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Hmong or Mong (/ˈmʌŋ/ MUNG; RPA: Hmoob, Nyiakeng Puachue: 𞄀𞄩𞄰, Pahawh: 𖬌𖬣𖬵, [m̥ɔ̃́]) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos.[2] There are some 2.7 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 Hmong Americans as of 2013.[3] Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the Dananshan (大南山) dialect forms the basis of the standard language.[4] However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.
Hmong | |
---|---|
Mong | |
lus Hmoob / lug Moob / lol Hmongb / lus Hmôngz (Vietnam) / 𖬇𖬰𖬞 𖬌𖬣𖬵 / 𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰 | |
Pronunciation | [m̥ɔ̃́] |
Native to | China, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand |
Ethnicity | Hmong |
Native speakers | (8.1 million cited 1995–2004)[1] |
Hmong writing: incl. Pahawh Hmong, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong, multiple Latin standards | |
Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 | hmn Hmong, Mong (China, Laos) |
ISO 639-3 | hmn – inclusive code for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except hmf and hmv Individual codes: cqd – Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China)hea – Northern Qiandong Miaohma – Southern Mashan Hmonghmc – Central Huishui Hmonghmd – Large Flowery Miaohme – Eastern Huishui Hmonghmf – Hmong Don (Vietnam)hmg – Southwestern Guiyang Hmonghmh – Southwestern Huishui Hmonghmi – Northern Huishui Hmonghmj – Gehml – Luopohe Hmonghmm – Central Mashan Hmonghmp – Northern Mashan Hmonghmq – Eastern Qiandong Miaohms – Southern Qiandong Miaohmv – Hmong Dô (Vietnam)hmw – Western Mashan Hmonghmy – Southern Guiyang Hmonghmz – Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao)hnj – Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States)hrm – A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China)huj – Northern Guiyang Hmongmmr – Western Xiangxi Miaomuq – Eastern Xiangxi Miaomww – Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States)sfm – Small Flowery Miao |
Glottolog | firs1234 |
Linguasphere | 48-AAA-a |
![]() Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple | |
Varieties
editMong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as Chuanqiandian Miao (Chinese: 川黔滇苗; lit. 'Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao'), called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called Chuanqiandian Miao. The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" (第一土语) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names Mong Leng, Hmong Dleu/Der, and Hmong Daw are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster.
Ethnologue once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dô, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, Small Flowery Miao, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].[5]
These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names.
- Hmong/Mong/Chuanqiandian Miao macrolanguage (China, Laos, also spoken by minorities in Thailand and the United States), including:
- Hmong Daw (Hmong Der, Hmoob Dawb, Hmong Dleu, Hmongb Dleub, 'White Hmong'; Chinese: 白苗, Bái Miáo, 'White Miao'),
- Mong Leng (Moob Leeg, Moob Ntsuab, Mongb Nzhuab, 'Blue/Green Hmong'; Chinese: 青苗, Qīng Miáo, 'Blue-Green Miao'),
- Hmong Shua (Hmongb Shuat; 'Sinicized Miao'),
- Hmo or A-Hmo (Chinese: 角苗, Jiǎo Miáo, 'Horned Miao'),
- Small Flowery Miao,
- and the rest of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster located in China.
- Hmong languages of Vietnam, not considered part of the China/Laos macrolanguage and possibly forming their own distinct macrolanguage — they are still not very well classified even if they are described by Ethnologue as having vigorous use (in Vietnam) but without population estimates; they have most probably been influenced by Vietnamese, as well as by French (in the former Indochina colonies) and later American English, and they may be confused with varieties spoken by minorities living today in the United States, Europe or elsewhere in Asia (where their varieties may have been assimilated locally, but separately in each area, with other Hmong varieties imported from Laos and China):
- Hmong Dô (Vietnam),
- Hmong Don (Vietnam, assumed).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between British and American English."[6]
Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above:
- Dananshan Miao (Hmong Drout Raol, Hmong Hout Lab; called Hmong Dou in Northern Hmong), the basis of the Chinese standard of the Chuanqiandian cluster
- Black Miao (subgroups: Hmong Dlob, Hmong Buak/Hmoob Puas; Chinese: 黑苗, Hēi Miáo)[7]
- Southern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Shib, Hmongb Lens, Hmongb Dlex Nchab, Hmongb Sad; includes Mong Leng)
- Northern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Soud, Hmong Be/Hmongb Bes, Hmongb Ndrous)
- Western Sichuan Miao (Chinese: 川苗, Chuān Miáo)
In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" (第一土语) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:
A colleague has talked with speakers of a number of these closely-related lects in the US, in Thailand and in China, and has had many discussions with Chinese linguists and foreign researchers or community development workers who have had extensive contact with speakers of these lects. As a result of these conversations this colleague believes that many of these lects are likely to have high inherent mutual intelligibility within the cluster. Culturally, while each sub-group prides itself on its own distinctives, they also recognize that other sub-groups within this category are culturally similar to themselves and accept the others as members of the same general ethnic group. However, this category of lects is internally varied and geographically scattered and mixed over a broad land area, and comprehensive intelligibility testing would be required to confirm reports of mutual intelligibility throughout the cluster.[8]
Varieties in Laos
editAccording to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":[6] the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (Hmong Daw); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.[6]
Varieties in the United States
editMost Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The CDC states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."[6]
Phonology
editThe three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),[9] Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),[10] and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).[11] Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by Hmong Americans. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated /m̥/ of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, /ã/; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.
Vowels
editThe vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.[12] (Phonemes particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
- 3rd Row: Pahawh
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
Close |
i ⟨i⟩ |
ɨ ⟨w⟩ |
u ⟨u⟩ |
|||
Mid |
e ⟨e⟩ |
ẽ~eŋ ⟨ee⟩ |
ɔ ⟨o⟩ |
ɔ̃~ɔŋ ⟨oo⟩ | ||
Open |
a ⟨a⟩ |
ã~aŋ ⟨aa⟩ |
Closing | Centering | |
---|---|---|
Close component is front |
ai ⟨ai⟩ |
iə ⟨ia⟩ |
Close component is central |
aɨ ⟨aw⟩ |
|
Close component is back |
au ⟨au⟩ |
uə ⟨ua⟩ |
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added.
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
Close | i | (ɨ) (added) | u | |||
Mid | e | en | o | oŋ | ||
Open | a | aŋ |
Closing | Centering | |
---|---|---|
Close component is front | aj ⟨ai⟩ | (absent) |
Close component is back | aw ⟨au⟩ | wɒ ⟨ua⟩ |
əw ⟨ou⟩ eβ ⟨eu⟩ (added) |
Dananshan [ɨ] occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written ⟨i⟩, much like Mandarin Chinese. /u/ is pronounced [y] after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong /jeβ/ ⟨ieu⟩, as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as /waj/.
