Jump to content

Battle of the Hydaspes: Difference between revisions

Coordinates: 32°49′40″N 73°38′20″E / 32.82778°N 73.63889°E / 32.82778; 73.63889
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→Battle: per Roy
→Battle: described the elephants and soldiers on the Indian side to better to shed more light on the Indian soldiers.
(10 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 8: Line 8:
|date=May 326 BC
|date=May 326 BC
|place= [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes River]], modern-day [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab Province]], [[Pakistan]]
|place= [[Jhelum River|Hydaspes River]], modern-day [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab Province]], [[Pakistan]]
|result=Greek victory, annexation of the [[Punjab]]<ref>Fuller, pg 198 <br>{{quote|"While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit."}}</ref><ref>Fuller, pg 181 {{quote|"Among the many battles fought by invaders who entered the plains of India from the north-west, the first recorded in history is the battle of the Hydaspes, and in [[David George Hogarth|Hogarth's]] opinion, when coupled with the crossing of the river, together they 'rank among the most brilliant operations in warfare'."}}</ref>
|result=Greek victory, annexation of the kingdom of [[Punjab]] merging the other Indian territories to create the Indian Satrap to be lorded over by King Porus<ref>Fuller, pg 198 <br>{{quote|"While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit."}}</ref><ref>Fuller, pg 181 {{quote|"Among the many battles fought by invaders who entered the plains of India from the north-west, the first recorded in history is the battle of the Hydaspes, and in [[David George Hogarth|Hogarth's]] opinion, when coupled with the crossing of the river, together they 'rank among the most brilliant operations in warfare'."}}</ref>
|territory=Alexander controls most of Punjab region. King Porus appointed as the new overlord of this Indian Satrap including additional territories.<ref> ''"Accordingly, Alexander not only permitted him to govern his former kingdom, giving him the title of satrap, but also added to it the territory of the independent peoples whom he subdued, in which there are said to have been fifteen nations, five thousand cities of considerable size, and a great multitude of villages."'' Plutarch's Life of Alexander 60.10 </ref>
|territory=Alexander controls most of Punjab region

|combatant1=[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]<br>[[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]<br>[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] allies <br>[[History of India|Indian]] allies
|combatant1=[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]<br>[[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]<br>[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] allies <br>[[History of India|Indian]] allies
|combatant2=[[Pauravas|Paurava]]
|combatant2=[[Pauravas|Paurava]]
Line 17: Line 18:
|strength2=20,000,<ref name=Plutarch621>Plutarch 62.1:
|strength2=20,000,<ref name=Plutarch621>Plutarch 62.1:
<br>{{quote|"But this last combat with Porus took off the edge of the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]]s' courage, and stayed their further progress into India. For having found it hard enough to defeat an enemy who brought but twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse into the field, they thought they had reason to oppose Alexander's design of leading them on to pass the Ganges, too, which they were told was thirty-two furlongs broad and a fathom deep, and the banks on the further side covered with multitudes of enemies."}}</ref> 30,000<ref name="Arrian 5.15">[[Arrian]], [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book5a.asp 5.15]</ref> or 50,000<ref name="Diodorus 17.87.2">Diodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D2 17.87.2]</ref> [[infantry]], <br>2,000<ref name=Plutarch621/> to 4,000<ref name="Arrian 5.15" /> [[cavalry]], <br>200,<ref name="Arrian 5.15" /> 130<ref name="Diodorus 17.87.2"/> ("likeliest" according to Green),<ref>Green, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ouf47It6_wgC&pg=PA553 p. 553]</ref> or 85<ref>Curtius 8.13.6; Metz Epitome 54 (following Curtius)</ref> [[war elephant]]s, <br>1,000 [[chariot]]s.<ref name=Plutarch605>Plutarch 60.5</ref>
<br>{{quote|"But this last combat with Porus took off the edge of the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]]s' courage, and stayed their further progress into India. For having found it hard enough to defeat an enemy who brought but twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse into the field, they thought they had reason to oppose Alexander's design of leading them on to pass the Ganges, too, which they were told was thirty-two furlongs broad and a fathom deep, and the banks on the further side covered with multitudes of enemies."}}</ref> 30,000<ref name="Arrian 5.15">[[Arrian]], [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book5a.asp 5.15]</ref> or 50,000<ref name="Diodorus 17.87.2">Diodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D2 17.87.2]</ref> [[infantry]], <br>2,000<ref name=Plutarch621/> to 4,000<ref name="Arrian 5.15" /> [[cavalry]], <br>200,<ref name="Arrian 5.15" /> 130<ref name="Diodorus 17.87.2"/> ("likeliest" according to Green),<ref>Green, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ouf47It6_wgC&pg=PA553 p. 553]</ref> or 85<ref>Curtius 8.13.6; Metz Epitome 54 (following Curtius)</ref> [[war elephant]]s, <br>1,000 [[chariot]]s.<ref name=Plutarch605>Plutarch 60.5</ref>
|casualties1=[[Bucephalus]] injured in battle, 80<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />–700<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3" /><ref name = "Fuller 199">According to Fuller, pg 199, "Diodorus' figures appear more realistic."</ref> infantry, <br> 230<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />–280<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3" /> cavalry killed. Modern estimates ~1000 killed.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}}
|casualties1=[[Bucephalus]] killed in battle<ref name="BriefLife120">{{cite book|author=[[Arrian]]|title=The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers|editor=Tania Gergel|page=120|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2004|isbn=0-14-200140-6}}</ref>, 80<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />–700<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3" /><ref name = "Fuller 199">According to Fuller, pg 199, "Diodorus' figures appear more realistic."</ref> infantry, <br> 230<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />–280<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3" /> cavalry killed. Modern estimates ~1000 killed.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}}
| casualties2 = 12,000 killed and 9,000 captured,<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.1-3" /> or 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry killed.<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />
| casualties2 = 12,000 killed and 9,000 captured,<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.1-3" /> or 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry killed.<ref name="Arrian 5.18" />
}}
}}
Line 39: Line 40:


