Economic Development and Female Labour Force Participation: The Case of European Union Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Considerations and Previous Research
3. Data and Methodological Framework
3.1. Data
3.2. Model Specifications and Estimation Techniques
4. Results
5. Conclusions and Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Test for Model 1 OLS | Test for Model 2 OLS with Controls | Test for Model 3 FE | Test for Model 4 FE with Controls | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Slope at GDPpc min | –50.65 ** | 49.77 ** | –215.27 *** | –120.31 *** |
Slope at GDPpc max | 5.05 * | –5.50 ** | 31.67 *** | 17.75 *** |
SLM test for inverse U shape | 1.25 | 1.72 (a) | 5.97 | 3.22 |
p value | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Fieller 90% confidence interval | (10.01; 52.82) | (5.75; 11.12) | (9.87; 10.21) | (9.73; 10.40) |
Test for Model 5 OLS | Test for Model 6 OLS with Controls | Test for Model 7 FE | Test for Model 8 FE with Controls | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Slope at GDPpc min | 275.35 *** | –44.39 | –88.18 | –34.59 |
Slope at GDPpc max | –18.6024 *** | –5.93 | 18.43 *** | 12.73 ** |
SLM test for U shape | 3.19 (a) | (b) | 1.19 | 0.54 |
p value | 0.0012 | - | 0.118 | 0.296 |
Fieller 90% confidence interval | (10.55–10.91) | (–Inf; +Inf) U (10.25; +Inf) | (–Inf; 14.67) U (10.30; +Inf) | (–Inf; 11.88) U (10.26; +Inf) |
Test for Model 9 OLS | Test for Model 10 OLS with Controls | Test for Model 11 FE | Test for Model 12 FE with Controls | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Slope at GDPpc min | –111.51 | –153.75 ** | –256.14 *** | –136.96 ** |
Slope at GDPpc max | 15.062 | 45.73 *** | 42.53 *** | 30.74 ** |
SLM test for U shape | 0.71 | 1.72 | 3.43 | 1.78 |
p value | 0.239 | 0.046 | 0.000 | 0.0412 |
Fieller 90% confidence interval | (–Inf; +Inf) | (2.12; 9.38) | (9.64; 10.22) | (6.57; 10.43) |
Test for Model 13 GMM | Test for Model 14 GMM with Controls | |
---|---|---|
Slope at GDPpc min | –95.06 ** | –255.55 ** |
Slope at GDPpc max | 27.98 *** | 62.07 *** |
SLM test for U shape | 2.32 | 2.12 |
p value | 0.0112 | 0.0182 |
Fieller 90% confidence interval | (7.69; 9.37) | (8.15; 9.56) |
EU-15 | EU-13 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Test for Model 15 GMM | Test for Model 16 GMM with Controls | Test for Model 17 GMM | Test for Model 18 GMM with Controls | |
Slope at GDPpc min | –101.52* | –125.32 * | –204.41 ** | –223.01 * |
Slope at GDPpc max | 10.82** | 13.20 * | 42.14 ** | 44.26 * |
SLM test for U shape | SLM test for U shape | SLM test for U shape | ||
SLM test for U shape | 1.45 | 1.41 | 2.24 | 1.64 |
p value | 0.0755 | 0.0814 | 0.0148 | 0.0538 |
Fieller 90% confidence interval | (–Inf; 14.58) U (11.01; +Inf) | (–Inf; +Inf) | (8.95; 9.82) | (6.57; 10.43) |
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Mean | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|