Consonants
editHmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish prenasalization independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Daw† and Mong Leeg‡ are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
- 3rd Row: Pahawh
Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | lateral* | plain | sibilant | lateral* | plain | sibilant | ||||||
Nasal | voiceless | m̥ ⟨hm⟩ 𞄀𞄄 𖬣𖬵† |
(m̥ˡ) ⟨hml⟩ 𞄠𞄄 𖬠𖬰† |
n̥ ⟨hn⟩ 𞄅𞄄 𖬩† |
ɲ̥ ⟨hny⟩ 𞄐𞄄 𖬣𖬰† |
|||||||
voiced | m ⟨m⟩ 𞄀 𖬦 |
(mˡ) ⟨ml⟩ 𞄠 𖬠 |
n ⟨n⟩ 𞄅 𖬬 |
ɲ ⟨ny⟩ 𞄐 𖬮𖬵 |
⟨ɴ⟩ 𞄢 |
|||||||
Plosive/ Affricate |
tenuis | p ⟨p⟩ 𞄚 𖬪𖬵 |
(pˡ) ⟨pl⟩ 𞄡 𖬟𖬵 |
t ⟨t⟩ 𞄃 𖬧𖬵 |
ts ⟨tx⟩ 𞄔 𖬯𖬵 |
(tˡ) ⟨dl⟩ 𞄏 𖬭‡ |
ʈ ⟨r⟩ 𞄖 𖬡 |
tʂ ⟨ts⟩ 𞄁 𖬝𖬰 |
c ⟨c⟩ 𞄈 𖬯 |
k ⟨k⟩*** 𞄎 |
q ⟨q⟩ 𞄗 𖬦𖬵 |
ʔ ⟨au⟩ 𞄠 𖬮𖬰 |
aspirated | pʰ ⟨ph⟩ 𞄚𞄄 𖬝𖬵 |
(pˡʰ) ⟨plh⟩ 𞄡𞄄 𖬪 |
tʰ ⟨th⟩ 𞄃𞄄 𖬟𖬰 |
tsʰ ⟨txh⟩ 𞄔𞄄 𖬦𖬰 |
(tˡʰ) ⟨dlh⟩ 𞄏𞄄 𖬭𖬴‡ |
ʈʰ ⟨rh⟩ 𞄖𞄄 𖬢𖬵 |
tʂʰ ⟨tsh⟩ 𞄁𞄄 𖬪𖬰 |
cʰ ⟨ch⟩ 𞄈𞄄 𖬧 |
kʰ ⟨kh⟩ 𞄎𞄄 𖬩𖬰 |
qʰ ⟨qh⟩ 𞄗𞄄 𖬣 |
||
voiced | d ⟨d⟩ 𞄏 𖬞𖬰† |
|||||||||||
murmured | dʱ ⟨dh⟩ 𞄏𞄄 𖬞𖬵† |
|||||||||||
prenasalized** | ᵐb ⟨np⟩ 𞄜 𖬨𖬵 |
(ᵐbˡ) ⟨npl⟩ 𞄞 𖬫𖬰 |
ⁿd ⟨nt⟩ 𞄂 𖬩𖬵 |
ⁿdz ⟨ntx⟩ 𞄓 𖬢𖬰 |
(ⁿdˡ) ⟨ndl⟩ 𞄝 𖬭𖬰‡ |
ᶯɖ ⟨nr⟩ 𞄑 𖬜𖬰 |
ᶯdʐ ⟨nts⟩ 𞄍 𖬝 |
ᶮɟ ⟨nc⟩ 𞄌 𖬤𖬰 |
ᵑɡ ⟨nk⟩ 𞄇 𖬢 |
ᶰɢ ⟨nq⟩ 𞄙 𖬬𖬰 |
||
ᵐpʰ ⟨nph⟩ 𞄜𞄄 𖬡𖬰 |
(ᵐpˡʰ) ⟨nplh⟩ 𞄞𞄄 𖬡𖬵 |
ⁿtʰ ⟨nth⟩ 𞄂𞄄 𖬫 |
ⁿtsʰ ⟨ntxh⟩ 𞄓𞄄 𖬥𖬵 |
(ⁿtˡʰ) ⟨ndlh⟩ 𞄝𞄄 𖬭𖬵‡ |
ᶯʈʰ ⟨nrh⟩ 𞄑𞄄 𖬨𖬰 |
ᶯtʂʰ ⟨ntsh⟩ 𞄍𞄄 𖬯𖬰 |
ᶮcʰ ⟨nch⟩ 𞄌𞄄 𖬨 |
ᵑkʰ ⟨nkh⟩ 𞄇𞄄 𖬫𖬵 |
ᶰqʰ ⟨nqh⟩ 𞄙𞄄 𖬬𖬵 |
|||
Continuant | voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ 𞄕 𖬜𖬵 |
s ⟨x⟩ 𞄆 𖬮 |
l̥ ⟨hl⟩ 𞄄𞄉 𖬥 |
ʂ ⟨s⟩ 𞄊 𖬤𖬵 |
ɕ ~ ç ⟨xy⟩ 𞄛 𖬧𖬰 |
h ⟨h⟩ 𞄄 𖬟 | |||||
voiced | v ⟨v⟩ 𞄒 𖬜 |
l ⟨l⟩ 𞄉 𖬞 |
ʐ ⟨z⟩ 𞄋 𖬥𖬰 |
ʑ ~ ʝ ⟨y⟩ 𞄘 𖬤 |
||||||||
Approximant | ⟨ɻ⟩ 𞄣 |
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether /c/ is an affricate or /h/ is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with yin tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in angled brackets. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a /w/, which occurs only in foreign words.
Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | lateral* | plain | sibilant | lateral* | plain | sibilant | ||||||
Nasal | voiceless | m̥ ⟨hm⟩ | (absent) | n̥ ⟨hn⟩ | ɲ̥ ⟨hni⟩ | |||||||
voiced | m ⟨m⟩ | (absent) | n ⟨n⟩ | ɲ ⟨ni⟩ | ŋ ⟨ngg⟩ (added) | |||||||
Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | p ⟨b⟩ | (pˡ) ⟨bl⟩ | t ⟨d⟩ | ts ⟨z⟩ | (tˡ) ⟨dl⟩ | ʈ ⟨dr⟩ | tʂ ⟨zh⟩ | tɕ ⟨j⟩ | k ⟨g⟩ | q ⟨gh⟩ | (ʔ) |
aspirated | pʰ ⟨p⟩ | (pˡʰ) ⟨pl⟩ | tʰ ⟨t⟩ | tsʰ ⟨c⟩ | (tˡʰ) ⟨tl⟩ | ʈʰ ⟨tr⟩ | tʂʰ ⟨ch⟩ | tɕʰ ⟨q⟩ | kʰ ⟨k⟩ | qʰ ⟨kh⟩ | ||
voiced | (absent) | |||||||||||
prenasalized** | ᵐp ⟨nb⟩ | (ᵐpˡ) ⟨nbl⟩ | ⁿt ⟨nd⟩ | ⁿts ⟨nz⟩ | (absent) | ᶯʈ ⟨ndr⟩ | ᶯtʂ ⟨nzh⟩ | ⁿtɕ ⟨nj⟩ | ᵑk ⟨ng⟩ | ᶰq ⟨ngh⟩ | ||
ᵐpʰ ⟨np⟩ | (ᵐpˡʰ) ⟨npl⟩ | ⁿtʰ ⟨nt⟩ | ⁿtsʰ ⟨nc⟩ | (absent) | ᶯʈʰ ⟨ntr⟩ | ᶯtʂʰ ⟨nch⟩ | ⁿtɕʰ ⟨nq⟩ | ᵑkʰ ⟨nk⟩ | ᶰqʰ ⟨nkh⟩ | |||
Continuant | voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ | s ⟨s⟩ | l̥ ⟨hl⟩ | ʂ ⟨sh⟩ | ɕ ⟨x⟩ | x ⟨h⟩ | |||||
voiced | v ⟨v⟩ | l ⟨l⟩ | ʐ ⟨r⟩ | ʑ ~ ʝ ⟨y⟩ | (w) |
^* The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with lateral release is controversial. A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with /l/ as the second element. The difference in analysis (e.g., between /pˡ/ and /pl/) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds. Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. /tˡʰ/, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent[13]).
^** Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is /n/. However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving /l/.
