Mahishya (IAST: Māhiṣya) is a Bengali Hindu traditionally agrarian caste,[1][2] and formed the largest caste in undivided Bengal.[3] Mahisyas were, and still are, extremely diverse caste consisting of all possible classes in terms of material conditions and ranks.[4][5]
Regions with significant populations | |
---|---|
Presidency Division (included Khulna Division then) • Burdwan Division (incl. Medinipur Division) • Rajshahi Division (incl. Malda Division) • Dhaka Division | ~2.38 million (around a quarter of province's Hindu population c. 1931) |
Languages | |
Bengali | |
Religion | |
![]() |
Mythology
According to 13th century text Brihaddharma Purana, children of Shudra fathers and Kshatriya mothers are dāsa, an Uttam Sankar (literally, good mixed) and their occupation is agriculture.[6] According to the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, whose chapter describing mixed castes was likely inserted after 16th century,[7] Kaivarta was one born of a Kshatriya father and a Vaishya mother.[8] Some ancient or mediaeval texts like Yājñavalkya Smṛti and Gautama Dharmasutra give identical parentage, that is, one born to a Kshatriya father and a Vaishya mother for Mahishya, who was supposed to be engaged in the profession of astronomy or agriculture.[9][10]
History
The group now known as Mahishyas were originally known as Kaibartas or Kaivartas. From eighth to thirteenth century, there are numerous examples of Kaibartas holding posts of administrators and legal officers.[11] During Pala regime, many Kaivartas, alternately with many Brahmins, acted as ministers in royal courts.[12] In eleventh century, in a rebellious hostility, Divya, originally a feudal chief (Samanta), killed Mahipala II, seized Varendri and established a regime there. For a short time Varendri bowed to the supremacy of three Kaibarta kings - Divya, Rudok and Bhima.[13][14][15] According to historian Romila Thapar, this is perhaps the first peasant rebellion in Indian history.[16][17][18][19] In his rule Bhima dispossessed the brahmanical and other beneficiaries and levied taxes from them, and prioritized the interests of the peasants.[20] During eleventh and twelfth centuries some of the Kaibartas were versed in Sanskrit and composed poetry.[13]
At the end of 19th century scholars appeared to differ on the rank of the Mahisyas in Bengal society. Sankritist and antiquarian Rajendralal Mitra appeared to believe that Mahisyas were a caste of small farmers and could not afford forces of modernity such as school education. But the president of the college of Nadia pandits, Jogendranath Bhattacharya, who published a major book "Hindu Castes and Sects" in 1896, wrote that in the Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnapore, where population of high castes was very small and Kaibarttas were very numerous, they may be reckoned among the local aristocracy and in other districts their position was next only to the Kayasthas.[21] The Mahishya movement during the late nineteenth century was the work of successful men who had seized the new avenues of power opened by commerce, education and professions. Whereas the samajpatis, who as substantial landholding families had from generation to generation stood as the social leaders of different local samajs of the Kaibartta community, were generally opposed to the movement.[22][23] Till then all these individuals were known as Chasi-kaibartta which was an incredibly diverse caste. The Chasi-kaibartta, who numbered more than half of the population in eastern and southern parts of Midnapore, reclaimed the culturable wastelands and thus secured for themselves during the days of Mughal faujdars a dominant position in the agrarian economy, filling up all the strata - zamindars, jotedars or rich farmers, small peasants down to share-croppers and agricultural labourers. In the district of Dhaka all the upper and middle classes of Mahishyas, who were also known as Parasar Das or Halik Das, were zamindars and substantial landholders from the time of Muslim rule. In the districts like Burdwan, Hooghly, Nadia and the 24 Parganas or in the eastern areas like Faridpur, they enjoyed an important position in agriculture, some of them being substantial landholders, grain-dealers and peasant-proprietors.[24][25] There were some major landed families in Calcutta such as Marh family in Janbazar and Bawali Mondal family in Tollygunge[26][27] In the city there was a large mahishya contingent working as traders, manufacturers and professionals like lawyers.[28][22]
Although many are still involved in traditional work in rural areas, within a generation Mahishyas gave up agriculture in large numbers in favour of engineering and skilled labour in the urbanised areas of Howrah and Kolkata. In Howrah, the Mahishyas are the most numerous and successful businesspeople. At the turn of the 20th century, much of the land and factories were owned by Kayasthas; but by 1967, the Mahisya community owned 67 percent of the engineering businesses in the district.[29][30][31]
Role in Independence Movement
Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Charan Biswas, small zamindars and moneylenders of Nadia, organized the peasants of Nadia and Jessore, and raised an army of Lathiyals and spearmen. They led the Indigo revolt in the region and paid off the peasants' debts after the rebellion. Disgruntled former employees of Indigo factories, village headmen (Mandals), and also members of some other peasant communities participated largely in this rebellion against European planters.[32][33]
Mahishyas played a prominent role in the nationalist movement.[34] Deshapran Birendranath Sasmal[35] led the Mahishyas against Union board taxes in 1919 which later merged with non-cooperation movement in Midnapore.[36] During Civil disobedience movement(1930–34) the mahishyas paved the way for future course of actions leading to virtual breakdown of British Administration in the areas of Tamluk and Contai.[37][38]
By the 1940s, Mahisyas were the backbone of the Congress-led militant nationalist movement in Midnapore and South Bengal as a whole. As a matter of fact, a majority of leaders and foot soldiers of the Quit India movement in Midnapore were Mahisyas. They had set up a parallel government Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar[39] in Tamluk which ran for nearly two years(1942–44). It had its own army, judiciary and finance department. Biplabi, the mouthpiece of the parallel national government in Midnapore, was later published in English.[26][40]
Varna status
In 19th century Bengal, Chasi Kaibartas were identified as one of the Sat Shudras (clean Shudras), though the Jalia Kaibartas and the priests of the Kaibartas were considered as unclean.[41] The Mahishyas have generally been considered as 'middle-ranking shudras' in the caste structure of Bengal.[42][43] Like South India, the social groups of eastern India have traditionally been divided in two groups - Brahmins and Shudras.[44] In 1901, Mahishyas claimed to be Vaishyas, which status was also claimed by their priests Gaudadya Brahmins for Mahishyas. In 1931 census, they claimed to be recorded as Kshatriyas or Mahishya Kshatriyas. Historian Jyotirmoyee Sarma has opined that the Varna status of Mahishyas is disputed.[45]
Socio-economic condition
Although the financial, social, and political success of Mahishyas is notable, they have often been stigmatised due to their agrarian roots. Mahishyas have not been averse to manual labour, which has often been considered demeaning by elite among "higher castes".[29] For instance, when the battle took place between Subhas Chandra Bose and Birendranath Sasmal for the post of the chief executive officer of Calcutta Municipal Corporation, which then dominated political life of Bengal, Bose deftly emerged victorious.[46] Although Chittaranjan Das had originally proposed to reward the services of Sasmal by offering him the job, he soon backed out when he found out that the choice would offend the Kayastha clique of the city. One of them went so far as to comment: ‘Will a keot from Midnapur come and rule in Calcutta?’[a] Sasmal asked his mentor Das two questions at a meeting of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee (BPCC): '(1) Subhas Bose had been elected member and his brother Sarat Bose alderman of the Calcutta Corporation by the Swaraj party. Why was the BPCC bent on establishing the mastery of one family over the Corporation? (2) In the highest executive post of the Corporation, it was being proposed that he be bypassed and another man appointed. Was this because he was held in contempt for his low caste?' Das expressed annoyance with the first question and gave an inadequate answer to the second which did not satisfy Sasmal. Sasmal left the BPCC in utter humiliation and anger, and went into his legal practice and his control of local politics in Contai and Midnapore.[47]
In 1921 census Mahishyas were included in the list of "depressed classes" as Chasi-Kaibarta, but affluent individuals refused to accept the depressed class status since they believed that it would seriously jeopardize their claims to "high caste Hindu" status.[26][48][49] In 1946, however, a caste association of Mahishyas had pointed out that they were among the "intermediate and depressed" castes of Bengal being systematically deprived of their legitimate claims and shares in service.They urged the British government to help them by granting electorate separate from that of "caste Hindus" and scheduled castes and by granting special facilities in the matters of education, appointment to all departments etc.[50]
As of late twelfth century Partha Chatterjee considered Mahishyas as the single most important 'middle-caste' group in south-western Bengal, where they are very numerous, consisting districts of Midnapore, 24 Parganas, Hooghly, Howrah; whereas Beech & Beech recognised them as the dominant caste in southern part of former two districts. Nadia and Murshidabad are other two districts where Mahishyas are numerically most dominant caste.[51][52][53][54]
