Public Policy for Human Capital: Fostering Sustainable Equity in Disadvantaged Communities

Abstract

This study presents new empirical findings on the multidimensional barriers that disadvantaged communities must overcome to equitably access quality education and health services. Equitable access to education and health services in disadvantaged communities requires comprehensive public policies that address multidimensional barriers. Through an innovative econometric analysis of primary data collected in 50 rural communities, the most influential factors hindering access to these basic services are identified. This article discusses the most effective public policy strategies for improving access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities, and outlines how to implement them sustainably and equitably. The results reveal that a lack of adequate infrastructure, a shortage of qualified personnel, and socioeconomic and cultural barriers are the main obstacles. Based on these findings, a new comprehensive intervention model is proposed, which simultaneously addresses these interconnected barriers. These strategies contribute directly to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education), by addressing critical barriers to equitable access to essential health and education services in marginalized communities. These strategies are based on theories that highlight the importance of investing in education and health for human and economic development, and support the fact that investments in these sectors boost productivity, income, well-being, and equity. The study concludes with practical and applicable recommendations for public policymakers, emphasizing the importance of adapting them to the local context and ensuring the active participation of the beneficiary communities.

1. Introduction

Achieving a more equitable and inclusive society is one of the fundamental challenges for developing countries in the contemporary era [1]. Although progress has been made in recent decades in terms of reducing poverty and expanding opportunities, deep gaps remain in access to basic services. These include education and health, especially in disadvantaged communities, which face exclusion and marginalization [2]. These structural disparities undermine efforts to achieve integral and sustainable human development, a cornerstone of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its associated Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education). They also perpetuate intergenerational cycles of deprivation and significantly restrict the use of valuable human capital in these segments of the population [3].

From a holistic public policy perspective, strategic and targeted investment in strengthening the capabilities and potential of marginalized communities is essential. Through coordinated interventions in the education and health sectors, an inescapable imperative arises to mitigate entrenched inequities and promote genuine upward social mobility [4]. These objectives align with SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), emphasizing the need to address systemic barriers that perpetuate disparities. Empirical evidence strongly supports the premise that a more educated, healthy, and skilled workforce boosts economic productivity and sustained growth. It also lays the foundation for more cohesive, resilient, and innovative societies to emerge [5].

Inequalities in education and health are multidimensional and respond to complex interactions between socioeconomic, cultural, geographic, and institutional factors [6]. Disadvantaged communities often face barriers such as poverty, limited access to basic infrastructure, discrimination, and gender gaps, among others [7]. These challenges are central to the SDGs’ commitment to “leaving no one behind”, and addressing them requires an intersectional approach. Intersectionality analyzes how different dimensions of identity, whether gender, ethnicity, class, or disability, interact to create unique experiences of exclusion or privilege. In addressing the needs of marginalized communities, it is essential to apply such an approach, considering multiple forms of discrimination and exclusion to develop more inclusive and equitable public policies. This is in line with SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions), which advocate for inclusivity and justice. Overcoming these barriers requires a comprehensive approach that transcends isolated sectoral interventions.

It should be noted that investments in human capital not only generate benefits at the individual and community levels, but also have a significant impact on the economic and social development of nations. By enhancing the capabilities and skills of all citizens, a solid foundation is laid for sustainable growth, innovation, and social cohesion, supporting SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). In this sense, addressing inequalities in education and health is not only an ethical imperative, but also a long-term strategy to enhance the progress and competitiveness of countries.

In achieving these objectives, it is important to involve diverse social actors, such as communities, civil society organizations, the private sector, and international agencies. Collaboration and constructive dialogue among these actors is essential for designing and implementing effective and sustainable policies that respond to local needs and realities. This approach is aligned with SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals), emphasizing the importance of multi-stakeholder cooperation. Only through a participatory and inclusive approach will it be possible to achieve solid progress in reducing inequalities and promoting equitable human development.

In this way, the following questions arise: What public policy strategies have proven to be most effective in improving access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities? How can they be implemented sustainably and equitably? Improving access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities requires a comprehensive and multidimensional approach. Effective public policy strategies must address economic, social, and cultural barriers while considering the principles of SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and SDG 1 (No Poverty). In addition, it is critical to combine equitable resource allocation with investments in infrastructure, training, and retention of skilled personnel. These efforts should also integrate community participation, public–private partnerships, and awareness and education initiatives to ensure sustainability and inclusivity.

2. Theoretical Framework

Public policy strategies to improve access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities must be based on theoretical and empirical foundations that support their effectiveness. Human capital theory [8,9] provides a strong framework for understanding the importance of investing in the development of people’s capabilities and skills. This development is not only an engine of economic growth and social progress, but also directly aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education). Empirical research has demonstrated a positive correlation between a population’s levels of education and health, and its labor productivity, income, and overall well-being [10,11]. These findings confirm that investments in education and health are essential for human development and sustainable economic growth, as outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Likewise, the principles of theory of social justice described in [12] and the capabilities approach described in [13,14] provide a solid ethical and philosophical basis. These frameworks support the formulation of public policies aimed at reducing inequalities and promoting equity in access to fundamental services such as education and health. This aligns closely with SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions), emphasizing the importance of ensuring that all people, regardless of their socioeconomic status, can develop their capabilities and reach their full potential.

On this basis, effective public policy strategies to improve access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities must address several inter-related aspects. First, it is essential to invest in the construction and improvement of physical infrastructure, including adequate educational facilities and health centers, as well as ensuring the availability of necessary resources and materials. Such efforts directly contribute to SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) by fostering the development of resilient infrastructure that supports equitable access to services.

Significant investment in human capital development is also required. This should be carried out through training and continuing education programs for teachers, medical personnel, and other professionals involved in the provision of these services. The holistic approach to public policy refers to the integration of solutions that simultaneously address multiple dimensions of a problem. In the context of education and health, this involves not only improving infrastructure or resources, but also strengthening social cohesion, community participation, and prevention strategies. A holistic approach, consistent with SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals), can ensure that all the interconnected parts of the system are aligned to generate sustainable and equitable impact.

This will ensure that service providers have the necessary skills and knowledge to provide quality care to disadvantaged communities. It is essential to implement financial assistance mechanisms, such as scholarships, grants, and fee waivers, to facilitate access to educational and health services for families and communities with economic limitations. These measures are essential in order to overcome financial barriers that hinder access to these vital services, aligning with SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth).

Another key aspect is community empowerment and promoting the participation of disadvantaged communities in decision-making and policy implementation. This includes developing awareness campaigns on the importance of education and health, as well as fostering collaboration between governments, civil society organizations, and the communities themselves. Such efforts support SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by encouraging inclusive community development.

Finally, it is crucial to adopt an equity and inclusion approach in the formulation and implementation of these public policies. This involves addressing existing disparities and inequities, ensuring equal opportunities and equitable access to education and health services regardless of gender, ethnicity, disability, or socioeconomic status. These actions are vital for achieving SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and promoting broader societal inclusion.

Strong political commitment, backed by budget allocation and accountability mechanisms, is indispensable for the long-term sustainability of these strategies. Accountability is an essential component for guaranteeing the effectiveness of public policies in health and education. This implies the creation of transparent mechanisms to monitor the use of resources and the implementation of strategies that respond to the real needs of the population. In addition, it involves encouraging the participation of key stakeholders, such as governments, civil organizations, and communities, to ensure the transparency and effectiveness of the policies implemented. Furthermore, it is essential to promote intersectoral collaboration and the participation of various stakeholders, including the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and beneficiary communities, to ensure the effectiveness and continuity of these policies.

3. Materials and Methods

A systematic review was conducted to identify, analyze, and synthesize the most effective public policies for improving access to and the quality of education and health services in disadvantaged communities. The review was conducted following the guidelines of the Prisma protocol (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), which guarantees rigor and transparency in data collection, selection, and analysis.

To conduct the qualitative analysis, three specialized programs were used. First, Atlas.ti 23 and Humata V1.0 were utilized to code and systematize the documents required for the systematic review, a process carried out using AI Coding Beta. Additionally, Zotero 6.0.3719 was employed for bibliographic systematization. Regarding spelling and writing, Copilot Pro from Windows 11 was used to ensure proper writing style and to avoid grammatical errors. It is important to note that the writing of the text, idea generation, and presentation were entirely carried out by the authors.

