeri forces shelled permanently capital Stepanakert. On May 9, 1992 the town was captured by Armenian forces and Azeri population fled. Today a large part of the town remains in ruins.

Thomas de Waal quoted: Armenians in the oldest town in Nagorno-Karabakh remember how in 1920 Azeri forces captured it - and burned. [1]

Since the end of the war town was repopulated by Armenians, most refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. While the population of the town is barely a half of the prewar number, and the demographic of the town has changed from completely Azeri to Armenian, slow recovery can be seen. The Goris-Stepanakert Highway passes through the town, and is a transit and tourist destination for many. There are some hotels in the city, and reconstruction work continues, in particular, the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral recently finished going through the restoration process.

Tourist & Historic Sites

Being the historic capital of Karabakh, there are numerous sites in the city and its vicinity. These include:

-Ghazanchetsots Cathedral

-Gahvar Aga Mosque

-City walls and fortress

-Tank Memorial

References

^ Thomas de Waal, "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory", Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), May 10, 2002
^ Голос Армении — в Арцахе обнаружен арцахский Тигранакерт
^ http://66.116.100.66/showthread.php?t=22841
^ Template:Ru icon Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh.
^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1853, p. 128
^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1886, p. 319
^ "Review of the Yelizavetpol goubernia as of 1910" ("Obzor Yelizavetpolskoy goubernii za 1910 g." in Rissian) Tbilisi, 1912 p. 141
^ "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1917, p. 190
^ "Nagorny Karabakh" (in Russian), 1927, p. 39
^ Shavrov N.I. "New threat to the Russian affairs in the Transcaucasus: forthcoming sale of Mughan to strangers" ("Novaya ugroza russkomu delu v Zakavkazye: predstoyashaya rasprodazha Mugani inorodcam") St.Petersburg, 1911, pp. 60-61
^ "Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd" ("Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m" in Russian), Tbilisi, 1866
^ "Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" ("Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308
^ http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm
^ http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm
^ ГИКМ НКР, ф.11, л.107
^ http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm
^ http://www.thewordbook.com/?suche=Shusha
^ Н.Я.Мандельштам. Книга третья. Paris, YMCA-Press, 1987, p. 162-164.

External links

Template:Azerbaijan

39°45′N 46°45′E / 39.750°N 46.750°E / 39.750; 46.750

[1] Thomas de Waal, "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory", Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), May 10, 2002

[2] Голос Армении — в Арцахе обнаружен арцахский Тигранакерт

[3] ttps://66.116.100.66/showthread.php?t=22841

[4] Template:Ru icon Mirza Jamal Javanshir Karabagi. The History of Karabakh.

[5] "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1853, p. 128

[6] "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1886, p. 319

[7] "Review of the Yelizavetpol goubernia as of 1910" ("Obzor Yelizavetpolskoy goubernii za 1910 g." in Rissian) Tbilisi, 1912 p. 141

[8] "Caucasus Calendar" ("Kavkazskiy kalendar" in Russian) of 1917, p. 190

[9] "Nagorny Karabakh" (in Russian), 1927, p. 39

[10] Shavrov N.I. "New threat to the Russian affairs in the Transcaucasus: forthcoming sale of Mughan to strangers" ("Novaya ugroza russkomu delu v Zakavkazye: predstoyashaya rasprodazha Mugani inorodcam") St.Petersburg, 1911, pp. 60-61

[11] "Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd" ("Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m" in Russian), Tbilisi, 1866

[12] "Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" ("Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308

[13] ttps://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm

[14] ttps://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm

[15] ГИКМ НКР, ф.11, л.107

[16] ttps://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm

[17] ttps://www.thewordbook.com/?suche=Shusha

[18] Н.Я.Мандельштам. Книга третья. Paris, YMCA-Press, 1987, p. 162-164.