==Motives==
==Motives==
Alexander had to subdue [[Porus|King Porus]] in order to keep marching east.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} To leave such a strong opponent at his flanks would endanger any further exploit. He could also not afford to show any weakness if he wanted to keep the loyalty of the already subdued Indian princes. Porus had to defend his kingdom and chose the perfect spot to check Alexander's advance. Although he lost the battle, he became the most successful recorded opponent of Alexander.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}
Alexander had to subdue [[Porus|King Porus]] in order to keep marching east.<ref>
https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-49678bba9e867f5153c7b7c650e060ca</ref>To leave such a strong opponent at his flanks would endanger any further exploit. He could also not afford to show any weakness if he wanted to keep the loyalty of the already subdued Indian princes. Porus had to defend his kingdom and chose the perfect spot to check Alexander's advance. Although he lost the battle, he became the most successful recorded opponent of Alexander.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Hydaspes</ref>


==Pre-battle maneuvers==
==Pre-battle maneuvers==
Line 50: Line 52:
Alexander quietly moved his part of the army upstream and then traversed the river in utmost secrecy, using ‘skin floats filled with hay’ as well as ‘smaller vessels cut in half, the thirty oared galleys into three’.<ref name="Arrian">Arrian</ref> Furthermore, Craterus engaged in frequent feints that he may cross the river. As a result, Porus, 'no longer expecting a sudden attempt under cover of darkness, was lulled into a sense of security.'<ref name="Arrian">Arrian</ref> Alexander mistakenly landed on an island, but soon crossed to the other side. Porus perceived his opponent's maneuver and sent a small cavalry and [[Chariot|chariot force]] under his son, also named Porus, to fight them off, hoping that he would be able to prevent his crossing. By chance a storm occurred that night which drowned the sounds of the crossing.
Alexander quietly moved his part of the army upstream and then traversed the river in utmost secrecy, using ‘skin floats filled with hay’ as well as ‘smaller vessels cut in half, the thirty oared galleys into three’.<ref name="Arrian">Arrian</ref> Furthermore, Craterus engaged in frequent feints that he may cross the river. As a result, Porus, 'no longer expecting a sudden attempt under cover of darkness, was lulled into a sense of security.'<ref name="Arrian">Arrian</ref> Alexander mistakenly landed on an island, but soon crossed to the other side. Porus perceived his opponent's maneuver and sent a small cavalry and [[Chariot|chariot force]] under his son, also named Porus, to fight them off, hoping that he would be able to prevent his crossing. By chance a storm occurred that night which drowned the sounds of the crossing.


Alexander had already crossed the river, however, and his horse archers impeded the young Porus's cavalry.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Young Porus also faced an unexpected disadvantage: his chariots were immobilized by the mud near the shore of the river.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} After his army was routed, young Porus was among the dead.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49Tc7jRSBrIC|title=Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy: The Timeless Leadership Lessons of History's Greatest Empire Builder|last=Bose|first=Partha|date=2004-04-01|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9781592400539|pages=228|language=en}}</ref> As news reached the elder Porus, he understood that Alexander had crossed to his side of the river and hastened to face him with the best part of his army, leaving behind a small detachment to disrupt the landing of Craterus' force should he attempt to cross the river.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Alexander had already crossed the river, however, and his horse archers impeded the young Porus's cavalry.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Young Porus also faced an unexpected disadvantage: his chariots were immobilized by the mud near the shore of the river.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} In the skirmish which ensued, Porus' brother Amar slayed Alexander's famed steed Bucephalus<ref name="BriefLife120">{{cite book|author=[[Arrian]]|title=The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers|editor=Tania Gergel|page=120|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=2004|isbn=0-14-200140-6}}</ref> and one of the Greek Commanders Nicaea was also killed in combat, while Alexander was himself injured. After this Indian force was routed, young Porus was among the dead.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49Tc7jRSBrIC|title=Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy: The Timeless Leadership Lessons of History's Greatest Empire Builder|last=Bose|first=Partha|date=2004-04-01|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9781592400539|pages=228|language=en}}</ref> As news reached the senior Porus, he understood that Alexander had crossed to his side of the river and hastened to face him with the best part of his army, leaving behind a small detachment to disrupt the landing of Craterus' force should he attempt to cross the river.<ref> "And now Porus, thus led to believe that Alexander himself had crossed the river, advanced upon him with all his forces, except the part he left behind to impede the crossing of the remaining Macedonians." Plutarch. 60. 10 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/8.html)</ref>