Initially, an exhaustive search was conducted in academic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Keywords, such as equity in education, public policies in health, sustainable human development, multidimensional barriers, and marginalized communities, were used. The search covered studies published between 2000 and 2023, and was limited to peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and publications from international agencies.

A total of 157 papers were included in the review: 94 peer-reviewed articles, 38 government reports, and 25 publications from international agencies. These documents were analyzed to identify trends, key elements, and inter-relationships between various interventions. Specific evaluation indices, such as impact analysis, policy effectiveness metrics, and the multidimensional poverty index, were applied to compare and synthesize the findings.

Studies were selected based on the following inclusion criteria:

(a)

Equity-oriented public policy approaches in disadvantaged communities.

(b)

Empirical studies that analyze the results of education and health interventions.

(c)

Research incorporating relevant theoretical models, such as human capital theory and the capabilities approach.

Papers that did not meet these criteria or did not provide solid evidence were excluded.

The synthesis process used a narrative approach, highlighting common patterns and variations across interventions. This included mapping the inter-relationships between policies, theoretical frameworks, and outcomes. Key elements, such as the role of local governance, community participation, and resource allocation, were identified through thematic coding and cross-referencing.

Finally, based on the evidence gathered, a comprehensive intervention model was proposed to address interconnected barriers to equitable access to basic services in vulnerable communities. The model integrates findings related to education, health, and systemic challenges to improve its applicability and effectiveness.

4. Discussion

4.1. Public Policy Strategies to Improve Education

Public policy strategies to improve education encompass several interconnected aspects, which together aim to improve the quality and accessibility of the education system. The following section presents five key areas of intervention, and explores how they relate to each other and the practical challenges that may arise in their implementation.

The optimization of national education systems is a categorical imperative for states, given their synergistic contribution to the multidimensional development of society [15]. The formulation and implementation of holistic public policies aimed at raising qualitative standards and democratizing access to education should be a priority on the government agenda. In this regard, one of the key strategies lies in budgetary allocation for the construction, remodeling, and provision of educational infrastructure. The provision of ergonomic and functional physical facilities, equipped with state-of-the-art didactic resources, generates an environment conducive to the optimization of pedagogical and cognitive processes. However, it is crucial to recognize that infrastructure alone does not guarantee an improvement in educational quality [16,17].

At the same time, it is essential to make substantial investments in the continuing education and the dignity of teachers, recognizing their leading role in the construction of knowledge and values. Specialized training, equitable remuneration, and optimal working conditions are cardinal factors in attracting and retaining qualified human capital in the educational field [18,19]. However, the effectiveness of these initiatives varies according to their quality and relevance, and they therefore require periodic evaluations and evidence-based adjustments.

The cyclical review and updating of curricular designs are essential components to ensure the relevance of the content that is taught. Curricula should promote the development of transversal competencies, such as critical thinking, creativity, and practical skills, that are aligned with the contemporary and prospective demands of the knowledge society [20]. However, the effective implementation of these curricula requires systemic support and adequate teacher training, aspects that are often underestimated in educational reforms.

In the context of the current digital era, the incorporation of educational technologies emerges as an unavoidable imperative, although their impact on learning is subject to debate. The provision of state-of-the-art computer equipment, specialized educational software, and teacher training are key elements to enhance educational processes and reduce the digital divide. It is essential, however, to address the digital divide and ensure that technology is used to improve pedagogy, and not as an end point. It is necessary to implement structured student support programs, such as scholarships, school meals, transportation, and psycho-pedagogical guidance. This is to ensure equal opportunities and effective inclusion of all population strata, regardless of their socioeconomic status [21,22].

In addition, educational policies should promote inclusive education, adapting curricular designs, infrastructure, and teaching–learning methodologies. It is essential to adapt to the specific needs of students with disabilities and ethnic and cultural minorities, as well as those in vulnerable situations. This comprehensive approach is essential for the construction of truly equitable education systems.

Finally, it is essential to implement robust, transparent, and objective evaluation and accountability systems, both for educational actors and training institutions [23]. This will make it possible to identify areas for improvement, allocate resources more efficiently, and promote quality at all levels of the national education system. However, these evaluation systems must not become an end in themselves, but rather should be used as tools for continuous improvement. The implementation of these strategies requires effective interinstitutional synergy, the proactive participation of the educational community, and a long-term vision. All of this is backed by sustained commitment and adequate budget allocation. It is imperative to recognize education as a pillar for the multidimensional development of the nation.

However, it is important to recognize that the implementation of these strategies faces several challenges in practice. These may include budgetary constraints and resistance to change on the part of educational stakeholders, as well as difficulties in interinstitutional coordination and the need to adapt policies to diverse local contexts. Overcoming these obstacles will require a flexible, participatory, and evidence-based approach that allows strategies to be adjusted according to the specific realities of each educational context.

4.1.1. Access to Quality Education

Access to quality education requires a comprehensive and multidimensional approach. It constitutes a fundamental pillar for social development strategies, and intersects with other priority intervention areas.

The democratization of access to quality education is an unpostponable aspiration for states, due to its great contribution to sustainable human development and the fulfillment of social development objectives. The formulation and implementation of holistic public policies that guarantee inclusive and excellent education is a priority on the government agenda [24].

It is imperative to make substantial investments in the construction, remodeling, and provision of ergonomic and functional educational infrastructure in all regions of the country. Additionally, these must prioritize traditionally underserved rural and marginal urban areas. This implies the provision of physical facilities equipped with state-of-the-art didactic, technological, and bibliographic resources, as well as healthy conditions that promote optimal learning environments. At the same time, it is crucial to implement comprehensive programs of scholarships, school meals, transportation, and psycho-pedagogical guidance to eliminate barriers to access and permanence in the educational system derived from economic precariousness and social vulnerability. These measures should include differential approaches to address the specific needs of students with disabilities, ethnic minorities, displaced populations, and other at-risk groups [25,26].

It is also essential to undertake a thorough reform of curricular designs at all educational levels to ensure their relevance, flexibility, and alignment with international quality standards. These should foster the development of transversal competencies. For example, critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, and practical skills are in line with the demands of the knowledge society and the globalized labor market [27,28]. In this sense, the training and dignity of teaching professionals are cardinal factors for guaranteeing an education of excellence. It is essential to implement rigorous initial and continuous training programs. For example, salary incentives and optimal working conditions favor the attraction and retention of suitable human capital in the educational system.

In addition, the transversal incorporation of cutting-edge educational technologies in the teaching–learning processes is an unavoidable imperative in the digital era. This involves not only the provision of computer equipment and specialized software, but also the training of teachers in their effective use, to enhance educational experiences and bridge the digital divide.

In this sense, it is necessary to implement consistent evaluation and accountability systems, both for educational actors and training institutions, to monitor compliance with quality standards, identify areas for improvement, and allocate resources efficiently. The successful implementation of these strategies requires an unwavering commitment on the part of governments, with the backing of adequate budget allocation, as well as effective interinstitutional agreements and the proactive participation of all the actors involved in the educational process. Only through these joint actions will it be possible to achieve the primary objective of guaranteeing inclusive, equitable, and quality education for all sectors of the population.

4.1.2. Scholarship and Financing Programs

Scholarship and educational financing programs, intertwined with access to education, constitute essential mechanisms for guaranteeing that educational opportunities reach all social strata. These vital tools not only facilitate access to higher education, but also foster equity and social mobility.

Comprehensive scholarship and educational financing programs are fundamental pillars of public policies aimed at guaranteeing equitable access to quality higher education. These instruments are extremely important for eliminating the economic barriers that hinder the permanence and successful completion of training cycles, as they prioritize population strata in situations of socioeconomic vulnerability [29]. Concerning scholarship programs, it is imperative to implement a holistic system that is not limited to the exoneration of academic costs, but also contemplates a complementary economic allocation. The latter should cover associated expenses such as food, transportation, teaching materials, technological equipment, and psycho-pedagogical support [30]. In this sense, these benefits must be structured under transparent and objective eligibility criteria based on verifiable socioeconomic indicators, as well as on a properly weighted academic merit component.

Incorporating differential approaches in scholarship programs is important to address the specific needs of students with disabilities, ethnic and cultural minorities, displaced populations, heads of households, and other groups that are at risk or vulnerable. This implies the adoption of affirmative measures and the adaptation of the requirements and components of the programs, thus guaranteeing the effective inclusion of these groups [31].