^*** Only used in Hmong RPA and not in Pahawh Hmong, since Hmong RPA uses Latin script and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write keeb, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is k + ee + b = keeb, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just Keeb "𖬀" (3rd-Stage Version).
Syllable structure
editHmong syllables have simple structure: all syllables have an onset consonant (except in a few particles); nuclei may consist of a monophthong or diphthong; and the only coda consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated [ŋ]. Similarly, a short [ʔ] may accompany the low-falling creaky tone.
Dananshan has a syllabic /l̩/ (written ⟨l⟩) in Chinese loans, such as lf 'two' and lx 'child'.
Tones
editHmong is a tonal language and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct tones.
Tone | Hmong Daw example[14] | Hmong/Mong RPA spelling | Vietnamese Hmong spelling | Nyiakeng Puachue | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong Pronunciation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High ˥ | /pɔ́/ 'ball' | pob | poz | 𞄚𞄨𞄰 | 𖬒𖬰𖬪𖬵 | |
Mid ˧ | /pɔ/ 'spleen' | po | po | 𞄚𞄨 | 𖬓𖬰𖬪𖬵 | |
Low ˩ | /pɔ̀/ 'thorn' | pos | pos | 𞄚𞄨𞄴 | 𖬓𖬲𖬪𖬵 | |
High-falling ˥˧ | /pɔ̂/ 'female' | poj | pox | 𞄚𞄨𞄲 | 𖬒𖬲𖬪𖬵 | |
Mid-rising ˧˦ | /pɔ̌/ 'to throw' | pov | por | 𞄚𞄨𞄳 | 𖬒𖬶𖬪𖬵 | |
Low checked (creaky) tone ˩ (phrase final: long low rising ˨˩˧) |
/pɔ̰̀/ 'to see' | pom | pov | 𞄚𞄨𞄱 | 𖬒𖬪𖬵 | |
Mid-falling breathy tone ˧˩ | /pɔ̤̂/ 'grandmother' | pog | pol | 𞄚𞄨𞄵 | 𖬓𖬪𖬵 |
The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make tenuis plosives breathy voiced (浊送气), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong g-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with entering tone, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.
Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:
Tone | IPA | Orthography |
---|---|---|
1 high falling | ˦˧ 43 | b |
3 top | ˥ 5 | d |
5 high | ˦ 4 | t |
7 mid | ˧ 3 | k |
2 mid falling | ˧˩ 31 | x |
4 low falling (breathy) | ˨˩̤ 21 | l |
6 low rising (breathy) | ˩˧̤ 13 | s |
8 mid rising | ˨˦ 24 | f |
So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly playing a Jew's harp to convey vowel sounds.[15]
Orthography
editRobert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.[16]
Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the Qing Dynasty had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.[17]
Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using Chinese characters, the Lao alphabet, the Russian alphabet, the Thai alphabet, and the Vietnamese alphabet. In addition, in 1959 Shong Lue Yang, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called Pahawh. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.[16]
In the 1980s, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia.[18] The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.[19]
Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.[20]
The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.[16] In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell Hmoob as "Hmong," and Liab Lis is spelled as Lia Lee.[21]
The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.
Correspondence between orthographies
editThe following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses ⟨ng⟩; RPA uses ⟨h⟩ for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses ⟨h⟩ (and ⟨r⟩) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on ⟨t, x, k⟩ vs. ⟨r, s, q⟩ for the same.
Vowels
editRPA | Pinyin | Vietnamese | Pahawh |
---|---|---|---|
a | 𖬖, 𖬗 | ||
aa | ang | 𖬚, 𖬛 | |
ai | 𖬊, 𖬋 | ||
au | âu | 𖬄, 𖬅 | |
aw | – | ơư | 𖬎, 𖬏 |
e | ê | 𖬈, 𖬉 | |
ee | eng | ênh | 𖬀, 𖬁 |
– | eu | – | – |
i | 𖬂, 𖬃 | ||
ia | – | iê | 𖬔, 𖬕 |
o | 𖬒, 𖬓 | ||
oo | ong | ông | 𖬌, 𖬍 |
– | ou | – | – |
u | u | 𖬆, 𖬇 | |
ua | uô | 𖬐, 𖬑 | |
w | i | ư | 𖬘, 𖬙 |
Consonants
editRPA | Dananshan | Vietnamese | Pahawh |
---|---|---|---|
c | j | ch | 𖬯 |
ch | q | 𖬧 | |
nc | nj | nd | 𖬤𖬰 |
nch | nq | 𖬨 | |
d | – | đ | 𖬞𖬰 |
dh | – | đh | 𖬞𖬵 |
dl | đr | 𖬭 | |
dlh | tl | đl | 𖬭𖬴 |
ndl | – | nđr | 𖬭𖬰 |
ndlh | – | nđl | 𖬭𖬵 |
f | ph | 𖬜𖬵 | |
h | 𖬟 | ||
k | g | c | – |
kh | k | kh | 𖬩𖬰 |
nk | ng | g | 𖬢 |
nkh | nk | nkh | 𖬫𖬵 |
l | 𖬞 | ||
hl | 𖬥 | ||
m | 𖬦 | ||
hm | 𖬣𖬵 | ||
ml | – | mn | 𖬠 |
hml | – | hmn | 𖬠𖬰 |
n | 𖬬 | ||
hn | hn | 𖬩 | |
– | ngg | – | – |
ny | ni | nh | 𖬮𖬵 |
hny | hni | hnh | 𖬣𖬰 |
p | b | p | 𖬪𖬵 |
ph | p | ph | 𖬝𖬵 |
np | nb | b | 𖬨𖬵 |
nph | np | mf | 𖬡𖬰 |
pl | bl | pl | 𖬟𖬵 |
plh | pl | fl | 𖬪 |
npl | nbl | bl | 𖬫𖬰 |
nplh | npl | mfl | 𖬡𖬵 |
q | gh | k | 𖬦𖬵 |
qh | kh | qh | 𖬣 |
nq | ngh | ng | 𖬬𖬰 |
nqh | nkh | nkr | 𖬬𖬵 |
r | dr | tr | 𖬡 |
rh | tr | rh | 𖬢𖬵 |
nr | ndr | r | 𖬜𖬰 |
nrh | ntr | nr | 𖬨𖬰 |
s | sh | s | 𖬤𖬵 |
t | d | t | 𖬧𖬵 |
th | t | th | 𖬟𖬰 |
nt | nd | nt | 𖬩𖬵 |
nth | nt | nth | 𖬫 |
ts | zh | ts | 𖬝𖬰 |
tsh | ch | tsh | 𖬪𖬰 |
nts | nzh | nts | 𖬝 |
ntsh | nch | ntsh | 𖬯𖬰 |
tx | z | tx | 𖬯𖬵 |
txh | c | cx | 𖬦𖬰 |
ntx | nz | nz | 𖬢𖬰 |
ntxh | nc | nx | 𖬥𖬵 |
v | 𖬜 | ||
– | w | – | – |
x | s | x | 𖬮 |
xy | x | sh | 𖬧𖬰 |
y | z | 𖬤 | |
z | r | j | 𖬥𖬰 |
There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.