During 1980s there was lack of political will from the West Bengal government in recognising the backward castes in the state.[5] Mandal Commission included both Chasi-Kaibarta and Mahishya in the list of 177 "backward classes" for the state of West Bengal. Since 1989, after the commission's proposals coming into force, a section among the lower middle and lower class Mahisyas mounted a low intensity campaign for OBC status. It was, however, opposed by some individuals of well-off sections, who had even gone to court against this initiative. In late 1990s Sen commission came to conclusion that Chasi-Kaibarta constituted a backward class and Mahishya as such was not a backward class in the state. By early 2000s, the OBC status was granted to Chasi-Kaibartas. Anyone who could produce documents to the effect that they belonged to the Chashi-Kaibarta caste was eligible for OBC status then. Since early 2010s, better-off among Mahisyas have also been campaigning for OBC status for the caste as whole, but the group named Mahishya still belongs to General category and continues to form the largest caste of West Bengal.[55][56][26][48][57]
Notable people
- Rani Rashmoni, Indian Zamindar, businesswoman, philanthropist, founder of Dakshineswar Kali Temple[58][59]
- Diwan Mohanlal, Hindu king and one of the chief commanders of Nawab Sirajuddaula[60]
- Birendranath Sasmal, freedom fighter, barrister and politician[61][62]
- Hemchandra Kanungo, one of the first revolutionaries to go abroad to learn bomb-making, co-creator of India's first unofficial flag[63]
- Basanta Kumar Biswas, freedom fighter, one of the youngest martyrs, attempted assassination of Lord Hardinge[64][65]
- Matangini Hazra, freedom fighter, martyr during the Quit India Movement, popularly known as "Lady Gandhi"[66][67]
- Satish Chandra Samanta, freedom fighter, devoted Gandhian, established a parallel government in Tamluk during the British Raj[66][68]
- Sushil Kumar Dhara, freedom fighter, established a parallel government in Tamluk during the British Raj[66][68]
- Alamohan Das, pioneering industrialist and founder of India Machinery Co., namesake of Dasnagar[69][70]
- Sharat Kumar Roy, Indian American geologist and adventurer[71]
- Sourindra Mohan Sircar, Indian botanist[72]
- Sunil Janah, leftist photojournalist and documentary photographer[26]
- Mani Lal Bhaumik, Indian American physicist, entrepreneur, an internationally bestselling author and philanthropist[73]
- Anil Kumar Gain, Indian mathematician and statistician, founder of Vidyasagar University[74]
- Dinesh Das, Bengali poet, Independence activist, Marxist[63][75]
- Abha Maiti, freedom fighter, politician, refugee relief and rehabilitation minister of West Bengal (1962-1967), minister of state for industry of Government of India from 1977 to 1979[76][77]
See also
Notes
- ^ Refer Mohanty, Nivedita (2005). Oriya Nationalism Quest for a United Orissa 1866-1956. Prafulla. Page 263: "In 1924, when Birendranath Sasmal claimed the post of Chief Executive Officer of Calcutta corporation an untoward situation occurred. A newspaper reported that he was greeted with derogatory slogans because of his Oriya origin and his claim for the post was overruled."
References
- ^ Society, Indian Anthropological (2005). Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society. The Society. pp. 187–191.
- ^ Man and Life. Institute of Social Research and Applied Anthropology. 1992.
- ^ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
- ^ Pfeffer, Georg; Behera, Deepak Kumar (1997). Contemporary Society: Developmental issues, transition, and change. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-7022-642-0.
- ^ a b Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (12 July 2023). "Caste and politics in (West) Bengal". Contemporary South Asia: 4. doi:10.1080/09584935.2023.2229751. S2CID 259862847.
- ^ Furui, Ryosuke (2 July 2019). Land and Society in Early South Asia: Eastern India 400–1250 AD. Taylor & Francis. p. 228. ISBN 978-1-000-08480-1.
- ^ Hazra, Rajendra Chandra (1975). Studies in the Purāṇic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. pp. 166–67. ISBN 978-81-208-0422-7.
- ^ Sur, Atul. Bangalir Nritatwik Porichoy (in Bengali). Kolkata: Jiggassa Agencies Ltd. pp. 38–39.
- ^ Agarwalla, Shyam. S. (1998). Religion and Caste Politics. Rawat Publications. p. 133. ISBN 9788170334682.
- ^ Kumar, Sangeet (2005). Changing Role of the Caste System: A Critique. Jaipur, India: Rawat Publications. p. 48. ISBN 8170338816.
- ^ Ray, Niharranjan (1994). History of the Bengali People: Ancient Period. Orient Longman. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
- ^ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
- ^ a b Ray, Niharranjan (1994). History of the Bengali People: Ancient Period. Orient Longman. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-86311-378-9.
- ^ Sur, Atul Krishna; Sur, Atul Kumar (1963). History and Culture of Bengal. Chuckervertti, Chatterjee.
- ^ MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ, CALCUTTA.
- ^ Thapar, Romila (14 October 2013). The Past Before Us. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2.