==Battle==
==Battle==
[[Image:Battle hydaspes combined at.gif|right|thumb|250px|Combined attack of cavalry and infantry]]
[[Image:Battle hydaspes combined at.gif|right|thumb|250px|Combined attack of cavalry and infantry]]
[[File:Indian war elephant against Alexander’s troops 1685.jpg|thumb|right|An imaginary Indian [[war elephant]] against Alexander's army, by Johannes van den Avele]]
[[File:Indian war elephant against Alexander’s troops 1685.jpg|thumb|right|An imaginary Indian [[war elephant]] against Alexander's army, by Johannes van den Avele]]
When Porus reached the point where Alexander's army was arrayed, he deployed his forces and commenced the attack.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} The Indians were poised with cavalry on both flanks, their center comprising infantry with [[war elephant]]s towering among or before them in equal intervals. The Macedonian heavy infantry [[phalanx]] were outnumbered 1:5 against the Indian infantry. The Indian infantry still suffered setbacks due to the reach of the enemy's [[sarissa]]s and being unarmoured. Even their heavy armour-piercing bows were inaccurate because of the slippery ground.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} The Macedonian army situated directly across from Porus' army crossed the river to directly meet the elephants.The 200 elephants prevented any frontal attack. Alexander, destroying Porus' right flank circled around to Porus' left flank launching a mass attack against Porus's left flank. Alexander surmised correctly that Porus would be forced to move cavalry on the right wing across to the left. Alexander foresaw this and placed his cavalry, under the command of [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]], opposite of them and out of sight. Their job was to break cover and follow the Indian cavalry, which forced the Indians to go forward, right into Craterus. [[Arrian]] states that 12,000 Indians and 80 elephants died in this mass pincer movement.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
When Porus reached the point where Alexander's army was arrayed, he deployed his forces and commenced the attack. The Indians were poised with cavalry on both flanks, their center comprising infantry with [[War Elephant]]s which were heavily armored and were strapped on with a castle-like howdah on their back which carried the archers and javelin throwers.<ref>http://usiofindia.org/Article/?pub=Journal&pubno=606&ano=2922</ref> towering among or before them in equal intervals. The Macedonian heavy infantry [[phalanx]] were outnumbered 1:5 against the Indian infantry. The Indian infantry still suffered setbacks due to the reach of the enemy's longer [[sarissa]]s and being light to unarmored. Even their heavy armour-piercing bows were inaccurate because of the slippery ground.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} The Macedonian army situated directly across from Porus' army crossed the river to directly meet the elephants.The assumed 200 elephants prevented any frontal attack. Alexander, destroying Porus' right flank circled around to Porus' left flank launching a mass attack against Porus's left flank. Alexander surmised correctly that Porus would be forced to move cavalry on the right wing across to the left. Alexander foresaw this and placed his cavalry, under the command of [[Coenus (general)|Coenus]], opposite of them and out of sight. Their job was to break cover and follow the Indian cavalry, which forced the Indians to go forward, right into Craterus. [[Arrian]] states that 12,000 Indians and 80 elephants died in this mass pincer movement.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}


Alexander started the battle by sending his [[Scythians|Scythian]] hired [[Mounted archery|horse archers]] to shower the Indian right cavalry wing.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} His armoured [[Companion cavalry]] was sent to the outnumbered Indian left cavalry with him leading the charge.<ref name=":1" /> The rest of the Indian cavalry galloped to their hard pressed kinsmen but at this moment, Coenus's cavalry contingent appeared on the Indian rear. The Indians tried to form a double phalanx, but the necessary complicated maneuvers brought even more confusion into their ranks making it easier for the Macedonian horse to conquer.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Alexander started the battle by sending his [[Scythians|Scythian]] hired [[Mounted archery|horse archers]] to shower the Indian right cavalry wing.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} His armoured [[Companion cavalry]] was sent to the outnumbered Indian left cavalry with him leading the charge.<ref name=":1" /> The rest of the Indian cavalry galloped to their hard pressed kinsmen but at this moment, Coenus's cavalry contingent appeared on the Indian rear. The Indians tried to form a double phalanx, but the necessary complicated maneuvers brought even more confusion into their ranks making it easier for the Macedonian horse to conquer.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Line 61: Line 63:
Porus, atop his elephant, led his elephant corps instead of the usual double-horse chariot used by Indian kings. The elephants caused heavy losses to the phalanx, with their tusks fitted with iron spikes and lifting some before trampling them. They were eventually repulsed by the dense pikes of the phallangitai, wreaking much havoc upon their own lines.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} The [[mahout]]s were slain before they could kill their panicked elephants with poisoned rods. The remaining Indian cavalry fled among the elephants for protection, but the beasts were already out of control and would soon retreat exhausted from the field, leaving the rest of Porus's army encircled by the Macedonian horse and phalanx. Alexander sent his phalanx to attack the elephants, which were forced back on their own side. They boxed the Indian infantry and cavalry, many of whom were trampled to death. At this time, the phallangitai locked their shields and advanced upon the confused enemy.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
Porus, atop his elephant, led his elephant corps instead of the usual double-horse chariot used by Indian kings. The elephants caused heavy losses to the phalanx, with their tusks fitted with iron spikes and lifting some before trampling them. They were eventually repulsed by the dense pikes of the phallangitai, wreaking much havoc upon their own lines.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} The [[mahout]]s were slain before they could kill their panicked elephants with poisoned rods. The remaining Indian cavalry fled among the elephants for protection, but the beasts were already out of control and would soon retreat exhausted from the field, leaving the rest of Porus's army encircled by the Macedonian horse and phalanx. Alexander sent his phalanx to attack the elephants, which were forced back on their own side. They boxed the Indian infantry and cavalry, many of whom were trampled to death. At this time, the phallangitai locked their shields and advanced upon the confused enemy.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}


Porus received a serious wound on his right shoulder, eventually fainting from the loss of blood. His elephant was slain and he was captured, and the battle turned into a rout.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=19–23}} Craterus and his force in the base camp crossed the river when the way was clear, and they conducted a chase against those who escaped.<ref>{{cite book|title=Greek & Roman Warfare: Battles, Tactics, and Trickery|last=Montagu|first=John Drogo|date=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books|location=London|page=154}}</ref>
According to [[Justin (historian)|Justin]],<ref>Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 12.8</ref> during the battle, Porus [[single combat|challenged]] Alexander, who charged him on horseback. Alexander fell off his horse in the ensuing duel, his bodyguards carrying him off. By this time Craterus and his force in the base camp crossed the river when the way was clear, and they conducted a chase after those who retreated.<ref>{{cite book|title=Greek & Roman Warfare: Battles, Tactics, and Trickery|last=Montagu|first=John Drogo|date=2006|publisher=Greenhill Books|location=London|page=154}}</ref>