FLFP | 50.0 | 7.2 | 27.9 | 64.6 |
GDPpc | 30,236.6 | 14,379.0 | 8001.7 | 97,864.2 |
Life expectancy | 80.0 | 2.9 | 72.6 | 86.3 |
Fertility rate | 1.6 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 2.4 |
Tertiary education | 22.3 | 9.4 | 3.9 | 43.2 |
Secondary education | 43.8 | 13.0 | 11.6 | 70.4 |
Female unemployment rate | 9.6 | 4.9 | 1.5 | 31.4 |
Model 1 OLS | Model 2 OLS | Model 3 Fixed Effects | Model 4 Fixed Effects | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
lnGDP_pc | –52.148 (30.49) | * | 51.258 (29.79) | –221.917 (26.39) | *** | –124.02 (29.78) | *** | |
lnGDP_pc2 | 2.496 (1.49) | * | –2.477 (1.40) | 11.067 (1.36) | *** | 6.187 (1.52) | *** | |
Life expectancy | –.450 (0.37) | –.258 (0.49) | ||||||
Fertility rate | –1.548 (2.20) | –1.298 (2.27) | ||||||
Secondary education | 0.154 (0.06) | *** | 0.212 (0.06) | *** | ||||
Tertiary education | 0.455 (0.07) | *** | 0.353 (0.09) | **** | ||||
Unemployment rate | –0.378 (0.11) | *** | –0.072 (0.08) | |||||
Constant | 318.991 (318.99) | ** | –190.145 (114.23) | 1158.14 (128.16) | *** | 676.20 (148.56) | **** | |
N | 163 | 148 | 163 | 148 | ||||
F (7,155); F (12,135) F (7,128); F (12,108) | 1.71 | 13.37 | 20.70 | 16.30 | ||||
Prob > chi2 | 0.090 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||
Rho | 0.886 | 0.848 | ||||||
N groups | 28 | 28 | ||||||
R-sq | 0.074 | 0.499 | ||||||
R-sq: within | 0.530 | 0.644 | ||||||
R-sq: between | 0.006 | 0.294 | ||||||
R-sq: overall | 0.024 | 0.339 | ||||||
Turning point | 34,417.3 | 31,156.9 | 22,608.2 | 22,530.6 |
EU-15 | EU-13 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 5 OLS | Model 6 OLS | Model 7 Fixed Effects | Model 8 Fixed Effects | Model 9 OLS | Model 10 OLS | Model 11 Fixed Effects | Model 12 Fixed Effects | |||||||||
lnGDPpc | 283.26 (105.26) | *** | –45.42 (99.82) | –91.04 (76.03) | –35.87 (66.20) | –114.92 (125.87) | –159.12 (92.34) | * | –264.18 (58.20) | *** | –141.46 (79.23) | * | ||||
lnGDPpc2 | –13.17 (4.91) | *** | 1.72 (4.58) | 4.78 (3.58) | 2.12 (3.10) | 5.67 (6.40) | 8.94 (4.73) | * | 13.38 (3.05) | *** | 7.51 (4.13) | * | ||||
Life expectancy | –1.01 (.63) | 0.71 (0.90) | –2.38 (0.51) | *** | –0.314 (0.83) | |||||||||||
Fertility rate | –4.68 (3.19) | 3.26 (4.51) | –6.97 (4.25) | –4.17 (3.75) | ||||||||||||
Secondary education | 0.13 (0.06) | ** | 0.19 (0.07) | ** | 0.24 (0.051) | *** | 0.30 (0.15) | * | ||||||||
Tertiary education | 0.59 (0.11) | *** | 0.31 (0.12) | ** | 0.39 (0.061) | *** | 0.48 (0.19) | *** | ||||||||
Unemployment rate | –0.63 (0.14) | *** | 0.03 (0.10) | –0.08 (0.17) | 0.04 (0.21) | |||||||||||
Constant | –1473.61 (562.31) | ** | 410.86 (522.84) | 475.93 (403.66) | 116.24 (363.50) | 631.14 (615.82) | 929.39 (459.28) | ** | 1353.04 (278.06) | *** | 0.722.76 (407.84) | * | ||||
N | 90 | 86 | 90 | 86 | 73 | 62 | 73 | 62 | ||||||||
F(7,82); F(12,73) F(7,68) F(12,59) F(7,65) F(11,50); F(7,53) F(11,38) | 3.37 | 17.31 | 17.91 | 15.53 | 0.61 | 10.07 | 5.47 | 2.79 | ||||||||
