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===Shia view===
===Shia view===

[[Shia view of Muawiyah I|Muawiyah I]] is a reviled figure in [[Shia Islam]] for several reasons, chief among them his war against Ali. When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Shi'ites claimed that Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|author=Akramulla Syed |url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/siffin.asp |title=The Battle of Islam at Siffin |publisher=Ezsoftech.com |date=2010-03-20 |accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref>

The [[Shia view of Muawiyah I|Shia view Muawiyah]] as a tyrant, usurper and murderer. His supposed conversion to Islam before the conquest of Mecca is dismissed as a fable, or mere hypocrisy. He is also described as a manipulator and liar who usurped Islam purely for political and material gain of his father's loss. He was also widely regarded as a tyrant and usurper by both Shia Arabs and [[Persian people|Persians]]. The Umayyads suppressed [[Culture of Iran|Persian culture]] and [[Persian language|language]], and a number of Iran's greatest contributors to [[Persian literature]] - both Shias like [[Ferdowsi]] and Sunnis like [[Saadi Shirazi]] - took the side of Ali, not Muawiyah.
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[[Shia view of Muawiyah I|Muawiyah I]] is a reviled figure in [[Shia Islam]] for several reasons, chief among them his war against Ali. When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Shi'ites claimed that Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|author=Akramulla Syed |url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/siffin.asp |title=The Battle of Islam at Siffin |publisher=Ezsoftech.com |date=2010-03-20 |accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref>
[[Shia view of Muawiyah I|Muawiyah I]] is a reviled figure in [[Shia Islam]] for several reasons, chief among them his war against Ali. When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Shi'ites claimed that Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|author=Akramulla Syed |url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/siffin.asp |title=The Battle of Islam at Siffin |publisher=Ezsoftech.com |date=2010-03-20 |accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref>


Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in [[Shia Islam]] for several reasons. Firstly, because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali, whom the Shia Muslims believe was [[Succession to Muhammad|Muhammad's true successor]]); secondly, for the breaking of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, after the death of Hasan ibn Ali, one of broken terms being appointing his son [[Yazid I|Yazid]] as his successor; thirdly, on account of his responsibility for the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by bribing his wife Ja'dah binte Ash'as to poison him; and fourthly by distorting Islam to match his unislamic rule; and fifthly, for the deaths of various [[Sahabah|Companions of Muhammad]].<ref>[[Al-Masudi]], vol. 2, p. 47</ref><ref>''Tārikh'' (''[[Concise History of Humanity (book)|Concise History of Humanity]]'') - [[Abu'l-Fida]], vol. 1, p. 182</ref><ref>Iqdul Farid - Ibn Abd Rabbāh, vol. 2, p. 11</ref><ref>Rawzatul Manazir - Ibne Shahnah, vol. 2, p. 133</ref><ref>Tārikhul Khamis, Husayn Dayarbakri, vol. 2, p. 238</ref><ref>Akbarut Tiwal - Dinawari, p. 400</ref><ref>Mawātilat Talibeyeen - Abul Faraj Isfahāni</ref><ref>Isti'ab - Ibne Abdul Birr</ref>
According to Shia view, Muawiyah opposed Ali, out of sheer greed for power and wealth. His reign opened the door to unparalleled disaster, marked by the persecution of Ali, slaughtering of his followers,<ref>Tarikh Tabri vol. 18, p. 201; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 49, Chapter: Busar; al Isaba, vol. 1, p. 289, Translation no. 642, Busar bin Irtat; Asadul Ghaba, vol. 1 p. 113, Topic: Busar bin Irtat; Tarikh Ibn Asakir, vol. 3, p. 225; Tarikh Asim Kufi, p. 308.</ref> and unlawful imprisonment of his supporters,<ref>''al Bidaya wa al Nihaya'', vol. 8, p. 52; Asad'ul Ghaba vol. 1, p. 846, Dhikr Umro bin Hamiq; Tarikh Yaqubi, vol. 2, p. 200, 50 H; Al Bidayah wal Nihayah, vol. 8, p. 52, death of Amro bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai.</ref> which only worsened when Yazid came into power and the [[Battle of Karbala]] ensued. Muawiyah is alleged to have killed many of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), either in battle or by poison, due to his lust for power. Muawiyah killed several historical figures, including the Sahabah, Amr bin al-Hamiq, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr,<ref>al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 48, Dhikr 50 Hijri; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 363; al Isaba, vol. 4, p. 623, Translation no. 5822; Asadul Ghaba, vol. 1, p. 846, Amr bin al-Hamiq al-Khazai; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, p. 25; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 240 Dhikr 51 Hijri; Risala Abu Bakr Khawarzmi, p. 122; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 12; al Maarif, p. 127;'' History of Tabari'', vol. 18, p. 137</ref> [[Malik al-Ashtar]],<ref>Tadhirathul Khawwas, p. 64; Muruj al Dhahab, vol. 3, p. 420; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 2, p. 191; ''Tarikh Kamil'', vol. 3, p. 179; Tarikh Tabari, English trans., vol. 18, pp. 144-146; Habib al Sayyar, vol. 1, pp. 72; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, pp. 213</ref> [[Hujr ibn Adi]]<ref>al Bidaya wa al Nihaya, vol. 8, p. 53, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 249, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tarikh ibn Asakir, vol. 12, p. 227, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 13, Dhikr 51 Hijri; al Isaba, vol. 1, p. 313, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Asad'ul Ghaba, vol. 1, p. 244, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Shadharat ul Dhahab, vol. 1, p. 57, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Tabaqat al Kubra, vol. 6, p. 217, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Mustadrak al Hakim, vol. 3, pp. 468-470, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Akhbar al Tawaal, p. 186, Dhikr Hujr ibn Adi; Tarikh Abu'l Fida, p. 166, Dhikr 51 Hijri; Muruj al Dhahab, vol. 3, p. 12, Dhikr 53 Hijri; Tarikh Yaqubi, vol. 2, p. 219</ref> (to which the families of Abu Bakr and Umar condemned Muawiyah for,<ref>''al-Bidaya wa al-Nihaya'', vol. 8, p. 55; Kanz al Ummal, vol. 3, p. 88; Tarikh al Islam by Dhahabi, vol. 2, p. 217; Tarikh ibn Khaldun, vol. 3, p. 12; al Isaba, p. 355 Dhikr Hujr; al-Istiab, vol. 1, p. 97.</ref> and the Sahaba deemed his killer to be cursed)<ref>Qadhi Abi Bakar al-Arabi. 'Awasim min al Qawasim', p. 341; Allamah Muhibuddin al-Khateeb</ref> and Abd al-Rahman bin Hasaan (buried alive for his support of Ali).<ref>Bidayah wal Nihayah, vol. 8, p. 52; Tarikh Kamil, vol. 3, p. 245; History of Tabari, vol. 18, p. 151.</ref>
According to the Shia Muawiyah was also responsible for instigating the Battle of Siffin, the bloodiest battle in Islam's history, in which over 70,000 people (among them many of the last surviving companions of Muhammad) were killed. Notable among the Companions who were killed by Muawiyah's forces was [[Ammar ibn Yasir]], a frail old man of 95 at the time of his death. Shii Muslims see his being killed at the hands of Muawiyah's army as significant because of a well-known hadith, present in both the Shia and Sunni books of hadith, narrated by [[Abu Hurairah]] and others, in which Muhammad is recorded to have said: "A group of rebels would kill you",<ref>''[[Jami` at-Tirmidhi]]'', Hadith #3800</ref> ''Sahih Muslim''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Muslim|41|6968|e=6970}}</ref> and ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]].
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When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|author=Akramulla Syed |url=http://www.ezsoftech.com/islamic/siffin.asp |title=The Battle of Islam at Siffin |publisher=Ezsoftech.com |date=2010-03-20 |accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref> This sort of act is widely regarded as blasphemy and desecration of God's word, and Shia scholars condemn Muawiyah for it, arguing such a practice would today be condemned by Sunni Muslims just as much as Shia Muslims.
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The killing of the two children of [[Ubaydullah ibn Abbas]] can also be found in Sunni and Shia texts.<ref>''Sunni: Tarikh Kamil'', vol. 3, p. 194, Dhikr 40 Hijri; ''Shadharath al Dhahab'', p. 64, Dhikr 58 Hijri; Tarikh Taabari, English trans., vol. 18, pp. 207-208; ''Murujh al Dhahab'', vol. 3, p. 30; al Istiab, vol. 1, p. 49, Chapter: Busar; Tarikh ibn Asakir, vol. 10, p. 146; ''Asad'ul Ghaba'', vol. 1, p. 213, Dhikr Busar; ''Tarikh Islam by Dhahabi'', vol. 2, p. 187. Shia: 21:6 ''Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid''</ref>
{{quote|[...] Then he [i.e. Muawiyah] was informed that Ubaidullah had two infant sons. So he set out to reach them, and when he found them - they had two (tender) forelocks like pearls - [and] he ordered to kill them.<ref>Shia: 21:6 Secrets of Muawiyah from Al-Amali: The Dictations of Sheikh al-Mufid</ref>}}
==See also==
==See also==
*[[Second Fitna]]
*[[Second Fitna]]