Porus put up a brave fight commanding his forces personally, until the very end, when he received a substantial wound on his right shoulder which was the only vulnerable part of his body otherwise protected by a remarkable armor of mail. <ref>''"Age of Nandas and Mauryas"'' by Nilakanth Sastri https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=plutarch+nandas&source=bl&ots=MPCDPtBSsj&sig=WTi0roxqmBDzISkxqa0vMh2l5wY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY29KwmJ3VAhVKYo8KHcIDDTcQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=porus&f=false</ref>


[[Arrian]] records that in the final encounter with Alexander, Porus employed all his cavalry, 4,000 strong, all his chariots, 300 in number, 200 of his elephants, and 30,000 of efficient infantry along with 2,000 men and 120 chariots detached earlier in the day under his son's charge.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|p=57}}
[[Arrian]] records that in the final encounter with Alexander, Porus employed all his cavalry, 4,000 strong, all his chariots, 300 in number, 200 of his elephants, and 30,000 of efficient infantry along with 2,000 men and 120 chariots detached earlier in the day under his son's charge.{{sfn|Sastri|1988|p=57}}

After the fatigue of the war started affecting the exhausted King Porus, he slowly began to retire. Throughout the battle, Alexander is said to have observed with growing admiration, the valor of King Porus and understood that he intended to be killed in combat. Hoping to save the life of this competent leader and warrior, Alexander commanded Taxiles to summon Porus to surrender. However, Porus turned indignant on the very sight of his nemesis and tossed a spear at him in furor without listening to his proposal forcing him to take flight on his steed. In such manner many other messengers, dispatched by the determined Alexander were spurned, till at last Meroes, the personal friend of Porus convinced him to listen to the message of Alexander. Overpowered by thirst, the weary Porus finally dismounted his War-Elephant and demanded water. After being refreshed, he allowed himself to be taken to Alexander. On hearing that the Indian king was approaching, Alexander himself rode out to meet him and the famous surrender meeting took place. <ref>''"Age of Nandas and Mauryas"'' by Nilakanth Sastri https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=plutarch+nandas&source=bl&ots=MPCDPtBSsj&sig=WTi0roxqmBDzISkxqa0vMh2l5wY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY29KwmJ3VAhVKYo8KHcIDDTcQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=porus&f=false</ref><ref>"Alexander the Great and His Time" by Agnes Savill https://books.google.co.in/books?id=bOyv4n-zamIC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=spitakes+porus&source=bl&ots=QCFIPp74Ld&sig=3Gs2ShfhelMwSqFzK63dBQ5GD-o&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjT4s2kkp3VAhXKvY8KHVbBDzAQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=spitakes%20porus&f=false</ref>


According to Arrian, Macedonian losses amounted to 310.<ref name="Arrian 5.18">Arrian, [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book5b.asp 5.18]</ref> However the military historian [[J.F.C. Fuller]] sees as "more realistic" the figure given by Diodorus of about 1,000,<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3">Diodorus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D89%3Asection%3D3 17.89.3]</ref><ref>Fuller, p. 199</ref> a large number for a victor, yet not improbable, considering the partial success of the Indian war elephants. Indian losses amounted to 23,000 according to Arrian, 12,000 dead and over 9,000 men captured according to Diodorus.<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.1-3">Diodorus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D89%3Asection%3D1 17.89.1] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.2] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.3]</ref> The last two numbers are remarkably close, if it is assumed that Arrian added any prisoners to the total Indian casualties. Around 80 elephants were captured alive.<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.2">Diodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.2]</ref><ref>Fuller, p.199</ref>
According to Arrian, Macedonian losses amounted to 310.<ref name="Arrian 5.18">Arrian, [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book5b.asp 5.18]</ref> However the military historian [[J.F.C. Fuller]] sees as "more realistic" the figure given by Diodorus of about 1,000,<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.3">Diodorus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D89%3Asection%3D3 17.89.3]</ref><ref>Fuller, p. 199</ref> a large number for a victor, yet not improbable, considering the partial success of the Indian war elephants. Indian losses amounted to 23,000 according to Arrian, 12,000 dead and over 9,000 men captured according to Diodorus.<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.1-3">Diodorus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D89%3Asection%3D1 17.89.1] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.2] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.3]</ref> The last two numbers are remarkably close, if it is assumed that Arrian added any prisoners to the total Indian casualties. Around 80 elephants were captured alive.<ref name="Diodorus 17.89.2">Diodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+17.89.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084 17.89.2]</ref><ref>Fuller, p.199</ref>


Two sons of Porus were killed during the battle, as well as his relative and ally Spitakes, and most of his chieftains.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
In the end, the son of Porus was killed during the battle events, as well as his relative and ally Spitakes(?), and most of his chieftains.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}


