This study examines the impacts of self-(i.e., egoistic) versus other-(i.e., social)benefit frame... more This study examines the impacts of self-(i.e., egoistic) versus other-(i.e., social)benefit frames used in organizational transparency messaging. While research in various strategic communication disciplines has presented organizational transparency as useful to achieving positive outcomes, limited empirical research on the effects of strategic decision making around information presentation in transparency messaging has been conducted. The experiment used here shows that self-versus other-benefit message frames have meaningful implications pertaining to the perception of transparency and the formation of organizational trust among audiences. Specifically, we drew on prior theory to suggest that transparency messages that emphasize an organization's commitment to the social good (i.e., other-benefit frames) are more likely to increase the perception of transparency and to elicit trust-based gains than transparency messages that emphasize the organization's value to the self. The results of two experiments supported this contention. As such, we argue that message framing should be strategically implemented in order to support the effectiveness of transparent communication and enhance trust with stakeholders, an important goal for many organizations.
Using a method incorporating both survey and trace data measures, this study presented and tested... more Using a method incorporating both survey and trace data measures, this study presented and tested a theoretical model for understanding political expression on Facebook. The data suggested that self-reported measures of offline civic engagement, bonded social capital, and ideological extremity were predictive of a self-reported measure of general online political engagement. For its part, self-reported levels of online political engagement were positively and significantly associated with observed political expression on Facebook. These results are discussed in the context of both on and offline political connection and communication.
Recently, substantial attention has been paid to the spread of highly partisan and often
factuall... more Recently, substantial attention has been paid to the spread of highly partisan and often factually incorrect information (i.e., so-called “fake news”) on social media. In this study, we attempt to extend current knowledge on this topic by exploring the degree to which individual levels of ideological extremity, social trust, and trust in the news media are associated with the dissemination of countermedia content, or web-based, ideologically extreme information that uses false, biased, misleading, and hyper-partisan claims to counter the knowledge produced by the mainstream news media. To investigate these possible associations, we used a combination of self-report survey data and trace data collected from Facebook and Twitter. The results suggested that sharing countermedia content on Facebook is positively associated with ideological extremity and negatively associated with trust in the mainstream news media. On Twitter, we found evidence that countermedia content sharing is negatively associated with social trust.
This study examined political advertisements placed by the Russian-based Internet
Research Agency... more This study examined political advertisements placed by the Russian-based Internet Research Agency on Facebook and Instagram. Advertisements were computationally analyzed for four rhetorical techniques presumed to elicit anger and fear: negative identity-based language, inflammatory language, obscene language, and threatening language. Congruent with extant research on arousing emotional responses, advertising clickthrough rates were positively associated with inflammatory, obscene, and threatening language. Surprisingly, however, a negative relationship between clickthrough rate and the use of negative identity-based language was observed. Additional analyses showed that the advertisements were engaged with at rates that exceed industry benchmarks, and that clickthrough rates increased over time.
Although online political incivility has increasingly become an object of scholarly inquiry, ther... more Although online political incivility has increasingly become an object of scholarly inquiry, there exists little agreement on the construct’s precise definition. The goal of this work was therefore to explore the relational dynamics among previously identified dimensions of online political incivility. The results of a regularized partial correlation network indicated that a communicator’s desire to exclude attitude-discrepant others from discussion played an especially influential role in the variable network. The data also suggested that certain facets of incivility may be likely to be deployed together. Specifically, the data suggested the existence of two identifiable groupings of incivility factors: (1) variables pertaining to violation of speech-based norms and (2) variables pertaining to the violation of the inclusionbased norms that underlie democratic communication processes. These results are discussed in the context of political discussion and deliberation.
This study examines the relationship between social capital and uncivil political communication o... more This study examines the relationship between social capital and uncivil political communication online using a sample of politically active Facebook users and their Facebook post data. Theory suggests that social capital, in both its bonded and bridged forms, may inhibit the frequency and severity of online political incivility. The results here indicate that bonded social capital is negatively associated with political incivility on Facebook. Bridged capital is not, however, statistically related to posting uncivil content on Facebook.