Prob > chi2 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.7479 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.009 | ||||||||
Rho | 0.896 | 0.906 | 0.845 | 0.709 | ||||||||||||
N groups | 15 | 15 | 13 | 13 | ||||||||||||
R-sq | 0.223 | 0.638 | 0.06 | 0.689 | ||||||||||||
R-sq: within | 0.648 | 0.7595 | 0.419 | 0.446 | ||||||||||||
R-sq: between | 0.002 | 0.1335 | 0.017 | 0.509 | ||||||||||||
R-sq: overall | 0.068 | 0.2376 | 0.042 | 0.523 | ||||||||||||
Turning point | 46,663.7 | 542,253.2 | 13,732.50 | 4703.90 | 25,185.90 | 7327.1 | 19,298.3 | 12,239.7 |
EU-28 | EU-15 | EU-13 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 13 | Model 14 | Model 15 | Model 16 | Model 17 | Model 18 | |||||||
Female Labour Force Participation (t − 1) | 0.77 (0.14) | *** | 0.70 (0.19) | *** | 0.76 (0.08) | *** | 0.84 (0.13) | *** | 0.61 (0.22) | *** | 0.24 (0.13) | * |
lnGDPpc | –98.38 (42.39) | ** | –264.10 (124.50) | *** | –104.54 (71.80) | –129.05 (82.78) | –211.04 (94.35) | ** | –230.19 (140.39) | * | ||
lnGDPpc2 | 5.51 (2.25) | ** | 14.23 (6.48) | ** | 5.03 (3.31) | 6.21 (3.95) | 11.049 (4.86) | ** | 11.98 (7.26) | * | ||
Life expectancy | 0.92 (0.97) | 0.45 (0.35) | 0.415 (0.66) | |||||||||
Fertility rate | 19.13 (15.62) | 1.72 (2.48) | –0.545 (3.77) | |||||||||
Secondary education | 0.12 (12.56) | 0.01 (0.06) | 0.203 (0.15) | |||||||||
Tertiary education | –0.06 (15.25) | –0.04 (0.12) | 0.162 (0.17) | |||||||||
Unemployment rate | 0.07 (0.24) | –0.06 (0.05) | –0.057 (0.13) | |||||||||
N | 112 | 119 | 60 | 60 | 52 | 49 | ||||||
Wald Chi2(9)(14)(9)(14)(9)(14) | 153.0 | 307.4 | 469.8 | 5167.7 | 57.43 | 1330.48 | ||||||
Prob > chi2 | 0.000 | 0.0000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||
N groups | 28 | 28 | 15 | 15 | 13 | 13 | ||||||
Number of instruments | 13 | 18 | 13 | 14 | 10 | 11 | ||||||
2nd order autocorrelation | 0.610 | 0.675 | 0.105 | 0.174 | 0.510 | 0.324 | ||||||
Hansen test of over identifying. restrictions | 0.177 | 0.136 | 0.408 | 0.335 | 0.244 | 0.313 | ||||||
Turning point | 7472.9 | 10,682.9 | 32,328.1 | 32,660.7 | 14,047.3 | 14,899.4 |
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Altuzarra, A.; Gálvez-Gálvez, C.; González-Flores, A. Economic Development and Female Labour Force Participation: The Case of European Union Countries. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071962
Altuzarra A, Gálvez-Gálvez C, González-Flores A. Economic Development and Female Labour Force Participation: The Case of European Union Countries. Sustainability. 2019; 11(7):1962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071962
Chicago/Turabian StyleAltuzarra, Amaia, Catalina Gálvez-Gálvez, and Ana González-Flores. 2019. "Economic Development and Female Labour Force Participation: The Case of European Union Countries" Sustainability 11, no. 7: 1962. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071962