==Aftermath and legacy==
==Aftermath and legacy==
[[Image:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|right|A painting by [[Charles Le Brun]] depicting Alexander and Porus during the Battle of the Hydaspes]]
[[Image:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|right|A painting by [[Charles Le Brun]] depicting Alexander and Porus during the Battle of the Hydaspes]]
The bravery, war skills and princely attitude of Porus greatly impressed Alexander, who allowed him to rule Hydaspes in Alexander's name. Wounded in his shoulder, standing at over 2.1 m (7&nbsp;feet) tall, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me as a king would treat another king" Porus responded.<ref>Rogers, p.200</ref> Alexander would indeed treat him like a king, allowing him to retain his kingship. The Macedonian king of most of the known world founded two cities in this region, one at the spot of the battle called [[Nicaea, Punjab|Nicaea]] (Greek for Victory) in commemoration of his success and one on the other side of the Hydaspes called [[Alexandria Bucephalus]], to honor his faithful steed, which died soon after this battle. In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the boundaries of the [[Nanda Empire]]. His army, exhausted from the continuous campaigning and frightened at the prospect of facing yet another gigantic Indian army, demanded that they should return to the west. This happened at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis]] (modern [[Beas River|Beas]]), the exact spot being believed to be at 'Kathgarh' in Indora tehsil of [[Himachal Pradesh]], India with nearest rail head at [[Pathankot]], [[Punjab, India]]. Alexander finally gave in and turned south, along the Indus, securing the banks of the river as the borders of his empire.
The bravery, war skills and princely attitude of Porus greatly impressed Alexander, who allowed him to rule Hydaspes in Alexander's name. Wounded in his shoulder, standing at over 2.1 m (7&nbsp;feet) tall, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me as a king would treat another king" Porus responded.<ref>Rogers, p.200</ref> Alexander would indeed treat him like a king, allowing him to retain his kingship. The Macedonian king of most of the known world founded two cities in this region, one at the spot of the battle called [[Nicaea, Punjab|Nicaea]] (Greek for Victory) in commemoration of his success and one on the other side of the Hydaspes called [[Alexandria Bucephalus]], to honor his faithful steed, which died soon after this battle. In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the boundaries of the [[Nanda Empire]]. His army, exhausted from the continuous campaigning and frightened at the prospect of facing yet another gigantic Indian army with men of superior "stature" and "courage" than even those of Punjab with even more elephants <ref>''“where the inhabitants were skilled in agriculture, where there were elephants in yet greater abundance and men were superior in stature and courage”' and ''“were awaiting them with 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8000 war chariots, and 6000 fighting elephants”'' Plutarch. </ref>, demanded that they should return to the west. This happened at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis]] (modern [[Beas River|Beas]]), the exact spot being believed to be at 'Kathgarh' in Indora tehsil of [[Himachal Pradesh]], India with nearest rail head at [[Pathankot]], [[Punjab, India]]. Alexander finally gave in and turned south, along the Indus, securing the banks of the river as the borders of his empire.


The main reasons for the Pauravan's defeat were due to Alexander's use of tactics, and the Macedonians' superior discipline and technology.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}} The Pauravans still used chariots which were inferior to the Greek's cavalry and phalanx. They neither had a well supported military infrastructure nor a [[standing army]]. The Pauravan infantry and cavalry were poorly armoured, lacking in metal armor, and their short swords were no match against the long spears of the Macedonians. Porus himself failed to take any initiative, mainly trying to counter his opponents moves. Greek historians agree that Porus bravely fought until the end.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}}
The main reasons for the Pauravan's defeat were due to Alexander's use of tactics and managerial skills.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}} The Pauravans still used chariots which were inferior to the Greek's cavalry and phalanx.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} They neither had a well supported military infrastructure nor a [[standing army]]. The Pauravan infantry and cavalry were poorly armoured{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}, lacking in metal armor, Porus himself failed to take any initiative{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}, mainly trying to counter his opponents moves. Greek historians agree that Porus bravely fought until the end unlike [[Darius III|Darius]] who fled after being defeated during the [[Battle of Gaugamela]].{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=23–28}}


During later rule of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya empire]], tactician [[Chanakya|Kautilya]] took Hydaspes as a lesson and highlighted the need for military training before battle. The first Mauryan king [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] maintained a standing army. The chariot corps was abolished.{{sfn|Roy|2004|pp=28–31}}
During later rule of the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya empire]], tactician [[Chanakya|Kautilya]] took Hydaspes as a lesson and highlighted the need for military training before battle. The first Mauryan king [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] maintained a standing army.


==Notes==
==Notes==

Revision as of 09:43, 30 August 2017

For other uses, see Battle of Jhelum (disambiguation).
Battle of the Hydaspes
Part of the Wars of Alexander the Great

A painting by Andre Castaigne depicting the phalanx attacking the centre at Hydaspes
DateMay 326 BC
Location
Hydaspes River, modern-day Punjab Province, Pakistan
Result Greek victory, annexation of the kingdom of Punjab merging the other Indian territories to create the Indian Satrap to be lorded over by King Porus[1][2]
Territorial
changes		 Alexander controls most of Punjab region. King Porus appointed as the new overlord of this Indian Satrap including additional territories.[3]
Belligerents
Macedon
Hellenic League
Persian allies
Indian allies		 Paurava
Commanders and leaders
Alexander the Great
Craterus
Coenus
Hephaestion
Ptolemy
Perdiccas
Seleucus
Lysimachus
Demonicus
Peucestas
Taxiles		 Porus
unknown others
Strength
40,000 infantry,
5,000[4] to 7,000[5] cavalry,
Asiatic contingents[6]		 20,000,[7] 30,000[8] or 50,000[9] infantry,
2,000[7] to 4,000[8] cavalry,
200,[8] 130[9] ("likeliest" according to Green),[10] or 85[11] war elephants,
1,000 chariots.[12]
Casualties and losses
Bucephalus killed in battle[13], 80[14]–700[15][16] infantry,
230[14]–280[15] cavalry killed. Modern estimates ~1000 killed.[17]		 12,000 killed and 9,000 captured,[18] or 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry killed.[14]

The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the Hydaspes River (now known as the Jhelum River) in what is now the Punjab Province of Pakistan. The battle resulted in a complete Greek victory [a] and the annexation of the Punjab, which lay beyond the far easternmost confines of the already absorbed Persian empire, into the Macedonian Empire.