Revision as of 12:45, 16 June 2013

Muawiyah I
Reign661 – 680
PredecessorAli ibn Abi Talib
SuccessorYazid I
Born602 CE (21 BH)
DiedApril 29 or May 1, 680 CE
(20 or 22 Rajab 60 AH)
(aged 78)[1][2]
Names
Muʻāwīya ibn ʻAbī Sufyān
DynastyUmayyad
FatherAbu Sufyan ibn Harb
MotherHind bint Utbah

Muawiyah I (Arabic: معاوية ابن أبي سفيان Muʿāwiyah ibn ʾAbī Sufyān; 602 – April 29 or May 1, 680) established the Umayyad Dynasty of the caliphate,[3][4] and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan.[5] Muawiyah became a secretary for Muhammad, and during the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), fought with the Muslims against the Byzantines in Syria. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad.[6][7]

As caliph, to stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The Caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were subsequently used as naval bases.

Biography

Early life

Umayyad Mosque, established during Muawiyah's era.

Muawiyah bin Abi-Sufyan was born in Mecca[8] (601 CE) into the Banu Umayya sub-clan of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraysh tribe. The Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca (in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia) and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens.

Muawiyah, Muhammad and Ali shared the same great-great grandfather Abdu Manaf bin Qusay, who had four sons: Hashim, Muttalib, Nawfal, and Abdu Shams. Hashim was the great grandfather of Ali and Muhammad. Umayyah bin Abdu Shams was the great grandfather of Muawiyah.

Muawiyah and the rest of his family were staunch opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad. Along with his two older brothers Yazid and Utbah, Muawiyah was one of the members of the hunting party of his maternal uncle Waleed bin Utbah that pursued Muhammad during the hijra (migration), when Muhammad and Abu Bakr were hiding in Ghar al-Thawr (Cave of the Bull).[9]

In 630, Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam. Muawiyah, along with his father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, became Muslims at the conquest of Mecca.[10][11]

After the conquest of Mecca by the Muslims, Muawiyah's family converted to Islam. Muawiyah and the Islamic prophet Muhammad were brothers-in-law after Muhammad married Muawiyah's sister, Ramla bint Abi Sufyan.

Governor of Syria

In 639, Caliph Umar had appointed Muawiyah Ibn Abu Sufyan as the governor of Syria after the previous governors Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and his brother died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[12][13]

Muawiyah was motivated by Muhammad's statement:

"The army from my people who will first perform jihad through water has made Paradise obligatory for itself."[14][15]

To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy manned by Monophysitise Christian, Coptic, and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors, and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[16][17][18][19][20] 500 Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and Emperor Constans II was almost killed.

Before the battle of the Mast, chronicler Theophanes the Confessor says, the Emperor dreamed of being at Thessalonika; this dream predicted his defeat against the Arabs because the word Thessalonika is similar to the sentence "thes allo niken", which means "gave victory to another (the enemy)".[21]

Then caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan was killed and Ali was appointed the fourth and final Rashidun Caliph and moved the capital to Kufa. Muawiyah wanted justice for the assassinated caliph Uthman ibn Affan.