- ^ Thapar, Romila (February 2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
- ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4.
- ^ Sharma, R. S.; Sharma, Ram Sharan (2003). Early Medieval Indian Society (pb). Orient Blackswan. pp. 221–226. ISBN 978-81-250-2523-8.
- ^ Sharma, R. S.; Sharma, Ram Sharan (2003). Early Medieval Indian Society (pb). Orient Blackswan. p. 224. ISBN 978-81-250-2523-8.
- ^ Sengupta, Saswati (30 November 2020). Mutating Goddesses: Bengal's Laukika Hinduism and Gender Rights. Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-19-099325-2.
- ^ a b Ray, Rajat Kanta; Ray, Professor and Head of the Department of History Rajat Kanta (1984). Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927. Oxford University Press. pp. 75, 76. ISBN 978-0-19-561654-5.
- ^ Ahir, Rajiv (2018). A Brief History of Modern India. Spectrum Books (P) Limited. p. 839. ISBN 978-81-7930-688-8.
- ^ Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (1990). Caste, Politics, and the Raj: Bengal, 1872-1937. K.P. Bagchi & Company. ISBN 978-81-7074-066-7.
- ^ Bhaumik, Sudarshana (26 August 2022). The Changing World of Caste and Hierarchy in Bengal: Depiction from the Mangalkavyas c. 1700–1931. Taylor & Francis. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-1-000-64143-1.
- ^ a b c d e "Mahisyas and the new caste question in West Bengal politics". India Today. 18 March 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
- ^ Basu, Debashis (1990). Kalakātāra purākathā (in Bengali). Kolkata: Pustaka Bipaṇi. pp. 71, 78. ISBN 978-81-85471-01-3.
- ^ Chakrabarty, Bidyut (1997). Local Politics and Indian Nationalism, Midnapur, 1919-1944. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-158-7.
- ^ a b Lessinger, Johanna M. (1982). "The New Vaishyas". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 30 (4): 920–924. doi:10.1086/452603.
- ^ Timberg, Thomas A. (1978). The Marwaris, from Traders to Industrialists. Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-0528-1.
- ^ Others (1991). Reader In Urban Sociology. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-0-86311-152-5.
- ^ Kling, Blair B. (1966). The Blue Mutiny: The Indigo Disturbances in Bengal, 1859-1862. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 84–86, 95. ISBN 978-1-5128-0349-5. JSTOR j.ctv513101.
- ^ Bhattacharya, Subhas (1977). "The Indigo Revolt of Bengal". Social Scientist. 5 (12): 16–18. doi:10.2307/3516809. ISSN 0970-0293. JSTOR 3516809.
- ^ Chakrabarty, Bidyut (1997). Local Politics and Indian Nationalism, Midnapur, 1919-1944. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-158-7.
- ^ ".:: Legacy of Midnapore(Medinipur, Midnapur, Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur, East Midnapore, West Midnapore)::". www.midnapore.in. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
- ^ Bandyopādhyāẏa, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India. Orient Blackswan. pp. 307–308. ISBN 978-81-250-2596-2.
- ^ Dasgupta, Tapati; Chattopadhyay, R. N. (1999). Rural Development in India: A Socio-historic Approach. National Book Organisation. ISBN 978-81-85135-98-4.
- ^ Mahotsav, Amrit. "Mahishya peasant movement". Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
- ^ Sarkar, Sumit (24 January 1989). Modern India 1885–1947. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-19712-5.
- ^ Sarbadhinayak: life story of Sri Satis Chandra Samanta, first Sarbadhinayak of Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar. Tamralipta Swadhinata Sangram Itihas Committee. 1982.
tamralipta jatiya sarkar.
- ^ MAJUMDAR, R. C. (1971). HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL. G. BHARADWAJ, CALCUTTA. p. 422.
- ^ Nicholas, Ralph W (2003). Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal. Orient Longman Ltd. p. 53. ISBN 978-8180280061.
- ^ Shah, Ghanshyam (2004). Caste and Democratic Politics in India. Orient Blackswan. p. 114. ISBN 978-8-178-24095-4.
- ^ SIRCAR, D. C. (1959). STUDIES IN THE SOCIETY AND ADMINISTRATION OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA VOL. 1. FIRMA K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY, CALCUTTA. p. 115.
- ^ Sarma, Jyotirmoyee (1980). Caste Dynamics Among the Bengali Hindus. Firma KLM. pp. 118–120. ISBN 978-0-8364-0633-7.
- ^ Maity, Sachindra (1975). Freedom Movement in Midnapore. Calcutta: Firma, K.L.