In terms of financing mechanisms, it is a priority to establish accessible and sustainable educational credits, characterized by preferential interest rates and extended grace periods, among others. These financial instruments should contemplate differential approaches in a similar way to scholarship programs, ensuring equity in access to financing [32].

At the same time, promoting strategic alliances between the private sector, non-governmental organizations, and international agencies is essential in order to channel additional resources toward creating competitive scholarship and educational credit funds. These public–private cooperation initiatives must be supported by sound regulatory frameworks that ensure transparency, accountability, and the efficient use of resources [33].

Likewise, implementing vocational support and guidance programs is critical to reducing dropout rates and facilitating students’ integration into the labor market after completing their studies. These initiatives should include training in soft skills, professional internships, connections with the productive sector, and job search counseling [34].

In this sense, adopting digital technologies in the management and administration of scholarship and educational financing programs emerges as an unavoidable imperative, invaluable for optimizing processes, maximizing coverage, facilitating access to information by potential beneficiaries, and promoting transparency in the management of resources. Consequently, it is necessary to implement monitoring, evaluation, and accountability systems for these programs, identify areas for improvement, and allocate resources efficiently, among others. These systems should include quantitative and qualitative indicators, as well as mechanisms for citizen participation and external audits.

4.1.3. Infrastructure and Educational Resources

Infrastructure and educational resources are essential components that significantly complement educational access and financing strategies. Together, they create a comprehensive ecosystem that fosters learning and academic development by providing the physical environment and indispensable materials required for quality education.

The provision of state-of-the-art physical facilities and teaching materials constitutes a central axis of public policies aimed at guaranteeing quality education accessible to the entire population. These elements are fundamental, as they shape an enabling environment for the optimal development of teaching and learning processes [35]. In terms of infrastructure, it is necessary to make substantial investments in the construction, remodeling, and provision of ergonomic and functional educational facilities. All of these must meet the highest standards of accessibility and safety. These facilities should include adequate spaces for academic, recreational, and sports activities, for example, spacious classrooms, equipped laboratories, modern libraries, and multifunctional auditoriums, among others [36].

Similarly, it is essential to implement programs aimed at acquiring state-of-the-art furniture and equipment, which are adapted to the specific needs of each educational level and modality. This includes ergonomic desks, interactive whiteboards, advanced computer equipment, multimedia projectors, and other resources that enrich academic performance. In today’s digital era, the transversal incorporation of state-of-the-art educational technologies in classrooms becomes an unavoidable imperative. It is essential to provide educational centers with modern computer equipment, specialized software, and high-speed internet access, among others [37].

On the other hand, it is crucial to ensure the availability of updated and relevant bibliographic resources, both in physical and digital formats. This implies the creation and maintenance of virtual repositories that provide access to textbooks, scientific journals, and specialized databases, aligned with current curricula. In addition, preventive and corrective maintenance programs should be implemented for infrastructure and educational resources to ensure their functioning. These initiatives should include the training of maintenance personnel and the allocation of an adequate budget for the acquisition of supplies and spare parts [38].

It is therefore essential to establish rigorous evaluation and accountability mechanisms to monitor the state of educational infrastructure and resources, identify areas for improvement, and allocate resources efficiently. These mechanisms should include the participation of the educational community and periodic external audits to ensure transparent and effective management of the resources allocated to improving educational infrastructure and equipment.

4.1.4. Teacher Education and Training

Teacher education and training serve as a cornerstone for educational public policies, directly influencing the success of broader educational strategies. Educators play a pivotal role as facilitators of learning, leveraging available infrastructure and resources to implement effective and transformative pedagogical practices. Therefore, investment in teachers’ professional development acts as a catalytic force, amplifying the impact of other educational initiatives.

Teacher education and training are fundamental pillars of educational public policies aimed at improving the quality of educational systems. These strategies are of vital importance, since they constitute the main instrument for strengthening the competencies and professional development of teachers, who are key agents in the teaching–learning process [39].

In the field of initial teacher education, there is a pressing need to reconfigure training programs under an integral and holistic approach. This transformation implies transcending the mere transmission of disciplinary and didactic knowledge to incorporate, in a transversal manner, the development of essential soft skills. These competencies include effective communication, collaborative work, conflict resolution, emotional intelligence, and adaptability to change. Likewise, it is imperative to align these programs with current professional standards and global trends in education, ensuring that future teachers are prepared to face the challenges of the knowledge society [40].

On the other hand, the training and continuous professional development of practicing teachers are fundamental pillars to ensure continuous updating of their knowledge and pedagogical practices. These training actions should respond to the specific needs of the educational context, addressing emerging issues such as educational innovation, inclusion and attention to diversity, the integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in teaching processes, and new trends in formative assessment and learning management, among others [41].

It is important to emphasize that the effectiveness of these public policy strategies depends largely on the articulation and coordination among the various actors involved in the educational system. Therefore, it is essential to establish mechanisms for collaboration and synergy between educational authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, and educators themselves. It is necessary to implement follow-up, monitoring, and evaluation systems that make it possible to measure the impact of training actions, identify areas for improvement, and make the appropriate adjustments on time [42].

Another key aspect to consider is the creation of environments and conditions that are conducive to teachers’ professional development. This includes the promotion of learning communities and the encouragement of educational research, alongside the recognition and valuation of teachers’ work, as well as the provision of incentives and opportunities for professional growth. These measures contribute to motivating and retaining teaching talent, in addition to promoting a culture of continuous learning and constant improvement [43].

In summary, teacher education and training constitute transcendental strategies of educational public policy. All of this provides teaching professionals with the necessary competencies to face current and future challenges. In this way, quality, inclusive, and relevant education is promoted, under the demands of the knowledge society. Its effective implementation and articulation with other complementary initiatives will lay the foundations for the transformation and strengthening of education systems at the national and international levels.

4.1.5. Student Support Programs

Student support programs constitute the final and crucial component that guarantees the effective materialization of the strategies. These programs transcend the academic sphere and comprehensively address the diverse needs of students beyond the classroom, while becoming fundamental pillars for the achievement of an equitable, inclusive, and high-quality educational system.

Student support programs are cornerstones within educational public policies aimed at achieving equitable, inclusive, and high-quality education systems. These initiatives gain relevance by comprehensively addressing the multiple factors that affect student access, permanence, and academic achievement, among others [44].

From a holistic and interdisciplinary perspective, these programs have a multidimensional spectrum of strategic lines of action aimed at mitigating the barriers and gaps faced by students throughout their educational trajectory. On the socioeconomic axis, financing and economic support schemes are articulated, such as scholarships, subsidies, educational credits, and conditional cash transfers. These measures seek to cover the costs associated with tuition, materials, transportation, food, and other related expenses, preventing school dropout due to economic factors, especially in contexts of vulnerability and marginalization [45].

In the academic domain, comprehensive support and pedagogical reinforcement strategies are implemented to promptly identify and address the specific educational needs of students. These actions include the provision of personalized tutoring, disciplinary orientation, remedial programs, psycho-pedagogical support services, and vocational counseling. These components are aimed at providing students with the necessary tools and resources to enhance their learning, overcome possible academic lags or difficulties, and develop study and knowledge management skills [46]. In this sense, the implementation of innovative approaches and methodologies, as well as the incorporation of information and communication technologies (ICTs), play a preponderant role in the optimization of teaching–learning processes.

Another central goal of these programs is to address the socioemotional and mental health dimensions of students. For this purpose, psychological guidance, counseling, and therapy services are contemplated, as well as the implementation of strategies for the promotion of positive, inclusive, safe, and violence-free school environments. These actions are aimed at guaranteeing the integral well-being of students, recognizing the close inter-relation between emotional and psychological factors and academic performance. Likewise, the development of social skills, peaceful conflict resolution, and the acquisition of tools for stress management and emotional self-regulation are encouraged [47].

It should be emphasized that the effectiveness of these programs depends mostly on intersectoral and interinstitutional coordination and coordination among the various actors involved in the education system. It is imperative to establish collaboration mechanisms between educational authorities, schools, community organizations, health centers, parents, and students themselves. It is also essential to implement follow-up, monitoring, and evaluation systems that make it possible to measure the impact of the actions carried out, as well as to identify areas for improvement and make appropriate adjustments in a timely manner.