Muawiyah refused to obey Ali, and had some level of support from the Syrians in his rebelliousness, amongst whom he was a popular leader.[22] Ali called for military action against Muawiyah, but the reaction in Medina was not encouraging, and thus Ali deferred. Eventually Ali marched on Damascus and fought Muawiyah's supporters at the inconclusive Battle of Siffin (657 CE). This depleted Muawiyah's force and gave the Eastern Roman Empire time to prepare the defences. After making a peace agreement with Ali he applied the siege of Constantinople. With depleted forces the war ended in an unsuccessful siege of Constantinople.

Ali later wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me".[23]

Following the Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars there were deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa so as to bring revenues into their area and oppose Syria.[24] They convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa. Ali listened to them and moved the capital to Kufa.

Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprils arrested. Aisha, Talhah and Zubayr ibn al-Awam also asked Ali to arrest the culprits.[25]

Ali felt that as a Caliph, it was his responsibility to account for every penny and on the day of judgement he will be answerable to God and therefore money should be spent on the poor. Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed his governors (e.g., Malik bin Harith al-Ashtar) to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people.[26]

When Ali moved his forces north against Muawiyah during the outbreak of the Muslim Civil War in 656, it bought a precious breathing pause for Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641–668) used to shore up his defences, extend and consolidate his control over Armenia and most importantly, initiate a major army reform with lasting effect: the establishment of the themata, the large territorial commands into which Anatolia, the major contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was divided. The remains of the old field armies were settled in each of them, and soldiers were allocated land there in payment of their service. The themata would form the backbone of the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to come.[27] After his pre-occupation with the civil war, Muawiyah launched a series of attacks against Byzantine holdings in Africa, Sicily and the East.[28] By 670, the Muslim fleet had penetrated into the Sea of Marmara and stayed at Cyzicus during the winter.

While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali was unable to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions to exert control over his areas and as a result later spent a lot of time fighting elements of his own army in the form of the Kharijites. As a result on the Eastern front, Ali was unable to expand the state.[29]

Conflict with Ali

Muawiyah wanted justice for the assassinated caliph Uthman ibn Affan[citation needed]. Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) also felt that those who assassinated Uthman should be brought to justice. They demanded Ali to arrest Uthman ibn Affan's killer, not fight Muawiyah. Marwan I and others attempt to manipulated public opinion.

However, Tabari recorded the following:

When Uthman saw what happened to him and how many people had been sent against him, he wrote to Mu'awiyah bin Abi Sufyan in Syria: "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. To proceed: The Medinese (i.e., the people of Madina) have become unbelievers, they have abandoned obedience and renounced their oath of allegiance. Therefore send to me the Syrian soldiers who are at your disposal, on every camel you have, whether docile or stubborn". When Mu'awiya got the letter, he delayed action on it, for he did not wish to differ openly with the Companions of the Messenger of God, since he knew that they concurred [on this matter]. When Uthman became aware of the delay, he then wrote to seek from Yazid bin Asad bin Kurz and the Syrians, he stressed his rightful claims upon them, and mentioned Almighty God's commandment to obey the Caliphs.[30]

Muawiyah did not go to Basra with Aisha, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. He was in Damascus at the time.

Zubair was Ali's and Muhammad's cousin and did not want fellow Muslims to fight. He said to Ali "What a tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the strength of a rock are going to be smashed by colliding with one another".[31] After talking with Ali before the Battle of the Camel, Zubair did not want to fight and left the battlefield; he was later killed in an adjoining valley. A man named Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair and murdered him while he performed Salat.[32] Talhah also left. On seeing this Marwan shot Talhah with a poisoned arrow.

The heated exchange and protests turned from words to blows.[33] One night some of Ali's more extreme supporters who later became the Khawarij attacked. Aisha's brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who was Ali's commander approached Aisha. Ali pardoned Aisha and her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr escorted her back to Medina.