- ^ Ray, Rajat Kanta (1984). Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927. Oxford University Press. pp. 330–331. ISBN 978-0-19-561654-5.
- ^ a b "In Bengal, the battle for Mahishya vote and the politics of turning OBC". Hindustan Times. 5 April 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
- ^ Chandra, Uday; Heierstad, Geir; Nielsen, Kenneth Bo (25 September 2015). The Politics of Caste in West Bengal. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-317-41477-3.
- ^ Bhaumik, Sudarshana (26 August 2022). The Changing World of Caste and Hierarchy in Bengal: Depiction from the Mangalkavyas c. 1700–1931. Taylor & Francis. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-000-64143-1.
- ^ Tropical Man. E.J. Brill. 1972.
- ^ Beech, Robert Paul; Beech, Mary Jane (1969). South Asia Series Occasional Paper. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. p. 107.
- ^ Chatterjee, Gouripada (1986). Midnapore, the Forerunner of India's Freedom Struggle. Mittal Publications. p. 158.
- ^ Chatterjee, Partha (1997). The Present History of West Bengal: Essays in Political Criticism. Oxford University Press. pp. 73, 75. ISBN 978-0-19-563945-2.
- ^ "Seventh Report" (PDF).
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "National Commission for Backward Classes". www.ncbc.nic.in. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
- ^ "Bengal govt wary of implementing Mandal report, says OBC group". The Indian Express. 10 January 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
- ^ Sarkar, Sumit (1997). Writing Social History. New York. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-19-564024-3.
- ^ Pathak, Dr Indu Prabha; Khurana, Dr Payal. Glass Ceiling: Impact on Women. Shanlax Publications. p. 38. ISBN 978-93-94899-94-0.
- ^ Halder, Narottam (1988). Gangaridi: Alochona o Parjalochona (in Bengali). Kolkata: Dey book store. pp. 51, 52.
- ^ Ray, Rajat Kanta (1984). Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875-1927. Oxford University Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-19-561654-5.
- ^ Hardiman, David (1 March 2021). Noncooperation in India: Nonviolent Strategy and Protest, 1920-22. Oxford University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-19-758056-1.
- ^ a b Maiti, Sisirkumar (1988). Kichu mat, kichu path (in Bengali). Asavari Publication. p. 83.
- ^ Sengupta, Subodh Chandra (1960). Sansad Bangali Charitabhidhan (in Bengali). Kolkata: Sahitya Sansad. p. 329.
- ^ Sen, Bankim Chandra (1973). Lokmata Rani Rashmoni (in Bengali). Kolkata: Bhavna prakasana. p. 55.
- ^ a b c Ghosh, G. K. (2000). Legends of Origin of the Castes and Tribes of Eastern India. Firma KLM. p. 49. ISBN 978-81-7102-046-1.
- ^ Ghosh, Chitra (1991). Women Movement Politics in Bengal. Chatterjee Publisher. p. 72. ISBN 978-81-85089-04-1.
- ^ a b Basu, Sajal (1990). Factions, Ideology, and Politics: Coalition Politics in Bengal. Minerva Associates (Publications). p. 20. ISBN 978-81-85195-26-1.
- ^ Bandyopadhyay, Ritajyoti (10 November 2022). Streets in Motion: The Making of Infrastructure, Property, and Political Culture in Twentieth-century Calcutta. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-009-27674-0.
- ^ Mitra, Iman Kumar; Samaddar, Ranabir; Sen, Samita (29 July 2016). Accumulation in Post-Colonial Capitalism. Springer. p. 193. ISBN 978-981-10-1037-8.
- ^ Biswas, Lokesh Chandra. "Forgotten Bengali Scientist". Krishti: 41, 44.
- ^ "Sourindra Mohan Sircar". Dishari: 100, 101. 2001.
- ^ Bandyopadhyay, Ranjan. Manikanchan (in Bengali). Kolkata: Ananda Publishers Pvt Ltd. pp. 3, 5.
- ^ Guha, Abhijit (1 April 2013). "Vidyasagar viswavidyalayer bismrita prothistata". Vidyasagar Viswavidyalayer Bismrita Prothistata. 4 (12): 13.
- ^ Ray, Sudhir (2007). Marxist Parties of West Bengal in Opposition and in Government, 1947-2001. Progressive Publishers. p. 255. ISBN 978-81-8064-135-0.
- ^ Enlite. Light Publications. 1968. p. 8.
- ^ Sen, Uditi (30 August 2018). Citizen Refugee: Forging the Indian Nation after Partition. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31, 61–65. ISBN 978-1-108-42561-2.