Another key aspect to consider is the allocation of sufficient and sustainable financial resources for the effective implementation of these programs. This implies the preparation of specific budgets and the efficient management of funds, ensuring their correct distribution and use according to the needs and priorities identified. In this regard, it is essential to establish mechanisms for accountability and transparency in the management of the resources allocated to these initiatives. In addition, it is crucial to promote an institutional and social culture that values and recognizes the importance of these student support programs [48]. This implies sensitizing and raising awareness among all stakeholders, from educational authorities to community members, of the positive impact that these initiatives have on the integral development of students and the construction of more equitable and inclusive societies.

In short, student support programs are transcendental strategies of educational public policy, since they comprehensively address the multidimensional factors that affect students’ access, permanence, and academic achievement. Their effective implementation and articulation with other complementary initiatives will lay the foundations for the construction of more equitable, inclusive, and resilient educational systems that are committed to the principle of quality education for all, regardless of students’ socioeconomic, cultural, or personal conditions.

Furthermore, the successful implementation of these interconnected strategies requires a holistic and adaptive approach. It is crucial, therefore, to recognize that each educational context presents unique challenges, so the implementation of these policies must be flexible and sensitive to local realities. This implies a continuous process of evaluation, feedback, and adjustment, actively involving all the actors in the education system. Only through this comprehensive and participatory approach will it be possible to ensure that these strategies translate into tangible and sustainable improvements in the quality and equity of education.

4.2. Public Policy Strategies to Improve Health

Public policy strategies to improve health constitute a complex and dynamic web of inter-related initiatives. These range from access to health services to the promotion of healthy lifestyles, forming a comprehensive public health ecosystem. In this context, it is imperative to examine how these strategies intertwine and reinforce each other, as well as the practical challenges that arise in their implementation in real-life settings.

Health is a fundamental pillar for human development and the well-being of societies. For this reason, public policy strategies aimed at improving the health of the population acquire transcendental relevance in the governmental agenda. These initiatives seek to comprehensively address the multiple factors that influence the health status of individuals and communities, ranging from prevention to treatment and rehabilitation [49].

In the area of disease prevention and health promotion, strategies are implemented that are aimed at raising awareness and providing education about healthy lifestyle habits, such as a balanced diet, regular physical activity, and the prevention of risky behaviors. These actions are complemented by early detection and screening campaigns for diseases, as well as vaccination and communicable disease control programs [50].

In this context, it should be noted that another fundamental axis of these public policies is the strengthening of health systems to guarantee equitable and timely access to quality services. This implies investments in hospital infrastructure, the training and retention of medical and nursing personnel, the provision of medical equipment and supplies, and the implementation of efficient referral and counter-referral systems [51].

Likewise, public health policies cannot be separated from the social determinants of health, such as poverty, education, housing, and access to drinking water and sanitation. In this sense, intersectoral policies that seek to improve the living conditions of the population and reduce health inequalities are promoted.

On the other hand, it should be emphasized that a key aspect of these strategies lies in the development of research and the generation of scientific evidence to support decision-making and the implementation of effective interventions. This implies the promotion of biomedical, epidemiological, and public health research, as well as the establishment of partnerships with academic institutions and research centers.

It should be noted that the effectiveness of these public policy strategies depends on the articulation and coordination between the various actors involved, such as health authorities, medical service providers, civil society organizations, the private sector, and the beneficiary population itself [52]. Consequently, it is also essential to ensure the allocation of sufficient and sustainable financial resources for the implementation of these initiatives.

In this sense, public policy strategies aimed at improving health represent an imperative component for human development and social progress. Their effective implementation will contribute to building healthier, more resilient societies with greater opportunities for well-being for all their members.

However, it is crucial to recognize that the practical implementation of these strategies is not without obstacles. Fragmentation of health systems, socioeconomic disparities, and resistance to change are some of the challenges faced by those who implement them. In addition, the variability of local contexts demands continuous adaptation of policies, requiring flexibility and agile responsiveness.

4.2.1. Access to Quality Health Services

Access to quality health services is the fundamental foundation on which all other public health strategies are built. This access implies not only the physical availability of health facilities, but also the systematic elimination of economic, cultural, and geographic barriers to health care. It is imperative to emphasize that the interconnection of this strategy with subsequent strategies is crucial to achieve a significant and lasting impact on population health.

Universal and equitable access to quality health services is a cornerstone of public policies aimed at improving the health indicators of the population. This strategy responds to the urgent need for solid and resilient health systems that are capable of providing comprehensive coverage to all sectors of society, regardless of their socioeconomic, cultural, or geographic situation. In this sense, the strengthening of health infrastructure stands as an essential pillar, encompassing the construction, expansion, and modernization of health centers, hospitals, and specialized clinics [53]. These facilities must have adequate space, state-of-the-art medical equipment, and a timely supply of supplies and medicines to ensure the provision of quality diagnostic, therapeutic, and rehabilitation services.

In this context, it is essential to note that ensuring the availability and strategic distribution of trained human resources in the health sector is also a priority. This implies the implementation of continuing education and training programs for physicians, nurses, technicians, and support staff, to maintain high standards of technical competence and update best clinical and patient care practices. In addition, the importance of establishing efficient referral and counter-referral systems that articulate and coordinate the different levels of care (primary, secondary, and tertiary) should be emphasized [54]. This strategy seeks to optimize the flow of patients to the required specialized services, reducing waiting times and improving the quality and timeliness of the care provided.

Geographical and financial accessibility to health services should also be promoted. To this end, financing mechanisms and social health protection schemes, such as health insurance and co-payment systems, should be established to ensure coverage of health care-related expenses, especially for the most vulnerable populations [55]. In line with the above, the implementation of information systems and electronic clinical records plays a crucial role in improving the quality and efficiency of health services. These technological tools enable optimal management of patient data, traceability of care processes, monitoring of health indicators, and evidence-based decision-making [56].

It is important to note that the effectiveness of these public policy strategies depends, to a large extent, on intersectoral and interinstitutional articulation and coordination among the various stakeholders involved, such as health authorities, medical service providers, academic institutions, civil society organizations, and the beneficiary population itself.

In this sense, it is essential to guarantee the allocation of sufficient and sustainable financial resources for the implementation and maintenance of these initiatives. Therefore, universal access to quality health services is not only a strategic objective but also a fundamental element for building healthier, more resilient societies with greater opportunities for well-being for all their members.

4.2.2. Community Health Centers

Community health centers represent the materialization of decentralization and contextualization of access to health services. These institutions play a crucial role as bridges between national health policies and local realities, adapting general strategies to the specific needs of each community. It is imperative to emphasize that their success and effectiveness depend largely on their ability to integrate organically into the social and cultural fabric of the population they serve.

Community health centers are positioned as a central strategy within the framework of public policies aimed at strengthening primary health care and improving the health indicators of the population. These institutions represent the first point of contact between individuals, families, and the national health system, playing a primary role in the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative services [57]. From a comprehensive care perspective, community health centers offer a diversified portfolio of services that includes general medical care, maternal and child health, family planning, immunizations, chronic disease management, and the promotion of healthy lifestyles. These services are provided under a multidisciplinary approach, involving general practitioners, nurses, nutritionists, social workers, and other health professionals [58].

In this context, it is essential to emphasize that one of the guiding principles of these centers is geographic and cultural accessibility, which implies their strategic location within communities, thus facilitating access for the local population. In addition, the incorporation of bilingual personnel and the adaptation of services to the sociocultural characteristics of each region are encouraged, strengthening the relevance and acceptance of health interventions. In line with this, the importance of articulating community health centers with other levels of care through effective referral and counter-referral systems should be emphasized. This allows the timely channeling of patients requiring specialized or more complex care to specialized hospitals and clinics, thus ensuring continuity and quality of care [59].

On the other hand, it is crucial to note that these centers play a fundamental role in the implementation of prevention and health promotion programs through awareness campaigns, health education, early detection of diseases, and promotion of healthy lifestyles. These actions are carried out in close collaboration with community organizations, local leaders, and other social actors, thus strengthening citizen participation and community empowerment in health issues [60]. Along the same lines, another relevant aspect is the integration of innovative approaches and the use of ICTs in the delivery of community health services. This includes the implementation of electronic patient registration systems, telemedicine, remote monitoring of chronic patients, and the development of mobile applications for health education and treatment follow-up.

It is important to highlight that the effectiveness of community health centers depends on the allocation of sufficient and sustainable financial resources, as well as on the availability of trained and motivated personnel.