Ali then turned towards Syria. He marched to the Euphrates and engaged Muawiyah's troops at the Battle of Siffin (657). Accounts of the clash vary – however, it would seem that neither side had won a victory, since the Syrians called for arbitration to settle the matter, arguing that continuing the civil war would embolden the Byzantines.[34] English historian Edward Gibbon wrote of the estimated casualties that Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyah's forces lost 45,000.[35] Appalled by the carnage, Ali sent a message to Muawiyah and challenged him to single combat, saying that whoever won should be the Caliph. In Gibbon's words, "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death."[36]

An elaboration of this conflict has it that Muawiyah, being the governor of Sham (the Levant) and the cousin of Uthman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levantine autonomy under his rule. Gibbon wrote of this: "Moawiyah, son of Abu Sophian, who had assumed the title of caliph, and whose claim was supported by the forces of Syria, and the interest of the house of the Ommiyah."[35] Consequently, Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refused to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. Ali then moved his armies North and the two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Even at this stage, Ali sent three men, Bashir bin Amr bin Mahz Ansari, Saeed bin Qais Hamdani, and Shis bin Rabiee Tamini to Muawiya to induce him to settle for union, accord and coming together. According to Tabari, Muawiyah replied: "Go away from here, only the sword will decide between us."[37] Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.[38][39][40][41][42]

After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As.[43][44] Ali refused to accept the verdict and found him self technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan.[45]

Now with a much depleted force, after making peace with Ali, Muawiyah shifted his focus back towards Constantinople. A massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army to Constantinople from land as well, beginning the First Arab Siege of the city. Constantine IV (r. 661–685) however used a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "Greek fire", invented by a Christian refugee from Syria named Kallinikos of Heliopolis, to decisively defeat the attacking Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara, resulting in the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while the army lost many men to the thematic armies who attacked them on their route back.[46] Eyup was killed in the siege was, the standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his companions; His tomb is in Istanbul.[47]

At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's first caliph Abu Bakr). Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's rule resulted in widespread rebellion in Egypt. Muawiyah ordered 'Amr ibn al-'As to invade Egypt and 'Amr did so successfully.

When Alī was assassinated in 661, Muawiyah, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the strongest claim to the Caliphate. Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina.

According to Sharif Razi, Muawiyah claimed that he only fought about Uthman's death, not against Ali:

In the war... When we met people of Al-Sham, it seemed that our God is one, our prophet is the same, our calling is the same, and no one is more of a believer than the other about believing in Allah, or the prophet. The misunderstandings were about Uthman's blood, and we have nothing to do with it. --Al-Sharif al-Radi Nahj al-Balagha[48]

However, the late Rashidun caliph, Ali ibn Abu Talib, did not appear to share the same sentiments toward Caliph Muawiyah I:

By Allah, Mu`awiyah is not more cunning than I am, but he deceives and commits evil deeds. Had I not been hateful of deceit I would have been the most cunning of all men. But (the fact is that) every deceit is a sin and every sin is disobedience (of Allah), and every deceitful person will have a banner by which he will be recognised on the Day of Judgement.[49]

Treaty with Hasan ibn Ali

Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a truce and retired to private life in Medina. Muawiyah thus established the Umayyad Caliphate, which was to be a hereditary dynasty,[50][51][52][53] and governed from Damascus in Syria instead of Medina in Arabia.

Narrated by Al-Hasan Al-Basri

By Allah, Al-Hasan bin Ali led large battalions like mountains against Muawiya. Amr bin Al-As said (to Muawiya), "I surely see battalions which will not turn back before killing their opponents." Muawiya who was really the best of the two men said to him, "O 'Amr! If these killed those and those killed these, who would be left with me for the jobs of the public, who would be left with me for their women, who would be left with me for their children?" Then Muawiya sent two Quraishi men from the tribe of 'Abd-i-Shams called 'Abdur Rahman bin Sumura and Abdullah bin 'Amir bin Kuraiz to Al-Hasan saying to them, "Go to this man (i.e. Al-Hasan) and negotiate peace with him and talk and appeal to him." So, they went to Al-Hasan and talked and appealed to him to accept peace. Al-Hasan said, "We, the offspring of 'Abdul Muttalib, have got wealth and people have indulged in killing and corruption (and money only will appease them)." They said to Al-Hasan, "Muawiya offers you so and so, and appeals to you and entreats you to accept peace." Al-Hasan said to them, "But who will be responsible for what you have said?" They said, "We will be responsible for it." So, what-ever Al-Hasan asked they said, "We will be responsible for it for you." So, Al-Hasan concluded a peace treaty with Muawiya. Al-Hasan (Al-Basri) said: I heard Abu Bakr saying, "I saw Allah's Apostle on the pulpit and Al-Hasan bin 'Ali was by his side. The Prophet was looking once at the people and once at Al-Hasan bin 'Ali saying, 'This son of mine is a Saiyid (i.e. a noble) and may Allah make peace between two big groups of Muslims through him."[54]