This study explored the relationship between the Big Five personality characteristics and consume... more This study explored the relationship between the Big Five personality characteristics and consumer perceptions of organizational corporate social responsibility (CSR) behaviors. Specifically, the current work focused on both general consumer CSR skepticism and on consumers' perceived motives for organizational involvement in CSR initiatives. The results suggested that those high in extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness tended to be less skeptical of companies' CSR efforts while those high in neuroticism were generally more skeptical of CSR behaviors.
Need for orientation (NFO) has long been accepted as an antecedent to agenda-setting effects. Thi... more Need for orientation (NFO) has long been accepted as an antecedent to agenda-setting effects. This study assessed whether NFO can go further to explain a specific behavior, why individuals share political news on Face-book. A new method is introduced that combines survey data with users' Facebook accounts and their actual Facebook posts to reveal the historical news sharing behaviors of 741 U.S. citizens. Computer-assisted content analysis is employed to analyze nearly a million messages for the presence of political news content. Results suggest that a key component found in need for orientation-attention to relevant issues and facts-predicts observed political news sharing on Facebook. Other demographics such as age and gender also predict news sharing behavior. In all, the model employed here significantly predicts news sharing while commonly regarded antecedents to political sharing, including news consumption and political interest, fail to do so.
This study correlated self-report and trace data measures of political incivility. Specifically, ... more This study correlated self-report and trace data measures of political incivility. Specifically, we asked respondents to provide estimates of the degree to which they engage in uncivil political communication online. These estimates were then compared to computational measures of uncivil social media discussion behavior. The results indicated that those who self-disclose uncivil online behavior also tend to generate content on social media that is uncivil as identified by Google's Perspective application programming interface. Taken as a whole, this work suggests that combining self-report and behavioral trace data may be a fruitful means of developing multimethod measures of complex communication behaviors.
User commenting forums are a ubiquitous interactive feature offered by news organizations. Despit... more User commenting forums are a ubiquitous interactive feature offered by news organizations. Despite their popularity, research has generally failed to investigate extent to which news readers themselves find any redeeming value in news comment communities and, therein, the factors that serve as antecedents to such value perceptions. In light of this gap in the literature, this study set out to determine the factors associated with news community value. Using a sample of over 500 news consumers, we explored the impact of individual user, site quality, and site type factors. The results suggested that perceived news community value was highest among those with high levels of self-efficacy and those who use the Internet for civic purposes. The data indicated also that value perceptions were highest for those news sites that were understood to be interactive and aesthetically pleasing. Finally, perceived news community value was highest on sites that were both non-traditional and non-partisan in nature.
This study explored the link between use of military-themed first-person shooter games and milita... more This study explored the link between use of military-themed first-person shooter games and militaristic attitudes. Using cultivation theory as a backdrop, the present work suggested that moral disengagement and hostile attribution bias facilitate a positive relationship between military-themed first-person shooter game use and militaristic attitudes. Results of a path model indicated that moral disengagement did, in fact, serve as an intermediary in the relationship between military-themed first-person shooter game use and participant militarism. However, this study did not show any evidence that use of military-themed first-person games was statistically related to hostile attribution bias or that hostile attribution bias was associated with militaristic attitudes.
This study used self-determination theory (SDT) to investigate the motivations for selecting a ma... more This study used self-determination theory (SDT) to investigate the motivations for selecting a major among mass communication and media majors at 18 colleges and universities across the United States. Specifically, 669 mass communication majors were queried on their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for choosing a major, their degree of major satisfaction, and positive outcomes related to academic performance and overall well-being. As a whole, the findings suggest that students who select their major on the basis of its perceived ability to satisfy intrinsic needs tend to be more satisfied with their major selection and report higher levels of academic performance, career surety, and overall life satisfaction. These results are discussed in the context of both post-secondary mass communication programs and students' ability to successfully navigate the transition into professional life.