Tone class |
Tone number |
Dananshan orthog. |
RPA | Vietnamese Hmong | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hmoob | Moob | ||||
平 or A | 1 | b ˦˧ | b ˥ | z | |
2 | x ˧˩ | j ˥˧ | x | ||
上 or B | 3 | d ˥ | v ˧˦ | r | |
4 | l ˨˩̤ | s | g | s | |
去 or C | 5 | t ˦ | (unmarked) ˧ | ||
6 | s ˩˧̤ | g ˧˩̤ | l | ||
入 or D | 7 | k ˧ | s ˩ | s | |
8 | f ˨˦ | m ˩̰ ~ d ˨˩˧ | v ~ k |
Tones 4 and 7 merged in Hmoob Dawb, whereas tones 4 and 6 merged in Mong Leeg.[22]
Example: lus Hmoob /̤ lṳ˧˩ m̥̥õ˦ / 𞄉𞄧𞄴𞄀𞄄𞄰𞄩 / (White Hmong) / lug Moob / 𞄉𞄧𞄵𞄀𞄩𞄰 / (Mong Leng) / lol Hmongb (Dananshan) / lus Hmôngz (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".
Grammar
editHmong is an analytic SVO language in which adjectives and demonstratives follow the noun.
Nouns
editNoun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):[23]
(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)
The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three grammatical persons and three numbers – singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the personal pronouns of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Vietnamese Hmong
- 3rd Row: Pahawh Hmong
- 4th Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
First | kuv
cur 𞄎𞄧𞄳 |
wb
ưz 𞄬𞄰 |
peb
pêz 𞄚𞄪𞄰 |
Second | koj
cox 𞄎𞄨𞄲 |
neb
nêz 𞄅𞄪𞄰 |
nej
nêx 𞄅𞄪𞄲 |
Third | nws
nưs 𞄅𞄬𞄴 |
nkawd
gơưk 𞄇𞄤𞄶𞄬 |
lawv
lơưr 𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬 |
Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
First | kuv
cur 𞄎𞄧𞄳 |
ib
iz 𞄦𞄰 |
peb
pêz 𞄚𞄪𞄰 |
Second | koj
cox 𞄎𞄨𞄲 |
meb
mêz 𞄀𞄪𞄰 |
mej
mêx 𞄀𞄪𞄲 |
Third | nwg
nưs 𞄅𞄬𞄵 |
ob tug
oz tus 𞄨𞄰𞄃𞄧𞄵 |
puab
puôz 𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤 |
Classifiers
editClassifiers are one of the features recurrently found in languages of Southeast Asia.[24] In Hmong, the noun does not directly follow a numeral, and a classifier or an adjective is required to count objects. Here are examples from Mong Leeg (Green Hmong):[25]
ob
𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰
𞄨𞄰
two
tug
𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄶
CLF
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
'two dogs'
ob
𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰
𞄨𞄰
two
(tug)
(𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵)
(𞄃𞄧𞄶)
CLF
nyuas
𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬵
𞄐𞄧𞄤𞄴
little
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
'two little dogs'
Also, classifiers may occur with a noun without any numerals for definite and/or specific reference in Hmong.[26] The following examples are again from Green Hmong:[27]
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
1SG
pum
𖬆𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄧𞄱
see
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
'I saw dogs/a dog.' (indefinite and non-specific)
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
1SG
pum
𖬆𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄧𞄱
see
tug
𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄶
CLF
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
'I saw the dog.' (definite and specific)
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
1SG
pum
𖬆𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄧𞄱
see
ib
𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰
𞄦𞄰
one
tug
𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄶
CLF
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
'I saw a (specific) dog.' (indefinite and specific)
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
1SG
pum
𖬆𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄧𞄱
see
ob
𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰
𞄨𞄰
two
tug
𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄶
CLF
dlev
𖬉𖬭𖬰
𞄝𞄪𞄳
dog
hov
𖬒𖬶𖬟
𞄄𞄨𞄳
DEM:3
'I saw those two dogs.' (definite and specific)
Moreover, nominal possessive phrases are expressed with a classifier;[28] however, it may be omitted when the referent of the possessed noun is inalienable from the possessor as shown in the following Hmong Daw (White Hmong) phrases:[29]
nws
𖬙𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄬𞄴
3SG
rab
𖬖𖬲𖬡
𞄖𞄤𞄰
CLF
ntaj
𖬖𖬰𖬩𖬵
𞄂𞄤𞄲
sword
'his sword'
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
1SG
txiv
𖬂𖬶𖬯𖬵
𞄔𞄦𞄳
father
'my father'
Relativization is also expressed with classifiers.[29][30]
Although absent in Mandarin Chinese, definite reference by bare classifier constructions are found in Cantonese (Sinitic) and Zhuang (Kra-dai), which is the case for possessive classifier constructions as well.[31]
Verbs
editHmong is an isolating language in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.[32]
Serial verb construction
editHmong verbs can be serialized, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Yam
Zav
𖬖𖬤
𞄘𞄤𞄱
Thing
zoo
jông
𖬍𖬥𖬰
𞄋𞄩
best
tshaj
tshax
𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬰
𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄲
very
plaws,
plơưs,
𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵,
𞄡𞄤𞄬𞄴,
full,
nej
nêx
𖬈𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄪𞄲
you
yuav
zuôr
𖬐𖬲𖬤
𞄘𞄧𞄤𞄳
(plural)
tsum
tsuv
𖬆𖬝𖬰
𞄁𞄧𞄱
must
mus,
mus,
𖬇𖬰𖬦,
𞄀𞄧𞄴,
go,
nrhiav,
nriêz,
𖬔𖬲𖬨𖬰,
𞄑𞄄𞄦𞄤𞄳,
seek,
nug,
nuv,
𖬇𖬲𖬬,
𞄅𞄧𞄶,
ask,
xyuas,
shuôs,
𖬑𖬲𖬧𖬰,
𞄛𞄧𞄤𞄴,
examine,
saib
saiz
𖬊𖬰𖬤𖬵
𞄊𞄤𞄦𞄰
look
luag
luôv
𖬑𖬶𖬞
𞄉𞄧𞄤𞄶
others
muaj
muôj
𖬐𖬰𖬦
𞄀𞄧𞄤𞄲
have
kev
cêr
𖬉
𞄎𞄪𞄳
services
pab
paz
𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄤𞄰
variations
hom
hov
𖬒𖬟
𞄄𞄨𞄱
type
dab
đaz
𖬖𖬲𖬞𖬰
𞄏𞄤𞄰
what
tsi
tsi
𖬃𖬝𖬰
𞄁𞄦
around
nyob
nhoz
𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵
𞄐𞄨𞄰
the
ncig
ndil
𖬃𖬲𖬤𖬰
𞄌𞄦𞄶
area
ib
ib
𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰
𞄦𞄰
at
cheeb
qênhz
𖬀𖬶𖬧
𞄈𞄄𞄫𞄰
you
tsam
tsav
𖬖𖬝𖬰
𞄁𞄤𞄱
(plural)
ntawm
ntơưv
𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵
𞄂𞄤𞄬𞄱
nej.
nêx.
𖬈𖬲𖬬.
𞄅𞄪𞄲.
'The best thing you can do is to explore your neighborhood and find out what services are available.' Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 26 word(s) in line 1, 26 word(s) in line 2, 26 word(s) in line 3, 26 word(s) in line 4, 24 word(s) in line 5 (help);
Tense
editBecause the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Nag hmo
Nav hmo
𖬗𖬶𖬬 𖬓𖬰𖬣𖬵
𞄅𞄤𞄵 𞄀𞄄𞄨
yesterday
kuv
cur
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
mus
mus
𖬇𖬰𖬦
𞄀𞄧𞄴
go
tom
tov
𖬒𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄨𞄱
LOC
khw.
khư.
𖬙𖬰𖬩𖬰.
𞄎𞄄𞄬.
market
'I went to the market yesterday.'