Hasan wanted peace. He was one of the guards defending Uthman ibn Affan when the attacker climbed a wall and went around him and killed Uthman ibn Affan. Those events had led to much bloodshed. Many of Hasan's closest friends had been killed in those futile wars, including Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who he had been raised with. Many of the people around him also wanted peace. There was also a Kharijites rebellion on going and these people viewed everyone as an enermy. Hasan viewed Muawiyah as a Muslim, who could deal with the Kharijites. Hasan therefore made the Hasan–Muawiya treaty with Muawiyah.[citation needed]

Rule

In the year 661, Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem.[55] Muawiyah governed the geographically and politically disparate Caliphate, which now spread from Egypt in the west to Iran in the east, by strengthening the power of his allies in the newly conquered territories. Prominent positions in the emerging governmental structures were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria itself. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.[56][57]

In a manner similar to Byzantine administrative practices, Muawiyah instituted several bureaucracies, called divans, to aid him in the governance and the centralization of the Caliphate and the empire. Early Arabic sources credit two diwans in particular to Muawiyah: the Diwan al-Khatam (Chancellery) and the Barid (Postal Service), both of which greatly improved communications within the empire.[58][59][60]

He came to Madina and spoke to the people, saying, "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I have followed a course with you which contains fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so be pleased with what comes to you from me even if it is little. When good is continuous, even if it is little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim."[61]

He also said in as address which he delivered to the people, "O people! By Allah, it is easier to move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed their way of conduct falling short of those before me, but none after me will equal me in it."[61]

This use of pomp does not mean that Mu'awiya indulged himself in luxury. Mu'awiya could be seen speaking to the people on the minbar of Damascus wearing a patched garment. Yunus ibn Maysar al-Himyari said, "I saw Mu'awiya riding in the Damascus market wearing a shirt with a patched pocket, going along in the Damascus markets."[62]

According to Arab historian Ibn Kathir:[63]

At the height of tension when fighting was about to erupt at Siffin between Imam Ali and Muawiyah, Muawiyah was informed that the Byzantine Emperor raised a very large army and was drawing very close to the borders of the Muslim state. He wrote to him, giving him a very clear warning, 'By God, if you do not stop your designs and go back to your place, I will end my dispute with my cousin and will drive you out of the entire land you rule, until I make the earth too tight for you.' The Byzantine Emperor was scared off and abandoned his plans

However, some scholars contend that he simply placated the Byzantine emperor with offers of land, gold, and slaves and soldiers.[64]

But looking at the Eastern Roman Empire records of the period and the writings of Theophanes the Confessor, Emperor Constans II was still in shock after the Battle of the Masts and was too busy shoring up his defences, initiating major army reform for lasting effect and establishing the themata.[27][28]

Had Ali listened to Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr ibn al-Awam (Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam) and not confronted Muawiyah and depleted his forces, and made a peace treaty with him before the Battle of Siffin like Hasan rather that after the battle and joined him in the Siege of Constantinople, it would have been a very dangerous situation for the Byzantine Empire. The battle of Battle of Siffin gave Emperor Constans II time to shore up his defences and depleted Muawiyah forces.[27][28]

Muawiyah died either on April 29 or May 1, 680, allegedly from a stroke. He was succeeded by his son Yazid I. Muawiyah had held the expanding empire together by force of his personality, through personal allegiances, in the style of a traditional Arab sheikh. However Muawiyah's attempt to start a dynasty failed because both Yazid and then his grandson Muawiya II died prematurely. His grandson Muawiya II abdicating and later died. The caliphate eventually went to Marwan I a descendant of another branch of Muawiyah's clan.