Purpose. The purpose of this work was to explore the relationship between gender, game performanc... more Purpose. The purpose of this work was to explore the relationship between gender, game performance factors, and player enjoyment of a first-person shooter (FPS) video game. Drawing upon the notion that FPS games are gendered spaces in which men are both the intended and ideal participants, we predicted that women's game enjoyment, in contrast to men's, would rest on their ability to positively violate negative expectancies associated with FPS games by performing at a high level. Method. Two interrelated studies were employed. The first (preliminary) study used an online survey to assess gender-based expectancy differences. The second (main) study was lab-based. Here, participants played the FPS game COUNTER-STRIKE: GLOBAL OFFENSIVE and provided data on perceived game performance and session enjoyment. Results. The data indicated that men's enjoyment of a FPS game was not influenced by game performance while women's enjoyment was, in fact, significantly influenced by both subjective self-relative and objective performance dimensions. Conclusions. The present findings may provide a partial explanation for the persistence of the gender gap relative to FPS preference. Moreover, the
Using the 2012 presidential election as a case study, this work set out to understand the relatio... more Using the 2012 presidential election as a case study, this work set out to understand the relationship between negative political advertising and political incivility on Twitter. Drawing on the stimulation hypothesis and the notion that communication with dissimilar others can encourage incivility, it was predicted that (1) heightened levels of negative campaign advertising would be associated with increased citizen activity on Twitter, (2) increased citizen activity would predict online incivility, and (3) that increases in citizen activity would facilitate a positive indirect relationship between negative advertising volume and citizen incivility. This theoretical model was tested using data collected from over 140,000 individual Twitter users located in 206 Designated Market Areas. The results supported the proposed model. Additional analyses further suggested that the relationship between negative political advertising and citizen incivility was conditioned by contextual levels of economic status. These results are discussed in the context of political advertising and democratic deliberation.
This study examines the impacts of self-(i.e., egoistic) versus other-(i.e., social)benefit frame... more This study examines the impacts of self-(i.e., egoistic) versus other-(i.e., social)benefit frames used in organizational transparency messaging. While research in various strategic communication disciplines has presented organizational transparency as useful to achieving positive outcomes, limited empirical research on the effects of strategic decision making around information presentation in transparency messaging has been conducted. The experiment used here shows that self-versus other-benefit message frames have meaningful implications pertaining to the perception of transparency and the formation of organizational trust among audiences. Specifically, we drew on prior theory to suggest that transparency messages that emphasize an organization's commitment to the social good (i.e., other-benefit frames) are more likely to increase the perception of transparency and to elicit trust-based gains than transparency messages that emphasize the organization's value to the self. The results of two experiments supported this contention. As such, we argue that message framing should be strategically implemented in order to support the effectiveness of transparent communication and enhance trust with stakeholders, an important goal for many organizations.
Using a method incorporating both survey and trace data measures, this study presented and tested... more Using a method incorporating both survey and trace data measures, this study presented and tested a theoretical model for understanding political expression on Facebook. The data suggested that self-reported measures of offline civic engagement, bonded social capital, and ideological extremity were predictive of a self-reported measure of general online political engagement. For its part, self-reported levels of online political engagement were positively and significantly associated with observed political expression on Facebook. These results are discussed in the context of both on and offline political connection and communication.
Recently, substantial attention has been paid to the spread of highly partisan and often
factuall... more Recently, substantial attention has been paid to the spread of highly partisan and often factually incorrect information (i.e., so-called “fake news”) on social media. In this study, we attempt to extend current knowledge on this topic by exploring the degree to which individual levels of ideological extremity, social trust, and trust in the news media are associated with the dissemination of countermedia content, or web-based, ideologically extreme information that uses false, biased, misleading, and hyper-partisan claims to counter the knowledge produced by the mainstream news media. To investigate these possible associations, we used a combination of self-report survey data and trace data collected from Facebook and Twitter. The results suggested that sharing countermedia content on Facebook is positively associated with ideological extremity and negatively associated with trust in the mainstream news media. On Twitter, we found evidence that countermedia content sharing is negatively associated with social trust.