Aspect
editAspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones:
Progressive: (Mong Leeg) taab tom + verb, (White Hmong) tab tom + verb = situation in progress
Puab
Puôz
𖬐𖬶𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄧𞄰𞄤
they
taab tom
tangz tov
𖬚𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬒𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄥𞄰 𞄃𞄨𞄱
PROG
haus
hâus
𖬅𖬰𖬟
𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄨
drink
dlej.
đrêx
𖬈𖬲𖬭.
𞄏𞄪𞄲.
water
(Mong Leeg)
'They are drinking water.'
Taab/tab tom + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when taab/tab tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker yuav. Note that the taab tom construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.
Perfective: sentence/clause + lawm = completed situation
Kuv
Cur
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
noj
nox
𖬒𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄨𞄲
eat
mov
mor
𖬒𖬶𖬦
𞄀𞄨𞄳
rice
lawm.
lơưv
𖬎𖬰𖬞.
𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬.
PERF
(Leeg and White Hmong)
'I am finished/I am done eating rice.' / 'I have already eaten "rice".'
Lawm at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway:
Tus
𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄴
CLF
tub
𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄰
boy
tau
𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄤𞄨
get
rab
𖬖𖬲𖬡
𞄖𞄤𞄰
CLF
hneev,
𖬀𖬲𖬩,
𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄫,
crossbow
nws
𖬙𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄬𞄴
he
thiaj
𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰
𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤
then
mus
𖬇𖬰𖬦
𞄀𞄧𞄴
go
ua si
𖬑𖬮𖬰 𖬃𖬤𖬵
𞄧𞄤 𞄊𞄦
play
lawm.
𖬎𖬰𖬞.
𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬.
PFV
(White Hmong)
'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.' / 'The boy went off to play because he got the bow.'
Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using tau, which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. tau + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, tau + verb translates to the past tense in English.
Lawv
𖬎𖬶𖬞
𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬
they
tau
𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄤𞄨
attain
noj
𖬒𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄨𞄲
eat
nqaij
𖬊𖬶𖬬𖬰
𞄙𞄤𞄲𞄦
meat
nyug.
𖬇𖬲𖬮𖬵.
𞄐𞄧𞄵.
beef
(White Hmong)
'They ate beef.'
Tau is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. nag hmo, last night). Tau can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:
Thaum
𖬄𖬟𖬰
𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄱𞄨
when
txog
𖬓𖬯𖬵
𞄔𞄨𞄵
arrive
peb
𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄪𞄰
New
caug
𖬅𖬲𖬯
𞄈𞄤𞄵𞄨
Year
lawm
𖬎𖬰𖬞
𞄉𞄤𞄱𞄬
PFV
sawv daws
𖬎𖬶𖬤𖬵 𖬏𖬰𖬞𖬰
𞄊𞄤𞄳𞄬 𞄏𞄤𞄴𞄬
everybody
thiaj
𖬔𖬶𖬟𖬰
𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄲𞄤
then
tau
𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄤𞄨
attain
hnav
𖬗𖬩
𞄅𞄄𞄳𞄤
wear
khaub ncaws
𖬄𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬤𖬰
𞄎𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄨 𞄌𞄤𞄴𞄬
clothes
tshiab.
𖬔𖬪𖬰.
𞄁𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤.
new
(White Hmong)
'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'
When tau follows the main verb (i.e. verb + tau), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.
Kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
xaav
𖬛𖬮
𞄆𞄥𞄳
think
xaav
𖬛𖬮
𞄆𞄥𞄳
think
ib plag,
𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬟𖬵,
𞄦𞄰 𞄡𞄤𞄵,
awhile,
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
xaav
𖬛𖬮
𞄆𞄥𞄳
think
tau
𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄤𞄨
get
tswv yim.
𖬙𖬝𖬰 𖬂𖬤.
𞄁𞄬𞄳 𞄘𞄦𞄱.
idea
(Mong Leeg)
'I thought it over and got an idea.'
Tau is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) nrhiav tau, to look for; caum tau, to chase; yug tau, to give birth.
Mood
editFuture: yuav + verb:
Kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
yuav
𖬐𖬲𖬤
𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤
moog.
𖬍𖬶𖬦.
𞄀𞄩𞄵.
(Mong Leeg)
'I will be going.'
Yuav + verb may also be seen as indicative of the irrealis mood, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized. That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:
Tus
𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄴
CLF
Tsov
𖬒𖬶𖬝𖬰
𞄁𞄨𞄳
Tiger
hais tias,
𖬋𖬰𖬟 𖬕𖬰𖬧𖬵,
𞄄𞄤𞄴𞄦 𞄃𞄦𞄴𞄤,
say,
"Kuv
"𖬆𖬲
"𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
tshaib
𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰
𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦
hungry
tshaib
𖬊𖬰𖬪𖬰
𞄁𞄄𞄤𞄰𞄦
hungry
plab
𖬖𖬲𖬟𖬵
𞄡𞄤𞄰
stomach
li
𖬃𖬞
𞄉𞄦
INT
kuv
𖬆𖬲
𞄎𞄧𞄳
I
yuav
𖬐𖬲𖬤
𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤
IRR
noj
𖬒𖬲𖬬
𞄅𞄨𞄲
eat
koj".
𖬒𖬲."
𞄎𞄨𞄲".
you
(from a White Hmong folk tale)
'The Tiger said, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you.'
Tus
𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵
𞄃𞄧𞄴
CLF
Qav
𖬗𖬦𖬵
𞄗𞄤𞄳
Frog
tsis
𖬃𖬰𖬝𖬰
𞄁𞄦𞄴
NEG
paub
𖬄𖬰𖬪𖬵
𞄚𞄤𞄰𞄨
know
yuav
𖬐𖬲𖬤
𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤
IRR
ua
𖬑𖬮𖬰
𞄧𞄤
do
li
𖬃𖬞
𞄉𞄦
cas
𖬗𖬲𖬯
𞄈𞄤𞄴
what
li.
𖬃𖬞.
𞄉𞄦.
INT
'The frog didn't know what to do.'
Phrases
editColors
editMany Hmong and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language tend to use the word "Xim" (Thai/Lao word) to indicate a specific color, while the true Hmong word for color is "Kob". For example, "Liab yog xim ntawm kev phom sij;" meaning "Red is the color of danger / The red color is of danger".