Legacy

By his creation of a fleet, Muawiyah was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium. His Navy challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts at will. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 was of critical turning point. It opened up the Mediterranean, considered a "Roman lake", and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean. This also allowed the expansion of the state into North Africa and Spain.[65][66] Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating Western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was a commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" (Kennedy).[67] Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on.[68][69]

Muawiyah greatly beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims charge that if anything, he was the instigator of the civil war, and weakened the Muslim nation and divided the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies and slander against Muhammad's family, even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[64]

Muawiyah had a personal library collection (bayt al-hikmah)[70] that was enlarged by his successors "throughout the Umayyad period.… This first major library outside of a mosque was known to include works on astrology, medicine, chemistry, military science, and various practical arts and applied sciences in addition to religion."[70]

According to some sources Muawiyah warned his son Yazid against mistreating Hussein. His final warning to Yazid was: "Be careful O my son, that you do not meet God with his blood, lest you be amongst those that will perish" [71][72] But Yazid did not listen.

The late (Sunni) theologian Mawdudi (founder of Jamaat-E-Islami) wrote that the establishment of the caliphate as (essentially) a monarchy began with the caliphate of Muawiyah I. It wasn't the kind where Muawiyah was appointed by the Muslims. Mawdudi elaborated that Muawiyah wanted to be caliph and fought in order to attain the caliphate, not really depending upon the acceptance of the Muslim community. The people did not appoint Muawiyah as a caliph, he became one by force, and consequently the people had no choice but to give him their pledge of allegiance (baiah). Had the people not given Muawiyah their allegiance at that time, it wouldn't have meant so much as losing their rank or position, as much as it would have meant bloodshed and conflict. This certainly couldn't have been given preference over peace and order. Following Hasan ibn Ali's abdication of the caliphate, all the Muslims (including the Sahabah and Tabi'een) gave their pledge of allegiance to Muawiyah I, bringing an end to civil war. That year was called the Aam Al Jamaat (Year of Congregation). As Mawdudi pointed out, Muawiyah's own speech during the initial days of his caliphate expressed his own awareness of this:[73]

By Allah, while taking charge of your government I was not unaware of the fact that you are unhappy over my taking over of government and you people don’t like it. I am well aware of whatever is there in your hearts regarding this matter but still I have taken it from you on the basis of my sword… Now if you see that I am not fulfilling your rights, then you should be happy with me with whatever is there.[74]

Muawiyah has a few rare virtues. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad.[6][7]

Once peace was established, Muawiya reconciled many of the people who had been fighting each other by his generosity and fairness. Even the most stubborn of opponents would often melt under his generosity and diplomacy. He also managed through fine diplomacy to balance out the tribal rivalries.[75]

During Mu'awiya's rule he put into practice the advice that Muhammad had given him, "When you rule, do it well."[76] He was scrupulous about justice and was generous and fair to people of all classes. He honoured people who possessed ability and talent and helped them to advance their talents, regardless of their tribe. He displayed great forbearance towards the rashness of ignorant men and great generosity towards the grasping. He made the judgements of the Shari'a binding on everyone with resolution, compassion and diligence. He led them in their prayers and directed them in their gatherings. He led them in their wars. In short, he proved to be a balanced and model ruler. 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas stated that he did not see a man more suited to rule than Mu'awiya.[77]

Sunni view

Many Sunni Muslim historians view Muawiyah as a companion of Muhammad, and hence worthy of respect for this reason, and a few Sunni Muslims take great issue with the Shia criticism and vilification of him.[78]

A narration tells that Muhammad prayed to God in favor of Muawiyah: "Allahumma (O Allah) guide him and guide people by him."[79] This narration is in many hadith (narration) books. Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (a modern narrations critic) also said: all the men of the predication (reference) are trustworthy. and then he explained how the predication is strong.[80][81]

Shia view

Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons, chief among them his war against Ali. When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Shi'ites claimed that Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.[82]