This study examined political advertisements placed by the Russian-based Internet
Research Agency... more This study examined political advertisements placed by the Russian-based Internet Research Agency on Facebook and Instagram. Advertisements were computationally analyzed for four rhetorical techniques presumed to elicit anger and fear: negative identity-based language, inflammatory language, obscene language, and threatening language. Congruent with extant research on arousing emotional responses, advertising clickthrough rates were positively associated with inflammatory, obscene, and threatening language. Surprisingly, however, a negative relationship between clickthrough rate and the use of negative identity-based language was observed. Additional analyses showed that the advertisements were engaged with at rates that exceed industry benchmarks, and that clickthrough rates increased over time.
Although online political incivility has increasingly become an object of scholarly inquiry, ther... more Although online political incivility has increasingly become an object of scholarly inquiry, there exists little agreement on the construct’s precise definition. The goal of this work was therefore to explore the relational dynamics among previously identified dimensions of online political incivility. The results of a regularized partial correlation network indicated that a communicator’s desire to exclude attitude-discrepant others from discussion played an especially influential role in the variable network. The data also suggested that certain facets of incivility may be likely to be deployed together. Specifically, the data suggested the existence of two identifiable groupings of incivility factors: (1) variables pertaining to violation of speech-based norms and (2) variables pertaining to the violation of the inclusionbased norms that underlie democratic communication processes. These results are discussed in the context of political discussion and deliberation.
This study examines the relationship between social capital and uncivil political communication o... more This study examines the relationship between social capital and uncivil political communication online using a sample of politically active Facebook users and their Facebook post data. Theory suggests that social capital, in both its bonded and bridged forms, may inhibit the frequency and severity of online political incivility. The results here indicate that bonded social capital is negatively associated with political incivility on Facebook. Bridged capital is not, however, statistically related to posting uncivil content on Facebook.
This study explored the relationship between the Big Five personality characteristics and consume... more This study explored the relationship between the Big Five personality characteristics and consumer perceptions of organizational corporate social responsibility (CSR) behaviors. Specifically, the current work focused on both general consumer CSR skepticism and on consumers' perceived motives for organizational involvement in CSR initiatives. The results suggested that those high in extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness tended to be less skeptical of companies' CSR efforts while those high in neuroticism were generally more skeptical of CSR behaviors.
Need for orientation (NFO) has long been accepted as an antecedent to agenda-setting effects. Thi... more Need for orientation (NFO) has long been accepted as an antecedent to agenda-setting effects. This study assessed whether NFO can go further to explain a specific behavior, why individuals share political news on Face-book. A new method is introduced that combines survey data with users' Facebook accounts and their actual Facebook posts to reveal the historical news sharing behaviors of 741 U.S. citizens. Computer-assisted content analysis is employed to analyze nearly a million messages for the presence of political news content. Results suggest that a key component found in need for orientation-attention to relevant issues and facts-predicts observed political news sharing on Facebook. Other demographics such as age and gender also predict news sharing behavior. In all, the model employed here significantly predicts news sharing while commonly regarded antecedents to political sharing, including news consumption and political interest, fail to do so.
This study correlated self-report and trace data measures of political incivility. Specifically, ... more This study correlated self-report and trace data measures of political incivility. Specifically, we asked respondents to provide estimates of the degree to which they engage in uncivil political communication online. These estimates were then compared to computational measures of uncivil social media discussion behavior. The results indicated that those who self-disclose uncivil online behavior also tend to generate content on social media that is uncivil as identified by Google's Perspective application programming interface. Taken as a whole, this work suggests that combining self-report and behavioral trace data may be a fruitful means of developing multimethod measures of complex communication behaviors.