Alexander's decision to cross the monsoon-swollen river despite close Indian surveillance, in order to catch Porus' army in the flank, has been referred as one of his "masterpieces".[20] Although victorious, it was also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians.[21] The resistance put up by King Porus and his men won the respect of Alexander, who asked Porus to become a Macedonian satrap.

The battle is historically significant for opening up India to Greek political (Seleucid, Greco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek) and cultural influences (Greco-Buddhist art), which continued to have an impact for many centuries.

Location

The battle took place on the east bank of the Hydaspes River (now called the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus River) in what is now the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Alexander later founded the city of Nicaea on the site; this city has yet to be discovered.[22] Any attempt to find the ancient battle site is complicated by considerable changes to the landscape over time.[22] For the moment, the most plausible location is just south of the city of Jhelum, where the ancient main road crossed the river and where a Buddhist source mentions a city that may be Nicaea.[22] The identification of the battle site near modern Jalalpur/Haranpur is certainly erroneous, as the river (in ancient times) meandered far from these cities.[22]

Background

After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire's forces under Bessus and Spitamenes in 328 BC, he began a new campaign to further extend his empire towards India in 327 BC. Whilst possessing a much larger army, at the battle, an estimated 40,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry crossed the river in time to engage the enemy.[4] Depending on the source, Alexander was outnumbered somewhere between 3:1 and 5:1.

The primary Greek column entered via the Khyber Pass, but a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander went through the northern route, taking the fortress of Aornos (modern-day Pir-Sar) along the way—a place of mythological significance to the Greeks as, according to legend, Herakles had failed to occupy it when he campaigned to India.

In early spring of the next year, he combined his forces and allied with Taxiles (also Ambhi), the King of Taxila, against Taxiles' neighbor, the King of Hydaspes.

Motives

Alexander had to subdue King Porus in order to keep marching east.[23]To leave such a strong opponent at his flanks would endanger any further exploit. He could also not afford to show any weakness if he wanted to keep the loyalty of the already subdued Indian princes. Porus had to defend his kingdom and chose the perfect spot to check Alexander's advance. Although he lost the battle, he became the most successful recorded opponent of Alexander.[24]

Pre-battle maneuvers

Alexander's crossing of the Hydaspes River
Porus awaits the attack of Alexander July 326 BC.

Alexander fixed his camp in the vicinity of the town of Jhelum on the right banks of the river.[25] Porus drew up on the south bank of the Jhelum River to repel any crossing in the spring of 326 BC.[25] The Jhelum River was deep and fast enough that any opposition to a crossing would probably doom the attacking force. Alexander knew that a direct approach had little chance of success and tried to find alternative fords. He moved his mounted troops up and down the river bank each night while Porus shadowed him. Eventually, Alexander used a suitable crossing, about 27 km (17 mi) upstream of his camp. While leading his troops across, he landed on another island, causing his troops to wade across.[26] His plan was a classic pincer maneuver. He would eventually attack Indian cavalry flanking each side of Porus' main force from the right.[26] He left his general Craterus behind with most of the army, to make sure Porus doesn't find out about his crossing, while he crossed the river upstream with a strong contingent, consisting, according to the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian, of 6,000 on foot and 5,000 on horseback, though it is probable that it was larger.[citation needed] Craterus was ordered to either ford the river and attack if Porus faced Alexander with all his troops or to hold his position if Porus faced Alexander with only part of his army.[citation needed]

The most notable event in the present connection was Alexander's crossing of the Hydaspes in face of the Indians on the opposite bank. The complex preparations for the crossing were accomplished with the use of numerous feints and other sorts of deceptions. Porus was kept continuously on the move until he decided it was a bluff and relaxed. On every visit to the site of the crossing, Alexander made a detour inland to stay in secrecy. It was also reported that there was an Alexander look-alike who held sway in a mock royal tent near the base.

Alexander quietly moved his part of the army upstream and then traversed the river in utmost secrecy, using ‘skin floats filled with hay’ as well as ‘smaller vessels cut in half, the thirty oared galleys into three’.[27] Furthermore, Craterus engaged in frequent feints that he may cross the river. As a result, Porus, 'no longer expecting a sudden attempt under cover of darkness, was lulled into a sense of security.'[27] Alexander mistakenly landed on an island, but soon crossed to the other side. Porus perceived his opponent's maneuver and sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son, also named Porus, to fight them off, hoping that he would be able to prevent his crossing. By chance a storm occurred that night which drowned the sounds of the crossing.

Alexander had already crossed the river, however, and his horse archers impeded the young Porus's cavalry.[citation needed] Young Porus also faced an unexpected disadvantage: his chariots were immobilized by the mud near the shore of the river.[17] In the skirmish which ensued, Porus' brother Amar slayed Alexander's famed steed Bucephalus[13] and one of the Greek Commanders Nicaea was also killed in combat, while Alexander was himself injured. After this Indian force was routed, young Porus was among the dead.[28] As news reached the senior Porus, he understood that Alexander had crossed to his side of the river and hastened to face him with the best part of his army, leaving behind a small detachment to disrupt the landing of Craterus' force should he attempt to cross the river.[29]

Battle

Combined attack of cavalry and infantry
An imaginary Indian war elephant against Alexander's army, by Johannes van den Avele