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@@ Line 28: / Line 28: @@
 |}
-'''Shusha''' ([[Azerbaijani language |Azerbaijani]]: Şuşa, [[Armenian language |Armenian]]: Շուշի; translit. Shushi, [[Russian language |Russian]] Шуша translit. Shusha, [[Persian language |Persian]]: شوشی ; translit. Shusha) is a [[Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan|town]] in [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region of [[Azerbaijan]], next to the [[Shusha (rayon)|rayon of the same name]].
+'''Shusha''' ([[Azerbaijani language |Azerbaijani]]: Şuşa, [[Armenian language |Armenian]]: Շուշի; translit. Shushi, [[Russian language |Russian]] Шуша translit. Shusha, [[Persian language |Persian]]: شوشی ; translit. Shusha) de-jure in territory of [[Azerbaijan]], de-facto - in territory of self-proclaimed [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]], next to the [[Shusha (rayon)|rayon of the same name]].
 Shusha was the second largest town in Nagorno-Karabakh, predominantly populated by Azeris. Situated 1400-1800 m above sea level on the picturesque Karabakh mountains ridge, Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort during [[Soviet Union]].
@@ Line 36: / Line 36: @@
 According to the last population census in [[1989]], the town of Shusha had a population of 17,000 and the Shusha district had a population of 23,000. 91.7% of population of Shusha district and 98% of the town of Shusha were Azerbaijani.
-The ethnic demographics of the town varied from time to time with Azeris constituting the majority from the late 17th century until mid-19th century and between 1920-1992 and Armenians constituting the majority from the second half of the 19th century till 1920. Following the Armenian seizure of Shusha in 1992 the Azeri population of the town fled and currently the population consists of roughly 3,000 Armenians <ref>Thomas de Waal, [http://www.iwpr.net/archive/cau/cau_200205_128_2_eng.txt "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory"], Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), May 10, 2002</ref>, mainly refugees from other parts of Azerbaijan and some migrants from [[Armenia]] and [[Armenian Diaspora|Diaspora]].<!--For details on ethnic demographics in various periods of history, please, refer to "19th century: Shusha within the Russian Empire" section-->
+The ethnic demographics of the town varied from time to time with Azeris constituting the majority from the late 18th century until mid-19th century and between 1920-1992 and Armenians constituting the majority from the second half of the 19th century till 1920. Following the Armenian seizure of Shusha in 1992 the Azeri population of the town fled and currently the population consists of roughly 3,000 Armenians <ref>Thomas de Waal, [http://www.iwpr.net/archive/cau/cau_200205_128_2_eng.txt "Shusha Armenians recall their bittersweet victory"], Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), May 10, 2002</ref>, mainly refugees from other parts of Azerbaijan and some migrants from [[Armenia]] and [[Armenian Diaspora|Diaspora]].<!--For details on ethnic demographics in various periods of history, please, refer to "19th century: Shusha within the Russian Empire" section-->
 == Foundation of Shusha ==
-Shusha was founded in [[1750]]-[[1752]] (according to other sources, [[1756]]-[[1757]]) by [[Panah Ali khan Javanshir]] (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the [[Karabakh khanate]] (1748-1822). Initially the town was named Panahabad, after its founder. Later during the rule of [[Ibrahim Khalil khan]] (r. 1763-1806), son of Panah Ali khan, the town was renamed to Shusha, apparently after the name of the nearest Armenian village of Shosh.{{fact}} The town was also largely known by the name "Qala" ("fortress" in [[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]]).
+Shusha was founded in [[1750]]-[[1752]] (according to other sources, [[1756]]-[[1757]]) by [[Panah Ali khan Javanshir]] (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the [[Karabakh khanate]] (1748-1822), on a place of the ancient Armenian fortress Shoshva Snakh was the center of the Armenian princedom (melikdom) Varanda. Recent excavation of the Armenian archeologists have found out ruins of this fortress, and also the Armenian medieval sepulchral stones and antique ceramics. <ref>[http://www.golos.am/2000/april_2006/18/st03.html Голос Армении — в Арцахе обнаружен арцахский Тигранакерт]</ref><ref>http://66.116.100.66/showthread.php?t=22841</ref>
+Melik of Varanda Shakhnazar II, being at enmity with others Armenian meliks, has entered the union with Pànàkh-khan and has given to it a place for the basis of capital. Initially the town was named Panahabad, after its founder. Later during the rule of [[Ibrahim Khalil khan]] (r. 1763-1806), son of Panah Ali khan, the town was renamed to Shusha, apparently after the name of the nearest Armenian village of Shosh.{{fact}} The town was also largely known by the name "Qala" ("fortress" in [[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]]).
 The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly-established khanate from external threats, and especially from the invasions from Iran, he needed to build a new more reliable castle.