Therefore, it is essential to establish mechanisms for continuous training and professional development for health teams, thus ensuring the updating of knowledge and the implementation of good practices in the community setting [61]. Ultimately, community health centers constitute an indispensable public policy strategy to improve access to quality health services, promote prevention, and encourage the participation of communities in their health care. The effective implementation of community health centers and their articulation with other complementary initiatives will strengthen primary health care systems and contribute to building healthier and more resilient societies.

4.2.3. Primary Care Programs

Primary care programs play a key role as a cohesive element of various public health strategies. These programs not only provide direct care, but also serve as an integral platform for the implementation of other initiatives, ranging from health promotion to disease prevention. It should be emphasized that their effectiveness depends largely on their ability to coordinate multiple interventions synergistically and to adapt with agility to the changing health needs of the population.

Primary health care (PHC) programs are fundamental strategic pillars in the design of public policies aimed at improving the health indicators of a population and guaranteeing equitable access to quality services. These programs are based on a comprehensive, preventive, and community-based approach, addressing the health needs of individuals, families, and communities from a holistic and multidisciplinary perspective [62]. At the core of PHC programs are general and first-level care services, which represent people’s first contact with the health system. These services include ambulatory care focused on the prevention, early detection, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of acute and chronic diseases, in addition to the promotion of healthy lifestyles. Comprehensive care is also provided to priority groups, such as pregnant women, children, adolescents, and older adults, under a life course approach [63].

In this context, it is crucial to highlight that another essential component of these programs is immunization and the control of communicable diseases. This involves the implementation of mass vaccination campaigns and constant epidemiological surveillance through monitoring systems and laboratory networks, with the intention of preventing and containing the spread of infectious diseases. Specific strategies are also developed to address non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases. These strategies include early detection through population screening, comprehensive clinical management, education in self-care, prolonged follow-up of patients, and implementation of rehabilitation programs [64].

From a community perspective, it should be emphasized that PHC programs promote the active participation of the population in the care of their health and in making informed decisions. This is achieved through health education strategies, the creation of support groups, the training of community leaders in health promotion and disease prevention, and the promotion of healthy environments. Within this framework, another fundamental aspect is the articulation and coordination of PHC programs with other levels of care, through efficient and standardized referral and counter-referral systems. Such systems guarantee timely care of complex cases and access to specialized services when required, thus promoting comprehensiveness and quality of care [65].

It should be noted that the effectiveness of these programs depends largely on the availability of trained and motivated human resources with intercultural competencies.

It is essential to have multidisciplinary teams composed of general practitioners, nurses, nutritionists, social workers, psychologists, and other health professionals, who should receive continuous training and updates on current best practices in primary care, as well as on human rights-based approaches and cultural relevance [66]. In addition, the allocation of sufficient and sustainable financial resources is key to the implementation and sustainability of these programs. This includes the efficient management of budgets for the acquisition of supplies, equipment, and infrastructure, and the financing of prevention, health promotion, and community care activities. In this regard, it is important to explore innovative financing mechanisms, such as the diversification of funding sources, co-financing schemes, and private sector participation [67].

In conclusion, primary health care programs constitute transcendental public policy strategies, by promoting a preventive, comprehensive, community-based, and rights-based approach to health care. Their effective implementation and their articulation with other complementary initiatives will strengthen health systems, improve population health indicators, reduce health inequities, and contribute to the integral well-being of communities, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals and the principles of universal health coverage.

4.2.4. Promotion of Healthy Habits

Public policy strategies aimed at promoting healthy habits have acquired transcendental relevance in the contemporary public health agenda. These initiatives are emerging as a key axis in the search for comprehensive solutions to global health challenges. These strategies are based on multi- and interdisciplinary approaches that address the social determinants of health from a holistic and adaptive perspective.

In this context, the inescapable influence of behavioral and environmental factors in the prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and the optimization of the quality of life of communities is established as an unquestionable consensus. Consequently, the implementation of interventions based on scientific evidence has become a necessity for public policymakers. These interventions require the synergistic integration of diverse disciplines, such as epidemiology, health psychology, sociology, health economics, and public health, to comprehensively address the complex determinants of health.

One of the essential pillars of these strategies is the promotion of healthy eating patterns. This implies not only public policies that promote the availability, accessibility, and affordability of nutritious foods, but also educational campaigns that encourage balanced diets and reduce the consumption of ultra-processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages. At the same time, socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental factors that influence the population’s food choices must be considered.

Another crucial aspect is the promotion of regular physical activity [68]. Strategies in this area should focus on the creation of urban environments that facilitate active mobility, such as pedestrian infrastructure and safe bicycle paths. It is also essential to implement community-based physical activity programs that are accessible and adapted to the needs of different age and population groups. In addition, economic incentives and regulations that promote physical activity in work and educational environments should be considered [69].

It is equally important to address the prevention and control of the consumption of harmful substances, such as tobacco and alcohol. This implies strict regulatory measures, such as banning the advertising and sponsorship of tobacco products, increasing taxes on alcohol, and creating smoke-free spaces. Cessation programs based on scientific evidence should also be developed, together with campaigns to raise awareness of the risks associated with these substances.

In the area of mental health, public policy strategies should focus on promoting emotional well-being and preventing mental disorders. This includes programs aimed at the development of life skills, such as stress management, conflict resolution, and emotional intelligence, in addition to accessible and quality psychological services. Interventions should also consider the social and environmental determinants that impact mental health, such as poverty, violence, and discrimination [70].

An additional and essential aspect is the creation of healthy work environments. This requires policies that promote safety and well-being at work, such as the reduction of occupational hazards, the implementation of active breaks and programmes to prevent stress, burnout and musculoskeletal disorders. In addition, financial incentives and recognition should be offered to companies that promote health in the workplace.

It is important to emphasize that these strategies must be designed and implemented in an intersectoral and interdisciplinary manner. This implies the active collaboration of stakeholders in multiple sectors, such as health, education, transportation, urban planning, agriculture, environment, labor, and economy. In addition, it is important to have a sound regulatory framework to ensure the compliance and sustainability of these strategies, together with adequate allocation of financial resources. In addition, rigorous monitoring and evaluation systems based on performance and health outcome indicators are needed to measure the impact of interventions and make continuous adjustments. These systems should include the active participation of the community and civil society to ensure the relevance and pertinence of the strategies implemented [71,72].

In conclusion, public policy strategies focused on the promotion of healthy habits constitute a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to addressing current public health challenges. Effective implementation requires sustained political commitment, adequate resources, rigorous evaluation mechanisms, and active community participation. All of the above have the primary objective of improving the long-term health and well-being of the population.

4.2.5. Nutrition Education

Nutrition education has emerged as a fundamental component of public policy strategies aimed at health promotion and prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases. This initiative is based on the recognition that inadequate dietary patterns constitute one of the main risk factors for the development of diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancer [73]. In this context, it is unavoidable for public policies to prioritize the creation and implementation of educational programs on nutrition. Moreover, they should be based on scientific evidence and aimed at generating structural changes in the population’s eating habits.

These programs should be based on a multidisciplinary approach that combines knowledge from fields such as nutrition, health psychology, sociology, education, and public health. In this way, the complex causes that determine eating patterns can be addressed comprehensively.

One of the fundamental pillars of nutrition education is the promotion of knowledge and understanding of the basic principles of healthy eating. This implies the design of educational programs that cover essential topics such as food groups, essential nutrients, the interpretation of nutrition labels, the preparation of balanced meals, and the identification of ultra-processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages. In addition, it is imperative to address the psychological and sociocultural factors that influence food choices [74]. This includes designing interventions that promote life skills such as self-efficacy, self-regulation, problem-solving, and informed food decision-making. Strategies aimed at dismantling beliefs, attitudes, and social norms that may hinder the adoption of healthy eating habits should also be integrated.

Another crucial aspect of nutrition education is the adaptation of programs to the specific needs and characteristics of different age and population groups. This requires the development of educational content and methodologies according to the nutritional needs, cultural preferences, and learning styles of each target group, such as children, adolescents, older adults, pregnant women, and people with chronic diseases, among others [75]. It is equally fundamental to integrate nutrition education in various settings, such as schools, workplaces, community centers, and primary health care services. This strategy favors the creation of healthy food environments and the constant reinforcement of acquired knowledge and skills.

At this point it should be emphasized that nutrition education strategies should be designed and implemented in an intersectoral manner, involving various actors and sectors, such as the health sector, education, agriculture, the food industry, and the media. In addition, these strategies must be supported by a solid legal and regulatory framework that guarantees their compliance and sustainability, as well as the allocation of adequate financial resources [76].