User commenting forums are a ubiquitous interactive feature offered by news organizations. Despit... more User commenting forums are a ubiquitous interactive feature offered by news organizations. Despite their popularity, research has generally failed to investigate extent to which news readers themselves find any redeeming value in news comment communities and, therein, the factors that serve as antecedents to such value perceptions. In light of this gap in the literature, this study set out to determine the factors associated with news community value. Using a sample of over 500 news consumers, we explored the impact of individual user, site quality, and site type factors. The results suggested that perceived news community value was highest among those with high levels of self-efficacy and those who use the Internet for civic purposes. The data indicated also that value perceptions were highest for those news sites that were understood to be interactive and aesthetically pleasing. Finally, perceived news community value was highest on sites that were both non-traditional and non-partisan in nature.
This study explored the link between use of military-themed first-person shooter games and milita... more This study explored the link between use of military-themed first-person shooter games and militaristic attitudes. Using cultivation theory as a backdrop, the present work suggested that moral disengagement and hostile attribution bias facilitate a positive relationship between military-themed first-person shooter game use and militaristic attitudes. Results of a path model indicated that moral disengagement did, in fact, serve as an intermediary in the relationship between military-themed first-person shooter game use and participant militarism. However, this study did not show any evidence that use of military-themed first-person games was statistically related to hostile attribution bias or that hostile attribution bias was associated with militaristic attitudes.
This study used self-determination theory (SDT) to investigate the motivations for selecting a ma... more This study used self-determination theory (SDT) to investigate the motivations for selecting a major among mass communication and media majors at 18 colleges and universities across the United States. Specifically, 669 mass communication majors were queried on their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for choosing a major, their degree of major satisfaction, and positive outcomes related to academic performance and overall well-being. As a whole, the findings suggest that students who select their major on the basis of its perceived ability to satisfy intrinsic needs tend to be more satisfied with their major selection and report higher levels of academic performance, career surety, and overall life satisfaction. These results are discussed in the context of both post-secondary mass communication programs and students' ability to successfully navigate the transition into professional life.
Purpose. The purpose of this work was to explore the relationship between gender, game performanc... more Purpose. The purpose of this work was to explore the relationship between gender, game performance factors, and player enjoyment of a first-person shooter (FPS) video game. Drawing upon the notion that FPS games are gendered spaces in which men are both the intended and ideal participants, we predicted that women's game enjoyment, in contrast to men's, would rest on their ability to positively violate negative expectancies associated with FPS games by performing at a high level. Method. Two interrelated studies were employed. The first (preliminary) study used an online survey to assess gender-based expectancy differences. The second (main) study was lab-based. Here, participants played the FPS game COUNTER-STRIKE: GLOBAL OFFENSIVE and provided data on perceived game performance and session enjoyment. Results. The data indicated that men's enjoyment of a FPS game was not influenced by game performance while women's enjoyment was, in fact, significantly influenced by both subjective self-relative and objective performance dimensions. Conclusions. The present findings may provide a partial explanation for the persistence of the gender gap relative to FPS preference. Moreover, the
Using the 2012 presidential election as a case study, this work set out to understand the relatio... more Using the 2012 presidential election as a case study, this work set out to understand the relationship between negative political advertising and political incivility on Twitter. Drawing on the stimulation hypothesis and the notion that communication with dissimilar others can encourage incivility, it was predicted that (1) heightened levels of negative campaign advertising would be associated with increased citizen activity on Twitter, (2) increased citizen activity would predict online incivility, and (3) that increases in citizen activity would facilitate a positive indirect relationship between negative advertising volume and citizen incivility. This theoretical model was tested using data collected from over 140,000 individual Twitter users located in 206 Designated Market Areas. The results supported the proposed model. Additional analyses further suggested that the relationship between negative political advertising and citizen incivility was conditioned by contextual levels of economic status. These results are discussed in the context of political advertising and democratic deliberation.