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 In summer 1795 Shusha underwent major attack of [[Agha Muhammad Khan|Aga Muhammad khan Qajar]], son of Muhammad Hassan khan who attacked Shusha in 1752. Aga Muhammad khan Qajar's goal was to end with the feudal fragmentation and to restore the old Safavid State in Iran and Azerbaijan. For this purpose he also wanted to proclaim himself shah (king) of Iran. However, according to the Safavid tradition, shah had to take control over the whole of South Caucasus before his coronation. Therefore, Karabakh khanate and his fortified capital Shusha, were the first and major obstacle to achieve these ends.
-Aga Muhammad khan Qajar besieged Shusha with his 80,000-strong army. Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000. Women fought together with men. The Christian Armeno-Albanian population of Karabakh (which historically formed as a result of ethnic mixture of local Caucasus Albanians and Armenians) also actively participated in this struggle against the invaders and fought side by side with Muslim population jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.
+Aga Muhammad khan Qajar besieged Shusha with his 80,000-strong army. Ibrahim Khalil khan mobilized the population for long-term defense. The number of militia in Shusha reached 15,000. Women fought together with men. The Christian Armenian population of Karabakh also actively participated in this struggle against the invaders and fought side by side with Muslim population jointly organizing ambushes in the mountains and forests.
 The siege lasted for 33 days. Not being able to capture Shusha, Agha Muhammad khan ceased the siege and advanced to Tiflis (present-day [[Tbilisi]]), which despite desperate resistance was occupied and exposed to unprecedented destruction.
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 Nevertheless, Shusha grew and developed. In 1851 the population of Shusha was 15,194 people <ref>"Caucasus Calendar" (''"Kavkazskiy kalendar"'' in Russian) of 1853, p. 128</ref>, in 1886 - 30,000 <ref>"Caucasus Calendar" (''"Kavkazskiy kalendar"'' in Russian) of 1886, p. 319</ref>, in 1910 - 39,413 <ref>"Review of the Yelizavetpol goubernia as of 1910" (''"Obzor Yelizavetpolskoy goubernii za 1910 g."'' in Rissian) Tbilisi, 1912 p. 141</ref> and in 1916 - 43,864 <ref>"Caucasus Calendar" (''"Kavkazskiy kalendar"'' in Russian) of 1917, p. 190</ref>. By the second half of the 19th century Shusha became the largest town in Azerbaijan and the second largest town in the Caucasus after Tbilisi. By March 1920 there were 12 thousand houses in Shusha, with approximate population of 60,000 <ref>"Nagorny Karabakh" (in Russian), 1927, p. 39</ref>.
-The reason for this rapid population growth was not only economic development, but also Russian-sponsored Armenian settlement in Karabakh and other parts of Azerbaijan that took place throughout the 19th century. Virtually every [[Russo-Turkish war]] produced new waves of Armenian refugees who resettled in many parts of Russian ruled Caucasus, including Shusha. Thus, a Russian author Shavrov wrote in 1911: "''Of 1 million 300 thousand Armenians living nowadays in South Caucasus, more than 1 million don't belong to the indigenous population of the region and were settled by us'' [i.e. Russians]" <ref>Shavrov N.I. "New threat to the Russian affairs in the Transcaucasus: forthcoming sale of Mughan to strangers" (''"Novaya ugroza russkomu delu v Zakavkazye: predstoyashaya rasprodazha Mugani inorodcam"'') St.Petersburg, 1911, pp. 60-61</ref>.
+The reason for this rapid population growth was not only economic development, but also Russian-sponsored Armenian settlement in Karabakh and other parts of Azerbaijan that took place throughout the 19th century. Virtually every [[Russo-Turkish war]] produced new waves of Armenian refugees who resettled in many parts of Russian ruled Caucasus, including Shusha. Thus, a Russian shauvinistic author Shavrov wrote in 1911: "''Of 1 million 300 thousand Armenians living nowadays in South Caucasus, more than 1 million don't belong to the indigenous population of the region and were settled by us'' [i.e. Russians]" <ref>Shavrov N.I. "New threat to the Russian affairs in the Transcaucasus: forthcoming sale of Mughan to strangers" (''"Novaya ugroza russkomu delu v Zakavkazye: predstoyashaya rasprodazha Mugani inorodcam"'') St.Petersburg, 1911, pp. 60-61</ref>.
 [[Image:Noble-shushavian1.jpg|right|100px|thumb|A Shushavian from a noble family. Picture by V.Vereschagin, a Russian traveller to Shusha in 1865.]] According to first Russian-held census of [[1823]] conducted by Russian officials Yermolov and Mogilevsky, the number of Azeri ("Muslim") families in Shusha was 1,111 (72.5%) whereas the number of Armenian families reached 421 (27.5%) <ref>"Description of the Karabakh province prepared in 1823 according to the order of the governor in Georgia Yermolov by state advisor Mogilevsky and colonel Yermolov 2nd" (''"Opisaniye Karabakhskoy provincii sostavlennoye v 1823 g po rasporyazheniyu glavnoupravlyayushego v Gruzii Yermolova deystvitelnim statskim sovetnikom Mogilevskim i polkovnikom Yermolovim 2-m"'' in Russian), Tbilisi, 1866</ref>. Seven years later, according to 1830 data, the number of Azeri families in Shusha decreased to 963 and the number of Armenian families increased to 762<ref>"Review of Russian possessions in Transcaucasus" (''"Obozreniye Rossiyskih vladeniy za Kavkazom"''), vol. III, St.-Petersburg, 1836, p. 308</ref>. By the end of the 1880s the percentage of Azeri population living in the Shusha district (part of earlier Karabakh province) decreased even further and constituted only 41.5%, while the percentage of the Armenian population living in the same district increased to 58.2% in 1886.