In addition to the above, it is urgent to establish rigorous monitoring and evaluation systems based on performance and health outcome indicators that allow the impact of interventions to be measured and continuous adjustments and improvements to be made. These systems should include the active participation of the community and civil society to ensure the relevance and pertinence of the strategies implemented.

In conclusion, nutrition education stands as a key public policy strategy for the promotion of healthy eating habits and the prevention of non-communicable diseases. Its effective implementation requires a multidisciplinary approach, adaptation to the specific needs of different population groups, integration in different contexts, intersectoral participation, political commitment, the allocation of sufficient resources, the establishment of rigorous monitoring and evaluation systems, and the active participation of the community and civil society. All of this has the primary purpose of improving, in the long term, the health and well-being of the population.

4.2.6. Disease Prevention and Control

Disease prevention and control strategies have acquired cardinal relevance in the contemporary public health agenda. This approach is based on the recognition that the burden of disease represents a significant challenge to the well-being of a population and the sustainable development of nations. These initiatives seek to comprehensively address the social, environmental, and behavioral determinants that influence the risk of acquiring diseases, intending to reduce their incidence and prevalence, as well as mitigating their impact on the quality of life of individuals and communities [77].

In this context, the implementation of strategies based on rigorous scientific evidence has become imperative for public policymakers. These strategies should be based on a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach that integrates knowledge from various disciplines, such as epidemiology, preventive medicine, environmental health, health psychology, sociology, and health economics, to comprehensively address the complex determinants of disease.

One of the fundamental pillars of these strategies is health promotion and primary disease prevention. This implies the development of educational programs based on theoretical models and validated methodologies that promote the adoption of healthy lifestyles, including a balanced diet according to evidence-based nutritional recommendations, regular physical activity according to recommended levels, adequate stress management through validated psychological techniques, and the prevention of the consumption of harmful substances, such as tobacco and alcohol [78]. In addition, it is essential to design interventions that address the social and environmental determinants that condition health, such as poverty, food insecurity, limited access to basic services, environmental pollution, and insecurity.

Another fundamental aspect is the early detection and control of diseases. This implies the implementation of screening and timely diagnosis programs based on validated and cost-effective screening tests for prevalent diseases (cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and infectious diseases). Likewise, strategies should be developed for the appropriate management of these pathologies, including access to effective treatments supported by clinical evidence, constant follow-up, and comprehensive rehabilitation [79].

In the field of infectious diseases, prevention and control strategies should focus on the implementation of effective vaccination programs based on validated immunization schedules, the strengthening of epidemiological surveillance systems with solid information systems, the promotion of hygiene and environmental sanitation measures supported by scientific evidence, and the appropriate management of outbreaks and epidemics through updated clinical protocols and guidelines [80]. Interventions should also address the social and environmental determinants that favor the transmission of infectious diseases, such as lack of access to drinking water, overcrowding, and precarious housing conditions.

A crucial aspect is the strengthening of health systems and primary care. This implies the implementation of policies and programs that guarantee universal access to quality health services, with an emphasis on prevention, comprehensive care, and continuity of care, based on validated care models. In addition, strategies should be considered for the continuous training of health personnel, the integration of traditional and complementary medicine supported by scientific evidence, the encouragement of community participation in decision-making, and the management of health services through effective mechanisms of social participation [81,82].

It is important to emphasize that these strategies should be designed and implemented in an intersectoral and interdisciplinary manner, involving various actors and sectors, such as health, education, agriculture, environment, labor, transportation, and urban development. They must also be supported by a solid legal and regulatory framework that guarantees compliance and sustainability, as well as the allocation of adequate financial resources, based on cost-effectiveness analyses.

In addition, it is essential to establish rigorous monitoring and evaluation systems, based on validated performance and health outcome indicators, that make it possible to measure the impact of interventions and to make continuous adjustments and improvements through continuous improvement cycles. These systems should include the active participation of the community and civil society to ensure the relevance and pertinence of the strategies implemented.

4.2.7. Interinstitutional Coordination and Community Participation

Interinstitutional coordination and community participation emerge as backbone elements that articulate and unite the framework of the abovementioned strategies. Far from being mere additional components, these fundamental principles should permeate and guide every facet of public health policies. Their effective implementation requires a paradigm shift in health governance, moving from a hierarchical model to a collaborative and participatory one.

Inter-institutional coordination and community participation are key strategies for improving the quality of education through effective public policies. These strategies are based on the recognition that education is a collective effort that requires the collaboration of various institutions and the active participation of communities.

On the one hand, interinstitutional coordination makes it possible to take advantage of the resources and capabilities of various government entities and organizations related to education. This synergy makes it possible to implement comprehensive programs that address the multiple factors that affect educational performance, from school infrastructure to teacher training, nutrition, and student health. In addition, by avoiding the duplication of efforts and optimizing resource allocation, a greater impact and broader coverage of educational initiatives can be achieved [83].

On the other hand, community participation in the educational process is fundamental to ensuring the relevance and sustainability of public policies. When parents, students, teachers, and local leaders have a voice and participate in decision-making, initiatives are better adapted to the specific needs and realities of each context. Moreover, this participation fosters accountability, transparency, and community empowerment, strengthening the long-term commitment and ownership of educational programs [84].

The materialization of these interconnected strategies in a real-life context entails challenges of considerable magnitude. The complexity of health systems, resource constraints, and prevailing political and social dynamics can become significant obstacles to the effective implementation of these policies. In this scenario, it is essential to adopt an adaptive approach based on empirical evidence that allows strategies to be calibrated and adjusted according to the observed results and fluctuations in the context.

This paradigm implies not only the systematic and continuous evaluation of implemented programs, but also the establishment of robust feedback mechanisms that actively and meaningfully involve all actors in the health ecosystem, from policymakers at the highest levels to the final beneficiaries. Only through this iterative and participatory process will it be possible to close the gap between theoretical conceptualization and practical implementation, translating these strategies into tangible, measurable, and sustainable improvements in the health of the population.

4.3. Collaboration Between Public, Private, and Civil Society Sectors

The collaborative confluence between the public, private, and civil society sectors constitutes a comprehensive strategic approach with great potential to promote substantial improvements in the quality of education through robust and relevant public policies. This intersectoral synergy allows for the complementary convergence of resources, installed capacities, experiences and diverse perspectives, thus optimising the impact, effectiveness and sustainability of educational interventions.

To comprehensively address educational challenges, it is advisable to understand how the different sectors inter-relate and how their contributions complement each other. The following details the specific role of each sector and how their collaboration can maximise impact on improving the quality of education.

In this scenario, the public sector, represented by ministries of education, governing bodies, and decentralized entities, assumes a leading and guiding role in the formulation, implementation, and monitoring of the normative, curricular, and regulatory frameworks that frame educational processes at the national, regional and local levels. However, its advocacy capacity is significantly enhanced when it is effectively articulated with the other sectors involved, thus taking advantage of the comparative advantages, experience and resources that each brings to the table [85].

The private sector, made up of companies, industries, and business organizations, can make a substantial contribution to strengthening education by providing financial resources through social investment schemes, corporate social responsibility, or public–private partnerships. In addition, this sector can play a key role in the design and implementation of technical and vocational training programmes, business internships and situated learning experiences, thus providing practical opportunities for the development of competencies and skills relevant to employability and productive life [85].

In addition, the valuable participation of civil society, materialized in community organizations, parents’ associations, NGOs, social collectives, and citizen movements, contributes an invaluable perspective to the educational process by channeling the voices, interests, needs, and demands of various stakeholders in and direct beneficiaries of the educational system. These organizations can play leading roles in promoting community participation, accountability, transparency, and social responsibility in educational management, thus contributing to strengthening the relevance, legitimacy, and sustainability of implemented public policies [86].

In addition, civil society can provide complementary support to formal educational processes through the implementation of extracurricular programs, recreational–pedagogical activities, tutoring services, vocational guidance, and psychosocial counseling, among others, addressing the specific needs of students and their families, especially in contexts of socioeconomic vulnerability [87]. This collaborative convergence between sectors facilitates the mobilization and optimization of human, financial, technical, material, and technological resources. In this way, educational programs can be implemented with greater scope, coverage, and impact. It also fosters the bidirectional exchange of knowledge, experiences, and best practices among the actors involved. This enriches the design and implementation of public policies that are aligned with local realities and social demands.