The Shia view Muawiyah as a tyrant, usurper and murderer. His supposed conversion to Islam before the conquest of Mecca is dismissed as a fable, or mere hypocrisy. He is also described as a manipulator and liar who usurped Islam purely for political and material gain of his father's loss. He was also widely regarded as a tyrant and usurper by both Shia Arabs and Persians. The Umayyads suppressed Persian culture and language, and a number of Iran's greatest contributors to Persian literature - both Shias like Ferdowsi and Sunnis like Saadi Shirazi - took the side of Ali, not Muawiyah. + Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons, chief among them his war against Ali. When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Shi'ites claimed that Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.[83]

Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons. Firstly, because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali, whom the Shia Muslims believe was Muhammad's true successor); secondly, for the breaking of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, after the death of Hasan ibn Ali, one of broken terms being appointing his son Yazid as his successor; thirdly, on account of his responsibility for the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by bribing his wife Ja'dah binte Ash'as to poison him; and fourthly by distorting Islam to match his unislamic rule; and fifthly, for the deaths of various Companions of Muhammad.[84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91]

According to Shia view, Muawiyah opposed Ali, out of sheer greed for power and wealth. His reign opened the door to unparalleled disaster, marked by the persecution of Ali, slaughtering of his followers,[92] and unlawful imprisonment of his supporters,[93] which only worsened when Yazid came into power and the Battle of Karbala ensued. Muawiyah is alleged to have killed many of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), either in battle or by poison, due to his lust for power. Muawiyah killed several historical figures, including the Sahabah, Amr bin al-Hamiq, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr,[94] Malik al-Ashtar,[95] Hujr ibn Adi[96] (to which the families of Abu Bakr and Umar condemned Muawiyah for,[97] and the Sahaba deemed his killer to be cursed)[98] and Abd al-Rahman bin Hasaan (buried alive for his support of Ali).[99]

According to the Shia Muawiyah was also responsible for instigating the Battle of Siffin, the bloodiest battle in Islam's history, in which over 70,000 people (among them many of the last surviving companions of Muhammad) were killed. Notable among the Companions who were killed by Muawiyah's forces was Ammar ibn Yasir, a frail old man of 95 at the time of his death. Shii Muslims see his being killed at the hands of Muawiyah's army as significant because of a well-known hadith, present in both the Shia and Sunni books of hadith, narrated by Abu Hurairah and others, in which Muhammad is recorded to have said: "A group of rebels would kill you",[100] Sahih Muslim[101] and Sahih al-Bukhari.

− − When the tide of the battle was turning in Ali's favor, Muawiyah stalled Ali's troops by raising the Quran on the tip of a bloody spear as a sort of "holy book shield" against attack by Muslims.[102] This sort of act is widely regarded as blasphemy and desecration of God's word, and Shia scholars condemn Muawiyah for it, arguing such a practice would today be condemned by Sunni Muslims just as much as Shia Muslims.

− − The killing of the two children of Ubaydullah ibn Abbas can also be found in Sunni and Shia texts.[103]

[...] Then he [i.e. Muawiyah] was informed that Ubaidullah had two infant sons. So he set out to reach them, and when he found them - they had two (tender) forelocks like pearls - [and] he ordered to kill them.[104]


See also

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Sources

  • Kaegi, Walter Emil, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests, pub Cambridge University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-521-48455-8.
  • El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria. Byzantium viewed by the Arabs (2004 ed.). Harvard CMES. ISBN 978-0-932885-30-2. - Total pages: 271
  • Kennedy, Hugh (2004), The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second Edition), Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd., ISBN 978-0-582-40525-7
  • Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006). The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204. Leiden, The Netherlands and Boston, Massachusetts: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-15197-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Rahman I Doi, Abdur , Non-Muslims Under Shari'ah: (Islamic Law), pub Kazi Pubns Inc, 1999, ISBN 978-1-56744-170-3.
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Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Moawiyah".
Mu'awiya I
Sunni Islam titles
Preceded by Caliph
661–680 		Succeeded by
Regnal titles
Preceded by
none
 Umayyad Caliph
661–680 		Succeeded by
Regnal titles
Preceded by Governor of Al-Sham
640–656 		under direct control of Muawiya I

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