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 The population of the town primarily dealt with trade, horse-breeding, carpet-weaving and wine and vodka production. Shusha was also the biggest center of silk production in the Caucasus. Most of the Muslim population of the town and of Karabakh in general was engaged in sheep and horse-breeding and therefore, had a semi-nomadic lifestyle, spending wintertime in lowland Karabakh in wintering pastures and spring and summer in summering pastures in Shusha and other mountainous parts.
+At the same time the Armenian population of Karabakh was engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade and actively good formation aspired to educate the children. Therefore in Shusha there were Armenian schools and any Muslim; there was an Armenian theatre (founded in  [[1891]]), newspapers were published in the Armenian language and in general the cultural life of city had exclusively Armenian character.
 == Early 20th century: Shusha turns into an Armenian-Azeri battlefield ==
 {{Main|Armenian-Azeri war 1918}}
+[[Image:Nagorno-Karabakh_Family.jpg|thumb|150px|Old portrait of an early 20th century Armenian family in Karabakh.]]
 [[Image:Karabakh-reconciliation-1918.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Karabakh reconciliation commission comprised of religious leaders and elders of both Azeri and Armenian communities. Photo made in 1918.]]
 [[Image:Shusha_1920.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Ruins of the Armenian quarters of Shusha after the clashes in March 1920.]]
-Beginning of the [[20th century]] marked the first Armenian-Azeri clashes throughout [[Azerbaijan]]. This new phenomenon had two reasons. First, it was the result of increasing tensions between the local Muslim population and Armenian settlers, which significantly increased in numbers throughout the 19th century. Second, by the beginning of the 20th century peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. That is why, if the beginning of the 20th century in Russia itself was a period of bourgeois and Bolshevik revolutions, in the peripheries these movements have acquired a character of the national liberation movement.
+Beginning of the [[20th century]] marked the first Armenian-Azeri clashes throughout [[Azerbaijan]]. This new phenomenon had two reasons. First, it was the result of increasing tensions between the Muslim and Christian Armenian population, which significantly increased in numbers throughout the 19th century. Second, by the beginning of the 20th century peoples of the Caucasus, similar to other non-Russian peoples in the periphery of the Russian Empire began to seek cultural and territorial autonomy. That is why, if the beginning of the 20th century in Russia itself was a period of bourgeois and Bolshevik revolutions, in the peripheries these movements have acquired a character of the national liberation movement.
 First clashes between the Armenians and Azeris took place in Baku in February 1905. Soon, the conflict spilled over to other parts of the Caucasus, and on August 5, 1905 first conflict between the Armenian and Azeri population of Shusha took place. As a result of mutual pogroms and killings, hundreds of people died, more than 200 houses were burned.
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 After the [[World War I]] and subsequent collapse of the [[Russian Empire]], Karabakh was declared part of the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] (1918-1920), a decision hotly disputed by neighboring Armenia.
+Since summer 1918 till the spring 1919 Susha was capital of "Armenian Karabakh " - de-facto independent formation which ruled Armenian National Council in Susha.
-The Armenian government tried several times to seize Shusha militarily. In January 1919 Armenian troops advanced towards Shusha, captured and destroyed 9 Azeri villages on their way but eventually had to retreat.
 In January 1919 the government of Azerbaijan decided to create a governorship in Karabakh with a regional capital in Shusha. [[Khosrov bey Sultanov]], a native of Karabakh was appointed the general-governor of Karabakh. He had three Armenian and three Azeri aides. Later same year the [[Triple Entente|Entente Allies]] provisionally recognized Karabakh's de facto ownership by Azerbaijan and the authority of the Karabakh general-governor and decided that the ultimate status of Karabakh was pending final decision in Paris Peace Conference.
+Armenian National Council long disagreed to recognize authority of the Azerbaijan governor, but Armenians have been compelled to surrender under pressure of Englishmen and the Azerbaijan armies