List of colors:
𖬔𖬞 Liab [red]
𖬐𖬶𖬝 Ntsuab [green]
𖬖𖬝𖬰 𖬈𖬮 Tsam xem [purple]
𖬆𖬰𖬞𖬰 Dub [black]
𖬔𖬲𖬮 Xiav [blue]
𖬎𖬞𖬰 Dawb [white]
𖬗𖬮𖬰 / 𖬗𖬲 𖬉𖬲𖬜𖬵 Av / Kas fes [brown]
𖬖𖬰𖬞𖬰 Daj [yellow]
𖬓𖬰𖬦𖬰 Txho [grey]
𖬖𖬲 𖬙𖬢𖬰 Kab ntxwv [orange]
𖬖𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬶𖬤 Paj yeeb [pink]
Numbers
editNumeral | Hmong Numeral | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords | Pahawh Symbols |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 𖭐 | 𖬊𖬲𖬢𖬰 | Ntxaiv | Xoom (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭐 (Ones) |
1 | 𖭑 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Ib | ||
2 | 𖭒 | 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬰 | Ob | ||
3 | 𖭓 | 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 | Peb | ||
4 | 𖭔 | 𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 | Plaub | ||
5 | 𖭕 | 𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 | Tsib | ||
6 | 𖭖 | 𖬡 | Rau | ||
7 | 𖭗 | 𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 | Xya | ||
8 | 𖭘 | 𖬂𖬤 | Yim | ||
9 | 𖭙 | 𖬐𖬰𖬯 | Cuaj | ||
10 | 𖭑𖭐 | 𖬄 | Kaum | 𖭛 (Tens) | |
11 | 𖭑𖭑 | 𖬄 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Kaum ib | ||
20 | 𖭒𖭐 | 𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢 | Nees nkaum | ||
21 | 𖭒𖭑 | 𖬁𖬰𖬬 𖬄𖬢 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Nees nkaum ib | ||
30 | 𖭓𖭐 | 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 | Peb caug | ||
31 | 𖭓𖭑 | 𖬈𖬰𖬪𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Peb caug ib | ||
40 | 𖭔𖭐 | 𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 | Plaub caug | ||
41 | 𖭔𖭑 | 𖬄𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Plaub caug ib | ||
50 | 𖭕𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯 | Tsib caug | ||
51 | 𖭕𖭑 | 𖬂𖬲𖬝𖬰 𖬅𖬲𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Tsib caug ib | ||
60 | 𖭖𖭐 | 𖬡 𖬄𖬯 | Rau caum | ||
61 | 𖭖𖭑 | 𖬡 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Rau caum ib | ||
70 | 𖭗𖭐 | 𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯 | Xya caum | ||
71 | 𖭗𖭑 | 𖬗𖬰𖬧𖬰 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Xya caum ib | ||
80 | 𖭘𖭐 | 𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯 | Yim caum | ||
81 | 𖭘𖭑 | 𖬂𖬤 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Yim caum ib | ||
90 | 𖭙𖭐 | 𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯 | Cuaj caum | ||
91 | 𖭙𖭑 | 𖬐𖬰𖬯 𖬄𖬯 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 | Cuaj caum ib | ||
100 | 𖭑𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 | Ib puas | 𖭜 (Hundreds) | |
1,000 | 𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬦𖬰 | Ib txhiab | Ib phav (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭜𖭐 (Thousands) |
10,000 | 𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬄 𖬔𖬦𖬰 | Kaum txhiab | Kaum phav (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭝 (Ten thousand) |
100,000 | 𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬦𖬰 | Ib puas txhiab | Ib puas phav (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭝𖭐 (Hundred Thousands) |
1,000,000 | 𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬌𖬡 | Ib roob | Ib lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭞 (Millions) |
10,000,000 | 𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬄 𖬌𖬡 | Kaum roob | Kaum lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭞𖭐 (Ten Millions) |
100,000,000 | 𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬌𖬡 | Ib puas roob | Ib puas lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭟 (Hundred Millions) |
1,000,000,000 | 𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬈 | Ib kem | Ib phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭟𖭐 (Billions) |
10,000,000,000 | 𖭑𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬄 𖬈 | Kaum kem | Kaum phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭠 (Ten Billions) |
100,000,000,000 | 𖭑𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬑𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬈 | Ib puas kem | Ib puas phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭠𖭐 (Hundred Billions) |
1,000,000,000,000 | 𖭑,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐,𖭐𖭐𖭐 | 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬧𖬵 | Ib tas | Ib lab lab (Thai/Lao word) | 𖭡 (Trillions) |
The number 57023 would be written as 𖭕𖭗𖭐𖭒𖭓.
Days of the Week
editDays | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords |
---|---|---|---|
Sunday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬩 | Zwj hnub | Vas thiv (Thai/Lao word) |
Monday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬃𖬥 | Zwj hli | Vas cas (Thai/Lao word) |
Tuesday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬑𖬶𖬦𖬵 | Zwj quag | Vas as qhas (Thai/Lao word) |
Wednesday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬜𖬵 | Zwj feeb | Vas phuv (Thai/Lao word) |
Thursday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬧𖬵 | Zwj teeb | Vas phab hav (Thai/Lao word) |
Friday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬐𖬶 | Zwj kuab | Vas xuv (Thai/Lao word) |
Saturday | 𖬘𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬗𖬶𖬯 | Zwj cag | Vas xom (Thai/Lao word) |
A sentence like, "Today is Monday" would be translated as "Hnub no yog zwj hli", and not "Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday" in Hmong.
Months of the Year
editMonths | Pahawh Hmong (Formal) | Hmong RPA | Informal |
---|---|---|---|
January | 𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬀𖬶𖬯 | Yeej ceeb | [Lub] Ib hlis |
February | 𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬮 | Kub xeeb | [Lub] Ob hlis |
March | 𖬖𖬰𖬤 𖬔𖬲 | Yaj kiav | [Lub] Peb hlis |
April | 𖬀 𖬒𖬯 | Keem com | [Lub] Plaub hlis |
May | 𖬆𖬰 𖬆𖬶𖬬 | Kub nuj | [Lub] Tsib hlis |
June | 𖬒𖬶𖬧𖬵 𖬔𖬶𖬞 | Tov liaj | [Lub] Rau hlis |
July | 𖬐𖬰𖬟 𖬀𖬶𖬮 | Huaj xeeb | [Lub] Xya hlis |
August | 𖬀𖬶𖬯 𖬑𖬯 | Ceeb cua | [Lub] Yim hlis |
September | 𖬔𖬝𖬰 𖬆𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬞 | Tsiab kub leej | [Lub] Cuaj hlis |
October | 𖬀𖬪𖬵 𖬋𖬰𖬪𖬰 | Peem tshais | [Lub] Kaum hlis |
November | 𖬌𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬲 𖬀𖬦𖬰 | Looj keev txheem | [Lub] Kaum ib hlis |
December | 𖬑𖬶𖬨𖬵 𖬎𖬯 | Npuag cawb | [Lub] Kaum ob hlis |
Worldwide usage
editPresence in Community and Education
editThe Hmong language has found a significant presence in the United States, particularly in Minnesota. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on November 5, 1975.[33]
The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Minnesota is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.[34]
Translation
editIn February 2012, Microsoft released "Hmong Daw" as an option in Bing Translator.[35] In May 2013, Google Translate introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as Hmong).[36]
Research in nursing shows that when translating from English to Hmong, the translator must take into account that Hmong comes from an oral tradition and equivalent concepts may not exist. For example, the word and concept for "prostate" does not exist.[37]
Sample texts
editThe following is a sample text in Hmong of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with Pahawh Hmong, Nyiakeng Puachue, Hmong RPA, Vietnamese Hmong, Hmong IPA, and English translation.