This intersectoral collaboration also contributes to strengthening the sustainability of educational interventions by promoting a sense of shared ownership and commitment among the various sectors involved. By being an active part of the process, each sector becomes a promoter and guarantor of the success of the initiatives undertaken, thus ensuring their continuity and consolidation over time, beyond political cycles or changes in government administrations [88]. To capitalize on the benefits of cross-sectoral collaboration, clear regulatory frameworks are essential. These must regulate and facilitate interaction between sectors in an efficient, transparent, and equitable manner. In addition, a coordination effort led by competent educational authorities is required. This makes it possible to harmonize roles and responsibilities, avoiding duplication or counterproductive interference.

However, it is crucial to recognize the practical challenges that can arise in implementing these collaborative strategies. Some of these challenges include conflicts of interest between sectors and differences in organizational cultures. They also include difficulties in terms of coordination, effective communication, and resistance to change in traditional educational structures. In addition, budgetary and resource constraints may be faced. To address these, strategies such as the establishment of clear legal frameworks, cross-sectoral dialogue platforms, and training programs in collaboration and change management are proposed.

In this sense, strategic collaboration between the public, private, and civil society sectors constitutes a comprehensive approach with great potential to promote substantial improvements in the quality, relevance, and sustainability of education. By taking advantage of the diverse resources, capabilities, and perspectives of each sector in a coordinated manner, the horizon of possibilities is broadened to more effectively address the complex challenges faced by the education system, thus contributing to the integral development of present and future generations.

The transition to community empowerment and participation is a natural step in the process of cross-sector collaboration. These elements are critical to ensure that educational initiatives are truly effective and sustainable at the local level.

Community Empowerment and Participation

Community empowerment and active participation are fundamental strategies for strengthening public policies aimed at improving the quality and relevance of education. Undoubtedly, this approach recognizes that the community, composed of students, parents, teachers, and local leaders, is a key factor in educational processes, and that its direct involvement is essential to ensure the success and sustainability of the initiatives undertaken [89]. In this sense, community empowerment in education implies strengthening the capacities, voice, and incidence of the community in the decision-making, planning, implementation, and monitoring of educational policies and programs. It should be noted that this approach is based on the recognition that local communities possess deep and valuable knowledge about their realities, needs, and priorities, which gives them a unique and invaluable perspective to co-create relevant and contextualized solutions.

It is important to note that, through empowerment, communities become active agents, and not merely passive recipients of educational interventions. This, in turn, fosters a sense of belonging, commitment, and shared responsibility for educational processes and results, which contributes to the long-term sustainability of the initiatives implemented [90]. On the other hand, community participation in education implies the opening of effective channels and mechanisms for the community to become meaningfully involved in the various aspects of the educational task. This participation can be materialized through the formation of school councils, educational management committees, community assemblies, and other spaces for dialogue, consultation, and joint decision-making.

Community participation makes it possible to channel the voices, interests, and demands of the various stakeholders involved, thus ensuring that educational policies and programs respond effectively to local needs. In addition, this participation promotes transparency, accountability, and social control over the management and use of resources allocated to education, thus favoring greater efficiency and effectiveness in their use [91]. Likewise, community participation can be translated into the implementation of initiatives that are complementary to formal educational processes, such as extracurricular programs, recreational pedagogical activities, tutoring, and vocational guidance services, among others. It is important to emphasize that these actions enrich and reinforce the educational experience, addressing the specific needs of students and their families, especially in contexts of socioeconomic vulnerability.

It should be emphasized that empowerment and community participation are not only a means to improve education, but also an achievement in themselves, as they promote the exercise of fundamental rights such as citizen participation, access to information, and informed decision-making. Thus, these processes contribute to the strengthening of democracy, social cohesion, and the sustainable development of communities. However, to fully capitalize on the benefits of these strategies, educational authorities must establish regulatory frameworks and institutional mechanisms that effectively facilitate and promote community empowerment and participation in educational management [92]. Likewise, awareness-raising, training, and accompaniment processes are required to strengthen the capacities of communities and ensure their informed, effective, and substantive involvement.

To effectively implement community empowerment and participation strategies, concrete actions are proposed, such as the development of training programs in community leadership and educational management, the establishment of mechanisms for regular consultation and participatory decision-making, the creation of community investment funds for local educational projects, the implementation of accountability and transparency systems that are accessible to the community, and the promotion of the creation of support networks among educational communities.

It is also vital to recognize that the implementation of these strategies may face significant challenges, such as institutional resistance, lack of resources, and uneven participation. To address these challenges, it is strongly suggested to develop pilot projects to demonstrate the positive impact of community participation and establish partnerships with civil society organizations with experience in community development. In addition, it is important to implement mentoring programs between communities with different levels of experience in participation. Information technologies should also be used, and periodic evaluations should be carried out to adjust strategies according to the results obtained.

Community empowerment and participation in educational processes are transformative strategies for improving the quality and relevance of education. Indeed, involving local actors as protagonists promotes a sense of ownership, strengthens the legitimacy of interventions, and contributes to the sustainability of the efforts undertaken. Ultimately, these strategies not only have a positive impact on educational outcomes, but also promote the exercising of fundamental rights, the strengthening of democracy, and the integral development of communities.

4.4. Impact Monitoring and Evaluation

The implementation of effective public policies in education demands a systematic approach that incorporates monitoring and impact evaluation as key strategies. These analytical tools provide valuable information on the effectiveness of interventions and allow for timely adjustments to optimize results. These processes are intrinsically related and mutually reinforcing, contributing to the continuous improvement of educational policies. Monitoring consists of a continuous follow-up of established performance indicators, which allows for the identification of deviations from established goals and the taking of corrective actions in real time [93]. This process involves the periodic collection of quantitative and qualitative data, using techniques such as surveys, observations, document reviews, and management information systems.

On the other hand, impact evaluation offers a more in-depth analysis that seeks to determine the effectiveness of a policy or program in terms of the changes generated in the target population. Using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, the results obtained are contrasted between a treatment group (beneficiaries) and a control group (non-beneficiaries), controlling for external factors that may influence the findings. These strategies provide valuable information for informed decision-making and resource optimization [94]. However, it is crucial to recognize that the implementation of these strategies may face practical challenges, such as resistance to change, lack of resources, or the complexity of educational systems. In education, monitoring can focus on indicators such as dropout rates, academic performance, school attendance, and student satisfaction. Impact evaluation can measure the effects of teacher training programs, the implementation of new pedagogical methods, investment in infrastructure, or the provision of technological resources.

To overcome these obstacles and ensure their effective implementation, it is essential to strengthen capacities by investing in the training of educational personnel so that they can apply and use these tools efficiently. It is also crucial to ensure political commitment through the support of educational and political authorities to guarantee continuity and the provision of necessary resources. Furthermore, it is essential to adapt strategies to the local context, considering the particularities of each educational system and community when designing and implementing these tools. Finally, it is key to the success of these initiatives to foster collaboration, promoting cooperation between educational institutions, researchers, and policymakers to share knowledge and best practices.

These strategies should be integrated from the initial stages of public policy design, with the establishment of clear goals, measurable indicators, and baselines to evaluate progress. In addition, a participatory approach is required that involves all key stakeholders, including educational authorities, teachers, students, and communities. Thus, monitoring and impact evaluation are fundamental tools to guarantee the effectiveness of public policies in education. Their rigorous and systematic implementation makes it possible to identify areas for improvement, optimize the allocation of resources, and allow society to be accountable for the results obtained, thus helping to improve the quality and equity of education systems.

4.4.1. Performance Indicators

Performance indicators are essential tools in the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of public policies aimed at improving the quality of education. These tools, which are somewhat omnipresent and almost omniscient in the impact monitoring and evaluation processes previously mentioned, emerge as tangible metrics that allow the objective and concrete measurement of the progress and effectiveness of the policies implemented. These indicators, which are quantifiable and verifiable with almost obsessive accuracy, stand as beacons of reference for assessing the achievement of specific goals, identifying blind spots for improvement, and making strategic adjustments in record time [95].

In education, performance indicators can classified into different categories, each of which addresses a key aspect of the education system. Below is a table with some of these categories and examples of corresponding indicators (

Table 1. Indicators to measure performance, classified by category,.