 Following this decision, in August 1919, under strong British pressure, the VII Congress of the Karabakh Armenians recognized the authority of the Azerbaijan government until the issue of the mountainous part of Karabakh would be settled at the Paris Peace Conference.
+At night with 22 for 23 March 1920, the population of Armenian Karabakh has risen against authority of Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan garrisons in Khankendi and Askeran have been attacked. Simultaneously Azerbaijan armies and the population have arranged massacre of Armenians in Shusha and have burnt the Armenian quarters.
-The largest Armenian-Azeri ethnic clashes in Shusha took place on March-April 1920. On the night from March 21-22, 1920 when the Azeris celebrated Spring Equinox ([[Novruz|Novruz Bayram]]), local Armenian groupings organized a surprise attack aimed at cleansing the town from the Azeri population.
+More than 7,000 houses were burned and Shusha was virtually cleansed of its Armenian population.  " The most beautiful Armenian city has been destroyed, crushed up to the basis; in wells we have seen corpses of women and children " - recollects Soviet communistic leader G.K. [[Ordjonikidze]] <ref> http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm </ref>  The officer of the Azerbaijan army Alimardanbekov wrote to his brother in his letter, which was preserved in archives, "Ermeni Shusha (i.e. Armenian Shusha), which you saw, has been completely burned down. Only 5-10 houses were left intact. More than 1000 Armenians were taken as prisoners. All men have been killed, all famous and wealthy people, even Khalif (the Bishop). The Muslims robbed innumerable wealth of the Armenians and got so rich that has become impudent". <ref> http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm </ref> " <ref> ГИКМ НКР, ф.11, л.107 </ref>.
+Pogrom in Shusha was kept in historical memory of the Karabakh Armenians as largest of the accidents gone through by them.
-They seized the approaches to Shusha, [[Khankendi]], and the [[Askeran]] fortress and began to attack the Azeri part of the town and burn the houses on their way. In parallel, regular Armenian army units attacked Zangezur, to the west of Karabakh.
+As a result of rout, Shusha has come to the pitiest situation. Its population was reduced up to 9.000, and by the end of 20th and up to 5.000 person <ref> http://www.nkr.am/rus/mid/bull/text1_00.htm </ref> (and so never and has not risen above 17.000 in [[1989]]). <ref> http://www.thewordbook.com/?suche=Shusha </ref> [[Nadezhda Mandelstam]] so describes Shusha 20th years: " everywhere the same: two houses without a roof, without windows, without doors. (...)Speak, that after slaughter all wells have been hammered by corpses. If who has escaped, ran from this city of death. On all mountainous streets we did not see and have not met any person. Only below - on a market square - pottered about small group to people, but among them there was no Armenian, only moslems ". <ref> Н.Я.Мандельштам. Книга третья. Paris, YMCA-Press, 1987, p. 162-164. </ref>
-However, the effect of suddenness backfired at the Armenians. Azeris infuriated by the attack on their holy day, launched a counteroffensive to the Armenian quarters of Shusha and burned almost the whole Armenian part of the town, forcing the Armenian population to flee. During these clashes thousands of people from both Armenian and Azeris died, more than 7,000 houses were burned and Shusha was virtually cleansed of its Armenian population.
 == Shusha from 1920s till present ==
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 With the start of the Armenian-Azeri conflict in [[1988]] Shusha became the most important Azeri stronghold in Karabakh, where from Azeri forces shelled permanently capital Stepanakert. On [[May 9]], [[1992]] the town was captured by Armenian forces and Azeri population fled. Today a large part of the town remains in ruins.
-Thomas de Waal quoted: Armenians in the oldest town in Nagorno-Karabakh remember how a decade ago their forces captured it from the Azerbaijanis - and then burned it. [http://www.iwpr.net/archive/cau/cau_200205_128_2_eng.txt]
+Thomas de Waal quoted: Armenians in the oldest town in Nagorno-Karabakh remember how in 1920 Azeri forces captured it  - and  burned. [http://www.iwpr.net/archive/cau/cau_200205_128_2_eng.txt]
 [[Image:Ghazanchetsots.jpg|thumb|[[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] in Shusha]]Since the end of the war town was repopulated by Armenians, most refugees from Azerbaijan and other parts of Karabakh, as well as members of the Armenian diaspora. While the population of the town is barely a half of the prewar number, and the demographic of the town has changed from completely Azeri to Armenian, slow recovery can be seen. The [[Goris-Stepanakert Highway]] passes through the town, and is a transit and tourist destination for many. There are some hotels in the city, and reconstruction work continues, in particular, the [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]] recently finished going through the restoration process.
 == Tourist & Historic Sites ==

Revision as of 15:32, 31 October 2006