Pahawh Hmong | 𖬑𖬦𖬰 𖬇𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬇𖬲𖬤 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬅𖬲𖬨𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬥𖬰 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬋𖬯. 𖬎𖬶𖬞 𖬖𖬰𖬮 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬖𖬞𖬰 𖬎𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬆𖬰𖬞 𖬔𖬤𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬐𖬲𖬤 𖬆𖬝𖬰 𖬒𖬲𖬯 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬰 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬁𖬲𖬞 𖬎𖬰𖬩𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬅𖬮𖬰 𖬙 𖬂𖬰𖬧𖬵. |
---|---|
Nyiakeng Puachue | 𞄔𞄄𞄧𞄤𞄃𞄧𞄴𞄅𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄵𞄉𞄨𞄴 𞄀𞄧𞄲𞄤𞄎𞄪𞄳𞄘𞄬𞄲𞄚𞄄𞄲𞄫𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄜𞄤𞄵𞄨𞄋𞄨𞄴 𞄄𞄤𞄳𞄨𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄈𞄤𞄦. 𞄉𞄤𞄳𞄬𞄆𞄤𞄲 𞄑𞄨𞄵𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄉𞄤𞄲𞄃𞄄𞄤𞄲𞄬 𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄉𞄧𞄰𞄊𞄦𞄰𞄤𞄃𞄄𞄦𞄰𞄤 𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄘𞄧𞄳𞄤𞄁𞄧𞄱𞄈𞄨𞄲 𞄧𞄤 𞄎𞄪𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄦𞄰𞄉𞄫𞄵𞄂𞄤𞄱𞄬𞄔𞄨𞄲𞄎𞄪𞄧𞄳 𞄧𞄤𞄎𞄬𞄳𞄃𞄦𞄲. |
Hmong RPA | Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij. |
Vietnamese Hmong | Cxuô tus nênhl zul los muôx cêr zưx fênhx thiêz siz npâul jôs hâur txox chai. Lơưr xax ndol luz lax thơưx thiêz luz siêz thiêz iz lênhl zuôr tsuv chox uô cê ntơưv iz lênhl ntơưv txôx cêr uô cưr tiz. |
Hmong IPA | tsʰuə˧ tu˩ neŋ˧˩̤ ʝu˧˩̤ lɒ˩ muə˥˧ ke˧˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ ᵐbau˧˩̤ ʐɒ˩ hau˧˦ tsɒ˥˧ cai˧. Laɨ˧˦ sa˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ lu˦ la˥˧ tʰaɨ˥˧ tʰiə˦ lu˦ ʂiə˦ tʰiə˦ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ʝuə˧˦ tʂu˩̰ cɒ˥˧ uə˧ ke˧ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ i˦ leŋ˧˩̤ ⁿdaɨ˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˧˦ uə˧ kɨ˧˦ ti˥˧. |
English Translation | "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." |
Sample text in both Hmong RPA and Pahawh Hmong:[38][39][40]
Hmong RPA | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong IPA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev. | 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬘𖬲𖬮𖬵 𖬀𖬶 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬀𖬰𖬤 𖬓𖬜𖬰 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬂𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬰𖬦𖬰 𖬘𖬪𖬰 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬲𖬞. 𖬔𖬶𖬬 𖬌𖬩 𖬖𖬧𖬵 𖬂𖬤𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬲𖬞 𖬀𖬝𖬰 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬟𖬰 𖬏𖬰𖬟𖬵 𖬄𖬲𖬟 𖬔𖬶𖬩𖬵 𖬈𖬰𖬧𖬵, 𖬙𖬲𖬮 𖬃𖬞: 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮, 𖬇𖬰𖬤 𖬄𖬲𖬞, 𖬄𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬕𖬰𖬞, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬗𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬉𖬲𖬦 𖬃𖬰𖬞 𖬗𖬲. 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬰𖬬 𖬓𖬤 𖬌𖬲𖬟𖬰 𖬃𖬞 𖬒𖬶𖬯 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬒𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬉𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬕𖬰𖬮. 𖬖𖬲𖬧𖬵 𖬃𖬰𖬤𖬵 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬙𖬲𖬬 𖬐𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵 𖬀𖬰𖬧𖬵 𖬇𖬲𖬧𖬵, 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬐𖬶, 𖬆𖬶𖬯𖬵 𖬃𖬯, 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬗 𖬒𖬲𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯, 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬀𖬶𖬦𖬰 𖬀𖬦 𖬌𖬲𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬦 𖬀𖬰𖬩𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬖𖬤 𖬅𖬰𖬢 𖬃𖬞 𖬘𖬞 𖬊𖬲𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬. 𖬌𖬣𖬵 𖬓𖬤 𖬂𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬒𖬟 𖬁𖬲𖬬 𖬑𖬲𖬮𖬰 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬖𖬰𖬤𖬰 𖬁𖬰𖬤𖬰, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬉 𖬘𖬲𖬤 𖬀𖬰𖬝𖬵, 𖬔𖬰𖬮𖬵 𖬌𖬲𖬝𖬵 𖬙𖬶𖬤, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬉 𖬖𖬯 𖬘𖬟, 𖬐𖬰𖬦 𖬒𖬲𖬯𖬵 𖬉 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬆𖬰𖬥, 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬖𖬲𖬪𖬵 𖬔𖬟𖬰 𖬂𖬲𖬤𖬵 𖬑𖬪𖬰 𖬀𖬲𖬟. | mɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ ɲɨ˥˧ keŋ˦ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ʝeŋ˥˧ ᶯɖɒ˧˩̤ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ti˦ tsʰi˥˧ tʂʰɨ˩̰ ʂi˩̰ lɒ˩. Niə˥˧ n̥ɒŋ˦ ta˩̰ ʂi˩̰ nɒ˧ tʂeŋ˩̰ muə˥˧ ɲɒ˦ tʰɒŋ˦ pˡaɨ˩ hau˧˦ ⁿdiə˥˧ te˦, sɨ˩: e˩ siə˩, ʝu˩ lau˧˦, au˧˦ ta˩ li˧ə˩, tʰiə˦ a˩ me˩ li˧˩ ka˩. Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ M̥ɒŋ˦ nɒ˧ ʝɒ˧˩̤ tʰɒŋ˥˧ li˧ cɒ˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤ ɲɒ˦ ʂa˦ e˩ siə˩. Ta˦ ʂi˩ nɨ˩ muə˥˧ nɨ˩ puə˧˦ pʰeŋ˥˧ teŋ˥˧ tu˧˩̤, mɒ˥˧ kuə˦, tsu˥˧ ci˧, mɒŋ˥˧ ka˧˦ mɒ˥˧ cɒ˥˧, tʰiə˦ tsʰeŋ˦ meŋ˩̰ mɒŋ˥˧ meŋ˥˧ kʰeŋ˥˧ i˦ ʝa˩̰ ᵑɡau˩ li˧ lɨ˩̰ hai˧˦ neŋ˧˩̤. M̥ɒŋ˦ ʝɒ˧˩̤ i˦ Hɒ˩̰ neŋ˧˩̤ uə˩ ɲiə˩̰ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ᶮɟa˥˧ ᶮɟeŋ˩, ɲiə˩̰ ke˧˦ ʝɨ˥˧ pʰeŋ˥˧, ɲiə˩̰ pʰɒŋ˥˧ ʝɨ˧˩̤, muə˥˧ ke˧˦ ca˩̰ hɨ˩̰, muə˥˧ tsɒ˥˧ ke˧˦ ʂi˦ l̥u˦, ʂi˦ pa˦ tʰiə˦ ʂi˦ tʂʰuə˧ heŋ˧˦. |
In popular culture
editThe 2008 film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood features a large American Hmong speaking cast.[41][42] The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.[43] The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the Ten Best Films of 2008 from the American Film Institute and a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film.[44][45]
Films
editThe following films feature the Hmong language:
- 2008 – "Gran Torino". Directed by Clint Eastwood; produced by Clint Eastwood, Bill Gerber, Robert Lorenz. The story follows Walt Kowalski, a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, Thao Vang Lor, is pressured by his cousin into trying to steal Walt's prized 1972 Ford Torino for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family.
- 2011 – "Bittersweet Tears (Kua Muag Iab)". Directors by Kelly Vang & Mandy Xiong; Writer: Kelly Vang. Bittersweet Tears is a romantic comedy about a vengeful and bittersweet love between Gaomao (Jenny Lor) and Vong (Beng Hang). Vong is the only son of Chong Yee (Billy Yang). Having lost everything Gaomao swears vengeance on Chong Yee, the man whom she claims to be responsible for her loss. Will Gaomao be able to overcome her own heart and take her revenge?
- 2016 – "1985". Director and writer by Kang Vang. When an adventurous Hmong teen discovers a secret map to a mythical dragon, he and his three best friends decide to go on a quest that leads them on a journey filled with danger, excitement, and self-discovery.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Hmong at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China) at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Northern Qiandong Miao at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Southern Mashan Hmong at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Central Huishui Hmong at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Large Flowery Miao at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Eastern Huishui Hmong at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
(Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box) - ^ Ratliff, Martha (1992). Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong. Dekalb, Illinois: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.