When Porus reached the point where Alexander's army was arrayed, he deployed his forces and commenced the attack. The Indians were poised with cavalry on both flanks, their center comprising infantry with War Elephants which were heavily armored and were strapped on with a castle-like howdah on their back which carried the archers and javelin throwers.[30] towering among or before them in equal intervals. The Macedonian heavy infantry phalanx were outnumbered 1:5 against the Indian infantry. The Indian infantry still suffered setbacks due to the reach of the enemy's longer sarissas and being light to unarmored. Even their heavy armour-piercing bows were inaccurate because of the slippery ground.[17] The Macedonian army situated directly across from Porus' army crossed the river to directly meet the elephants.The assumed 200 elephants prevented any frontal attack. Alexander, destroying Porus' right flank circled around to Porus' left flank launching a mass attack against Porus's left flank. Alexander surmised correctly that Porus would be forced to move cavalry on the right wing across to the left. Alexander foresaw this and placed his cavalry, under the command of Coenus, opposite of them and out of sight. Their job was to break cover and follow the Indian cavalry, which forced the Indians to go forward, right into Craterus. Arrian states that 12,000 Indians and 80 elephants died in this mass pincer movement.[citation needed]

Alexander started the battle by sending his Scythian hired horse archers to shower the Indian right cavalry wing.[17] His armoured Companion cavalry was sent to the outnumbered Indian left cavalry with him leading the charge.[28] The rest of the Indian cavalry galloped to their hard pressed kinsmen but at this moment, Coenus's cavalry contingent appeared on the Indian rear. The Indians tried to form a double phalanx, but the necessary complicated maneuvers brought even more confusion into their ranks making it easier for the Macedonian horse to conquer.[citation needed]

Porus, atop his elephant, led his elephant corps instead of the usual double-horse chariot used by Indian kings. The elephants caused heavy losses to the phalanx, with their tusks fitted with iron spikes and lifting some before trampling them. They were eventually repulsed by the dense pikes of the phallangitai, wreaking much havoc upon their own lines.[17] The mahouts were slain before they could kill their panicked elephants with poisoned rods. The remaining Indian cavalry fled among the elephants for protection, but the beasts were already out of control and would soon retreat exhausted from the field, leaving the rest of Porus's army encircled by the Macedonian horse and phalanx. Alexander sent his phalanx to attack the elephants, which were forced back on their own side. They boxed the Indian infantry and cavalry, many of whom were trampled to death. At this time, the phallangitai locked their shields and advanced upon the confused enemy.[citation needed]

According to Justin,[31] during the battle, Porus challenged Alexander, who charged him on horseback. Alexander fell off his horse in the ensuing duel, his bodyguards carrying him off. By this time Craterus and his force in the base camp crossed the river when the way was clear, and they conducted a chase after those who retreated.[32]

Porus put up a brave fight commanding his forces personally, until the very end, when he received a substantial wound on his right shoulder which was the only vulnerable part of his body otherwise protected by a remarkable armor of mail. [33]

Arrian records that in the final encounter with Alexander, Porus employed all his cavalry, 4,000 strong, all his chariots, 300 in number, 200 of his elephants, and 30,000 of efficient infantry along with 2,000 men and 120 chariots detached earlier in the day under his son's charge.[25]

After the fatigue of the war started affecting the exhausted King Porus, he slowly began to retire. Throughout the battle, Alexander is said to have observed with growing admiration, the valor of King Porus and understood that he intended to be killed in combat. Hoping to save the life of this competent leader and warrior, Alexander commanded Taxiles to summon Porus to surrender. However, Porus turned indignant on the very sight of his nemesis and tossed a spear at him in furor without listening to his proposal forcing him to take flight on his steed. In such manner many other messengers, dispatched by the determined Alexander were spurned, till at last Meroes, the personal friend of Porus convinced him to listen to the message of Alexander. Overpowered by thirst, the weary Porus finally dismounted his War-Elephant and demanded water. After being refreshed, he allowed himself to be taken to Alexander. On hearing that the Indian king was approaching, Alexander himself rode out to meet him and the famous surrender meeting took place. [34][35]

According to Arrian, Macedonian losses amounted to 310.[14] However the military historian J.F.C. Fuller sees as "more realistic" the figure given by Diodorus of about 1,000,[15][36] a large number for a victor, yet not improbable, considering the partial success of the Indian war elephants. Indian losses amounted to 23,000 according to Arrian, 12,000 dead and over 9,000 men captured according to Diodorus.[18] The last two numbers are remarkably close, if it is assumed that Arrian added any prisoners to the total Indian casualties. Around 80 elephants were captured alive.[37][38]

In the end, the son of Porus was killed during the battle events, as well as his relative and ally Spitakes(?), and most of his chieftains.[citation needed]

Aftermath and legacy

A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus during the Battle of the Hydaspes

The bravery, war skills and princely attitude of Porus greatly impressed Alexander, who allowed him to rule Hydaspes in Alexander's name. Wounded in his shoulder, standing at over 2.1 m (7 feet) tall, he was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me as a king would treat another king" Porus responded.[39] Alexander would indeed treat him like a king, allowing him to retain his kingship. The Macedonian king of most of the known world founded two cities in this region, one at the spot of the battle called Nicaea (Greek for Victory) in commemoration of his success and one on the other side of the Hydaspes called Alexandria Bucephalus, to honor his faithful steed, which died soon after this battle. In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the boundaries of the Nanda Empire. His army, exhausted from the continuous campaigning and frightened at the prospect of facing yet another gigantic Indian army with men of superior "stature" and "courage" than even those of Punjab with even more elephants [40], demanded that they should return to the west. This happened at the Hyphasis (modern Beas), the exact spot being believed to be at 'Kathgarh' in Indora tehsil of Himachal Pradesh, India with nearest rail head at Pathankot, Punjab, India. Alexander finally gave in and turned south, along the Indus, securing the banks of the river as the borders of his empire.