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Papers by Toby Hopp
factually incorrect information (i.e., so-called “fake news”) on social media. In this study,
we attempt to extend current knowledge on this topic by exploring the degree to which
individual levels of ideological extremity, social trust, and trust in the news media are
associated with the dissemination of countermedia content, or web-based, ideologically
extreme information that uses false, biased, misleading, and hyper-partisan claims to
counter the knowledge produced by the mainstream news media. To investigate these
possible associations, we used a combination of self-report survey data and trace data
collected from Facebook and Twitter. The results suggested that sharing countermedia
content on Facebook is positively associated with ideological extremity and negatively
associated with trust in the mainstream news media. On Twitter, we found evidence that
countermedia content sharing is negatively associated with social trust.
Research Agency on Facebook and Instagram. Advertisements were computationally
analyzed for four rhetorical techniques presumed to elicit anger and fear: negative
identity-based language, inflammatory language, obscene language, and threatening
language. Congruent with extant research on arousing emotional responses,
advertising clickthrough rates were positively associated with inflammatory, obscene,
and threatening language. Surprisingly, however, a negative relationship between
clickthrough rate and the use of negative identity-based language was observed.
Additional analyses showed that the advertisements were engaged with at rates that
exceed industry benchmarks, and that clickthrough rates increased over time.
on the construct’s precise definition. The goal of this work was therefore to explore the relational dynamics among
previously identified dimensions of online political incivility. The results of a regularized partial correlation network
indicated that a communicator’s desire to exclude attitude-discrepant others from discussion played an especially
influential role in the variable network. The data also suggested that certain facets of incivility may be likely to be
deployed together. Specifically, the data suggested the existence of two identifiable groupings of incivility factors: (1)
variables pertaining to violation of speech-based norms and (2) variables pertaining to the violation of the inclusionbased
norms that underlie democratic communication processes. These results are discussed in the context of political
discussion and deliberation.
factually incorrect information (i.e., so-called “fake news”) on social media. In this study,
we attempt to extend current knowledge on this topic by exploring the degree to which
individual levels of ideological extremity, social trust, and trust in the news media are
associated with the dissemination of countermedia content, or web-based, ideologically
extreme information that uses false, biased, misleading, and hyper-partisan claims to
counter the knowledge produced by the mainstream news media. To investigate these
possible associations, we used a combination of self-report survey data and trace data
collected from Facebook and Twitter. The results suggested that sharing countermedia
content on Facebook is positively associated with ideological extremity and negatively
associated with trust in the mainstream news media. On Twitter, we found evidence that
countermedia content sharing is negatively associated with social trust.
Research Agency on Facebook and Instagram. Advertisements were computationally
analyzed for four rhetorical techniques presumed to elicit anger and fear: negative
identity-based language, inflammatory language, obscene language, and threatening
language. Congruent with extant research on arousing emotional responses,
advertising clickthrough rates were positively associated with inflammatory, obscene,
and threatening language. Surprisingly, however, a negative relationship between
clickthrough rate and the use of negative identity-based language was observed.
Additional analyses showed that the advertisements were engaged with at rates that
exceed industry benchmarks, and that clickthrough rates increased over time.
on the construct’s precise definition. The goal of this work was therefore to explore the relational dynamics among
previously identified dimensions of online political incivility. The results of a regularized partial correlation network
indicated that a communicator’s desire to exclude attitude-discrepant others from discussion played an especially
influential role in the variable network. The data also suggested that certain facets of incivility may be likely to be
deployed together. Specifically, the data suggested the existence of two identifiable groupings of incivility factors: (1)
variables pertaining to violation of speech-based norms and (2) variables pertaining to the violation of the inclusionbased
norms that underlie democratic communication processes. These results are discussed in the context of political
discussion and deliberation.