- ^ Elizabeth M. Hoeffel; Sonya Rastogi; Myoung Ouk Kim; Hasan Shahid (March 2012). "The Asian Population: 2010" (PDF). 2010 Census Briefs. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ Not of Chinese Miao as a whole for which the standard language is based on Hmu
- ^ "2007-188 - ISO 639-3". www.sil.org.
- ^ a b c d "Chapter 2. Overview of Lao Hmong Culture." (Archive) Promoting Cultural Sensitivity: Hmong Guide. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. p. 14. Retrieved on May 5, 2013.
- ^ Note however that "Black Miao" is more commonly used for Hmu.
- ^ "ISO 639-3 New Code Request" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-09-30.
- ^ Golston, Chris; Phong Yang (2001). "Hmong loanword phonology". In C. Féry; A. D. Green; R. van de Vijver (eds.). Proceedings of HILP 5 (Linguistics in Potsdam 12 ed.). Potsdam: University of Potsdam. pp. 40–57. ISBN 3-935024-27-4. [1]
- ^ Smalley, William et al. Mother of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. p. 48-51. See also: Mortensen, David. “Preliminaries to Mong Leng (Mong Njua) Phonology” Unpublished, UC Berkeley. 2004. Archived 29 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ 王辅世主编,《苗语简志》,民族出版社,1985年。
- ^ "Hmong Dictionary - Dictionary Hmong".
- ^ Even the landmark book The Sounds of the World's Languages specifically describes lateral release as involving a homorganic consonant.
- ^ Examples taken from: Heimbach, Ernest H. White Hmong–English Dictionary [White Meo-English Dictionary]. 2003 ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1969. Note that many of these words have multiple meanings.
- ^ Robson, David. "The beautiful languages of the people who talk like birds". BBC Future. Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- ^ a b c Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 291.
- ^ Smith, Natalie Jill. "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)" (PhD dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles, 2001. p. 225. UMI Number: 3024065. Cites: Hamilton-Merritt, 1993 and Faderman [sic], 1998
- ^ Ian James & Mattias Persson. "New Hmong Script". Retrieved April 7, 2018.
This excellent script has been used by members of the United Christians Liberty Evangelical church in America for more than 25 years, in printed material and videos.
- ^ Everson, Michael (2017-02-15). "L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS" (PDF).
- ^ http://www.hmonglanguage.net Hmong Language online encyclopedia.
- ^ Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 292.
- ^ Mortensen (2004)
- ^ Ratliff, Martha (1997). "Hmong–Mien demonstratives and pattern persistence" (PDF). Mon–Khmer Studies Journal. 27: 317–328. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-18. Retrieved 2007-06-06. ()
- ^ Enfield 2018, p. 17.
- ^ Mortensen 2019, pp. 624–625.
- ^ Bisang 1993, pp. 22–26.
- ^ Mortensen 2019, pp. 625–626.
- ^ Mortensen 2019, pp. 622–624.
- ^ a b Bisang 1993, p. 27.
- ^ Mortensen 2019, p. 623.
- ^ Matthews 2007, pp. 230–231.
- ^ Strecker, David and Lopao Vang. White Hmong Grammar. 1986.
- ^ "Hmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota". MNopedia. 2023-07-02. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
- ^ "Hmong". College of Liberal Arts. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
- ^ "Microsoft Translator celebrates International Mother Language Day with the release of Hmong". Microsoft Translator Blog. 2012-02-21. Retrieved 2023-12-12.
- ^ Donald Melanson (8 May 2013). "Google Translate adds five more languages to its repertoire". Engadget. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ Lor, Maichou (2020-04-30). Sha, Mandy (ed.). Hmong and Chinese Qualitative Research Interview Questions: Assumptions and Implications of Applying the Survey Back Translation Method (Chapter 9) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research. RTI Press. pp. 181–202. doi:10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004. ISBN 978-1-934831-24-3.
- ^ "Pahawh Hmong alphabet and pronunciation". omniglot.com. Retrieved 2020-12-28.
- ^ Oppitz, Michael. "Die geschichte der verlorenen schrift" (PDF). Retrieved 27 December 2020.
- ^ "세계의 문자들". podor.egloos.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2020-12-28.
- ^ Ebert, Roger. "Gran Torino movie review and film summary (2008) | Roger Ebert". Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ "Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film". MPR News. 19 December 2008. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ O'Brien, Kathleen. "Rutgers scholar sheds light on 'Gran Torino' ethnic stars Archived November 17, 2020, at the Wayback Machine." The Star-Ledger. Thursday January 15, 2009. Retrieved on March 16, 2012.
- ^ "Prison drama A Prophet sweeps French Oscars". BBC News. March 1, 2010. Archived from the original on November 17, 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
- ^ "AFI Awards 2008". afi.com. American Film Institute. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
Bibliography
edit- Bisang, Walter (1993). "Classifiers, Quantifiers and Class Nouns in Hmong". Studies in Language. 17 (1). John Benjamins Publishing Company: 1–51. doi:10.1075/sl.17.1.02bis. ISSN 0378-4177.
- Cooper, Robert, ed. (1998). The Hmong: A Guide to Traditional Lifestyles. Singapore: Times Editions. pp. 35–41.
- Enfield, N. J. (2018). Mainland Southeast Asian Languages: A Concise Typological Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781139019552. ISBN 9781139019552. S2CID 133621227.
- Finck, John (1982). "Clan Leadership in the Hmong Community of Providence, Rhode Island". In Downing, Bruce T.; Olney, Douglas P. (eds.). The Hmong in the West. Minneapolis, MN: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota. pp. 22–25.
- Matthews, Stephen (2007). "Cantonese Grammar in Areal Perspective". In Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; Dixon, R. M. W. (eds.). Grammars in Contact: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 220–236. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199207831.003.0009. ISBN 978-0-19-920783-1.
- Mortensen, David (2019). "Hmong (Mong Leng)". In Vittrant, Alice; Watkins, Justin (eds.). The Mainland Southeast Asia Linguistic Area. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 609–652. doi:10.1515/9783110401981-014. ISBN 978-3-11-040198-1. S2CID 195399573.
- Thao, Paoze (1999). Mong Education at the Crossroads. New York: University Press of America. pp. 12–13.
- Xiong, Yuyou; Cohen, Diana (2005). Student's Practical Miao–Chinese–English Handbook / Npout Ndeud Xof Geuf Lol Hmongb Lol Shuad Lol Yenb. Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House. p. 539. ISBN 7-5367-3287-2.
Further reading
edit- Enwall, Joakim. Hmong Writing Systems in Vietnam: A Case Study of Vietnam's Minority Language Policy. Stockholm, Sweden: Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1995.
- Lyman, Thomas Amis (Chulalongkorn University). "The Mong (Leeg Miao) and their Language: A Brief Compendium" (Archive). p. 63–66.
- Miyake, Marc. 2011. Unicode 6.1: the Old Miao script.
- Miyake, Marc. 2012. Anglo-Hmong tonology.
External links
edit- White Hmong Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)
- White Hmong Swadesh List on Wiktionary (see Swadesh list)
- Lomation's Hmong Text Reader – free online program that can read Hmong words/text.
- Online Hmong dictionary (including audio clips)
- Mong Literacy: consonants, vowels, tones of Mong Njua and Hmong Daw
- Hmong Resources
- Hmong basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
- Hmong text reader
- https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html Romanized Popular Alphabet
- English-Hmong Phrasebook with Useful Wordlist (for Hmong Speakers), Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.