The main reasons for the Pauravan's defeat were due to Alexander's use of tactics and managerial skills.[41] The Pauravans still used chariots which were inferior to the Greek's cavalry and phalanx.[citation needed] They neither had a well supported military infrastructure nor a standing army. The Pauravan infantry and cavalry were poorly armoured[citation needed], lacking in metal armor, Porus himself failed to take any initiative[citation needed], mainly trying to counter his opponents moves. Greek historians agree that Porus bravely fought until the end unlike Darius who fled after being defeated during the Battle of Gaugamela.[41]

During later rule of the Maurya empire, tactician Kautilya took Hydaspes as a lesson and highlighted the need for military training before battle. The first Mauryan king Chandragupta maintained a standing army.

Notes

  1. ^ After more fierce combat Alexander's victory was complete and Porus surrendered.[19]

References

  1. ^ Fuller, pg 198

    "While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit."
  2. ^ Fuller, pg 181

    "Among the many battles fought by invaders who entered the plains of India from the north-west, the first recorded in history is the battle of the Hydaspes, and in Hogarth's opinion, when coupled with the crossing of the river, together they 'rank among the most brilliant operations in warfare'."
  3. ^ "Accordingly, Alexander not only permitted him to govern his former kingdom, giving him the title of satrap, but also added to it the territory of the independent peoples whom he subdued, in which there are said to have been fifteen nations, five thousand cities of considerable size, and a great multitude of villages." Plutarch's Life of Alexander 60.10
  4. ^ a b According to Arrian 5.14, 6,000 foot and 5,000 horse were under Alexander's command in the battle.
  5. ^ Fuller estimates a further 2,000 cavalry under Craterus' command.
  6. ^ Harbottle, Thomas Benfield (1906). Dictionary of Battles. New York.
  7. ^ a b Plutarch 62.1:

    "But this last combat with Porus took off the edge of the Macedonians' courage, and stayed their further progress into India. For having found it hard enough to defeat an enemy who brought but twenty thousand foot and two thousand horse into the field, they thought they had reason to oppose Alexander's design of leading them on to pass the Ganges, too, which they were told was thirty-two furlongs broad and a fathom deep, and the banks on the further side covered with multitudes of enemies."
  8. ^ a b c Arrian, 5.15
  9. ^ a b Diodorus, 17.87.2
  10. ^ Green, p. 553
  11. ^ Curtius 8.13.6; Metz Epitome 54 (following Curtius)
  12. ^ Plutarch 60.5
  13. ^ a b Arrian (2004). Tania Gergel (ed.). The Brief Life and Towering Exploits of History's Greatest Conqueror as Told By His Original Biographers. Penguin Books. p. 120. ISBN 0-14-200140-6.
  14. ^ a b c d Arrian, 5.18
  15. ^ a b c Diodorus 17.89.3
  16. ^ According to Fuller, pg 199, "Diodorus' figures appear more realistic."
  17. ^ a b c d e Roy 2004, pp. 19–23.
  18. ^ a b Diodorus 17.89.1 17.89.2 17.89.3
  19. ^ Brice 2012, p. 81.
  20. ^ Burn 1965, p. 150
  21. ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome At War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
  22. ^ a b c d P.H.L. Eggermont, Alexander's campaign in Southern Punjab (1993).
  23. ^ https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-49678bba9e867f5153c7b7c650e060ca
  24. ^ https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Hydaspes
  25. ^ a b c Sastri 1988, p. 57.
  26. ^ a b "Battle of Hydaspes". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2016-12-04.
  27. ^ a b Arrian
  28. ^ a b Bose, Partha (2004-04-01). Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy: The Timeless Leadership Lessons of History's Greatest Empire Builder. Penguin. p. 228. ISBN 9781592400539.
  29. ^ "And now Porus, thus led to believe that Alexander himself had crossed the river, advanced upon him with all his forces, except the part he left behind to impede the crossing of the remaining Macedonians." Plutarch. 60. 10 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/8.html)
  30. ^ http://usiofindia.org/Article/?pub=Journal&pubno=606&ano=2922
  31. ^ Justin, Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, 12.8
  32. ^ Montagu, John Drogo (2006). Greek & Roman Warfare: Battles, Tactics, and Trickery. London: Greenhill Books. p. 154.
  33. ^ "Age of Nandas and Mauryas" by Nilakanth Sastri https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=plutarch+nandas&source=bl&ots=MPCDPtBSsj&sig=WTi0roxqmBDzISkxqa0vMh2l5wY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY29KwmJ3VAhVKYo8KHcIDDTcQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=porus&f=false
  34. ^ "Age of Nandas and Mauryas" by Nilakanth Sastri https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=plutarch+nandas&source=bl&ots=MPCDPtBSsj&sig=WTi0roxqmBDzISkxqa0vMh2l5wY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjY29KwmJ3VAhVKYo8KHcIDDTcQ6AEIUDAF#v=onepage&q=porus&f=false
  35. ^ "Alexander the Great and His Time" by Agnes Savill https://books.google.co.in/books?id=bOyv4n-zamIC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=spitakes+porus&source=bl&ots=QCFIPp74Ld&sig=3Gs2ShfhelMwSqFzK63dBQ5GD-o&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjT4s2kkp3VAhXKvY8KHVbBDzAQ6AEIMzAC#v=onepage&q=spitakes%20porus&f=false
  36. ^ Fuller, p. 199
  37. ^ Diodorus, 17.89.2
  38. ^ Fuller, p.199
  39. ^ Rogers, p.200
  40. ^ “where the inhabitants were skilled in agriculture, where there were elephants in yet greater abundance and men were superior in stature and courage”' and “were awaiting them with 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8000 war chariots, and 6000 fighting elephants” Plutarch.
  41. ^ a b Roy 2004, pp. 23–28.

Bibliography

Modern

Ancient

32°49′40″N 73°38′20″E / 32.82778°N 73.63889°E / 32.82778; 73.63889

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Hydaspes&oldid=797988496"