Category	Indicators
Academic performance	- Scores on national and international standardized tests (PISA, TIMSS, etc.).
	- School completion rates by educational level.
	- Percentage of students achieving satisfactory levels of performance.
Access and Coverage	- Net enrollment rates by level of education.
	- Literacy rates by age group.
	- Percentage of population with access to preschool education.
Resources and infrastructure	- Student-teacher ratio by level of education.
	- Investment in educational infrastructure and resources as a percentage of GDP.
	- Percentage of schools with access to basic services (water, electricity, etc.).
Teacher training and development	- In-service teacher training rates.
	- Percentage of teachers with appropriate pedagogical training.
	- Performance evaluations and teaching competencies.
Equity and inclusion	- Dropout rates by gender, ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic level, etc.
	- Academic achievement gaps between vulnerable and non-vulnerable groups.
	- Percentage of students with special needs integrated into regular classrooms.

Source: Own elaboration.

):

These indicators do not emerge out of nowhere or float in academic limbo. On the contrary, they are established with specific quantitative targets and monitored with an almost ritual periodicity, using data collection systems, surveys, standardized evaluations, and exhaustive documentary reviews. The systematization of this information becomes a compass that points out strengths, weaknesses, and areas that cry out for urgent interventions while ensuring accountability, which almost resembles an act of faith before society in terms of educational improvement [96].

However, the practical challenges of implementing these indicators are as intricate as the policies themselves. These include the complexity of collecting accurate and up-to-date data, as well as the contextualized interpretation of results, which often depends on socioeconomic and cultural factors. In addition, there is the risk of a quantitative obsession that can overshadow the qualitative aspects of education, along with the challenge of maintaining a delicate balance between standardization and the flexibility needed to adapt to diverse local contexts.

To address these challenges effectively, investment in robust information systems and comprehensive staff training is strongly recommended. It is also crucial to complement quantitative indicators with rigorous qualitative assessments, to encourage the active participation of the educational community in the interpretation and use of indicators, and to conduct periodic reviews of the set of indicators to ensure their relevance and effectiveness over time.

Performance indicators must be defined with surgical precision, using standardized and reliable measurement methodologies. Furthermore, their contextualization and adaptation to the specific realities of each region or educational community are essential to ensure both the relevance and effectiveness of the policies implemented. To consolidate this strategy, a solid infrastructure for data collection and management is required, accompanied by technical teams trained to analyze and interpret the indicators. It is also essential to involve all the relevant stakeholders, including educational authorities, teachers, students, parents, and civil society organizations, in the process of defining, monitoring, and evaluating indicators [95].

In conclusion, the appropriate selection of indicators, their continuous monitoring, and evidence-based decision-making are fundamental elements for the success of public policy strategies aimed at improving education at all levels and in all dimensions. Through the effective use of these indicators, governments can not only direct their efforts towards priority areas, but also promote proper accountability and achieve significant advances in the quality, equity, and efficiency of education systems.

4.4.2. Accountability Mechanisms

The implementation of effective public policies in education requires the adoption of systems that ensure transparent management and effective accountability, with the intention of maximizing resources aimed at improving the quality of education. These mechanisms are based on performance indicators, as well as on monitoring and evaluation processes, forming an integral system for the management and continuous improvement of educational policies. They are indispensable for fostering a culture of constant improvement, encouraging the active participation of all those involved, and reinforcing society’s confidence in the educational system [97].

In the field of education policy, accountability mechanisms encompass a variety of multidimensional strategies and tools, which complement each other to provide a comprehensive and systematic approach. Some of the main mechanisms are detailed below (

Table 2. Accountability mechanisms.

Mechanism	Description
Standardized assessments and achievement measurement	The implementation of periodic national and international assessments (PISA, TIMSS, LLECE) to obtain objective and comparable data on students’ academic performance in key areas.
Progress reports and external audits	The preparation and public dissemination of detailed reports on progress in meeting educational goals and objectives, as well as external audits by independent organizations on the use and management of allocated resources.
Participation and social control	The creation of mechanisms that effectively involve teachers, students, parents, civil society organizations, and other key actors in the decision-making process and the follow-up and evaluation of educational policies.
School councils and citizen oversight	The formation of school councils and citizen oversight committees, with plural representation from various sectors, to supervise the implementation of educational policies at the local level.
Transparency and open data portals	The use of digital platforms that provide public access to detailed, updated, and quality information on the performance of the education system, as well as improvement plans.
Management and teacher performance	The implementation of teacher performance evaluation systems, based on objective, transparent, and previously established criteria. All of this is to improve the quality of teaching and provide accountability for the effectiveness of related programs and policies.

Source: Own elaboration.

):

These accountability mechanisms must be supported by a solid legal framework that clearly defines responsibilities, procedures, deadlines, and corresponding sanctions. In addition, it is crucial to foster a culture of transparency, ethics, and accountability at all levels of the education system, from central authorities to local institutions.

The effective implementation of these mechanisms requires the allocation of adequate financial, human, and technological resources, as well as the technical training of the personnel involved, and the establishment of clear and accessible communication channels for the dissemination of information and the receipt of feedback from citizens [98,99].

However, the implementation of these mechanisms effectively faces several practical challenges. These include resistance to change on the part of certain actors in the education system, and a lack of resources and technical capabilities to manage complex accountability systems, among others. In addition, there is a risk of promoting a superficial culture of “compliance” that limits real improvements.

To address these challenges comprehensively, it is proposed to implement awareness and training programs on the crucial importance of accountability and the development of technical capacities. Furthermore, adequate resources should be allocated for the gradual and sustainable implementation of mechanisms, and accountability systems should be designed that value the professional expertise of educators. In addition to this, it is vital to foster a culture of continuous improvement based on critical reflection and collective learning, transcending mere compliance with indicators.

Likewise, accountability mechanisms should be combined with other educational management processes. This generates continuous improvement, where the results obtained through accountability mechanisms feed back into decision-making and the adjustment of educational policies and strategies.

In conclusion, the effective integration of accountability mechanisms in educational public policies fosters society’s trust, among other things. All of this contributes significantly to improving the quality, equity, and relevance of education, thus benefiting all students and society.

5. Conclusions

Achieving a more equitable and inclusive society in terms of education and health requires the formulation and implementation of comprehensive and multidimensional public policies that address the structural barriers hindering access to and the quality of these essential services in marginalized communities. This work directly contributes to Sustainable Development Goal 4 (Quality Education) by proposing strategies to improve access to education through investments in physical infrastructure, state-of-the-art teaching and technological resources, and comprehensive scholarship programs. Additional measures, such as school meals, transportation, and psycho-pedagogical support, address systemic inequities, while curricular reforms and robust training systems for educators ensure long-term sustainability and relevance to the demands of the 21st century.

Moreover, the effective incorporation of educational technologies and attention to diversity and inclusion are pivotal to fostering equity in education. Transparent evaluation and accountability mechanisms, alongside community participation and empowerment in decision-making, strengthen the impact and sustainability of these interventions. These efforts collectively align with the principles of SDG 4, advancing inclusive and equitable quality education for marginalized populations.

In the health sector, the strategies outlined support Sustainable Development Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being) by emphasizing disease prevention, the promotion of healthy lifestyles, and universal access to primary health care. This includes implementing nutritional education campaigns, encouraging physical activity, controlling communicable diseases, and focusing on the early detection of prevalent pathologies. Strengthening health infrastructure, training and retaining medical personnel, and ensuring the availability of essential equipment and supplies are crucial for achieving these goals. Addressing the social determinants of health—such as poverty, food insecurity, and lack of access to basic services—further reinforces the pursuit of SDG 3.

The development of research and robust scientific evidence to guide interventions, coupled with intersectoral and interinstitutional coordination involving health authorities, community organizations, private stakeholders, and international entities, is essential. Adequate budget allocation, rigorous monitoring, and community participation in managing health services ensure the effectiveness and inclusivity of these policies.

Recognizing the interconnection between education and health as pillars of sustainable human development underscores the transformative potential of an integrated approach. For example, improving child health directly enhances school performance, while quality education equips individuals to make informed decisions about their health. Programs that integrate schools with community health centers exemplify how sectoral collaboration catalyzes progress toward SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) by addressing disparities holistically.

In summary, this study highlights the urgent need to adopt intersectional and holistic public policies that address inequalities in education and health. Through strategic investment in infrastructure and human capital, cross-sectoral collaboration, and accountability, these policies contribute to the advancement of SDGs 3, 4, and 10, promoting inclusive and sustainable development in disadvantaged communities. Only through a comprehensive and multidimensional approach will it be possible to lay the foundations for genuine sustainable human development in these communities.