Books by Ben Lennon
The objective of this study is to seek to better understand the processes involved in landscape c... more The objective of this study is to seek to better understand the processes involved in landscape change that have resulted in the highly distinctive character types found in the British Isles. Rather than drawing examples of different aspects of development from around the regions, a single heavily wooded landscape has been chosen for study. The case will be argued that the processes involved in landscape dynamics are universally applicable, but that the various factors interact in subtly different ways in order to create distinctive landscape signatures. This can create highly contrasting landscape types within relatively short distances. While these are general observations on the nature of landscape, the study aims to show that heavily wooded landscapes, even those that we regard as rich in ancient woodland, are no less dynamic than their more open counterparts. That the dynamism of these landscapes has been previously unrecognised is due more to the difficulties of the study and the lack of tangible evidence than the lack of change. The following study uses a range of techniques from different disciplines to build up a picture of rural landscape features and seeks to put them into a comprehensible context within a chronological narrative. Whereas much of the foregoing focus has looked at settlement pattern, what is of interest to this study is the places in between settlements, especially where these lie outside the widely accepted and recognised pattern of gradual enclosure and agricultural intensification. Some of the techniques used in this study are traditional, whilst others are still emerging and in development. By considering all of the evidence we can increase the depth of understanding of past and present landscapes. From such a point it may be possible to contemplate the management and direction of future landscapes.
.
Papers by Ben Lennon
Arboricultural Journal, Sep 1, 2009
John White's method of the non-intrusive dating of large and veteran trees provides a useful ... more John White's method of the non-intrusive dating of large and veteran trees provides a useful framework to the understanding of the historic development of treed landscapes in Britain. The method is based on the dating of individual veteran trees and can return immensely variable results among trees of a common establishment date. It is proposed that the method for single
"The objective of this study is to seek to better understand the processes involved in lands... more "The objective of this study is to seek to better understand the processes involved in landscape change that have resulted in the highly distinctive character types found in the British Isles. Rather than drawing examples of different aspects of development from around the regions, a single heavily wooded landscape has been chosen for study. The case will be argued that the processes involved in landscape dynamics are universally applicable, but that the various factors interact in subtly different ways in order to create distinctive landscape signatures. This can create highly contrasting landscape types within relatively short distances. While these are general observations on the nature of landscape, the study aims to show that heavily wooded landscapes, even those that we regard as rich in ancient woodland, are no less dynamic than their more open counterparts. That the dynamism of these landscapes has been previously unrecognised is due more to the difficulties of the study and the lack of tangible evidence than the lack of change. The following study uses a range of techniques from different disciplines to build up a picture of rural landscape features and seeks to put them into a comprehensible context within a chronological narrative. Whereas much of the foregoing focus has looked at settlement pattern, what is of interest to this study is the places in between settlements, especially where these lie outside the widely accepted and recognised pattern of gradual enclosure and agricultural intensification. Some of the techniques used in this study are traditional, whilst others are still emerging and in development. By considering all of the evidence we can increase the depth of understanding of past and present landscapes. From such a point it may be possible to contemplate the management and direction of future landscapes. . "
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 03071375 2009 9747572, Mar 27, 2012
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1080 03071375 2009 9747572, Mar 27, 2012
Garden History, Dec 2014
Savernake Forest and Tottenham Park, Wiltshire, is an extensive designed landscape established on... more Savernake Forest and Tottenham Park, Wiltshire, is an extensive designed landscape established on the remnants of a medieval hunting forest and best known for its concentration of veteran trees. Between 2006 and 2009 seven thousand large trees were located and measured in a survey carried out by the Forestry Commission. The data are here stratified and analysed using the normal distribution curve to identify populations
and compared with archival material. It is suggested that the majority of veteran trees
date from the late eighteenth century. A small number of oaks are indicated as being of
older cohorts in the medieval period. Three may have their origins before the Norman
Conquest.
The New Regard of the Forest of Dean, 2014
Meend is a common place-name or toponym in and around the Forest of Dean. It is a name that is fa... more Meend is a common place-name or toponym in and around the Forest of Dean. It is a name that is familiar to most people in the locality, and the majority of these could probably describe the principal characteristics of a meend. These could usually include an open character, uncultivated and accessible for informal recreational use. The word is often used in association with “forest waste”. These areas lay outside the forest plantation inclosures and were historically exploited by local communities for grazing and as a source of bracken, gorse and brushwood. These practices have declined over the last half century. Most meends that still exist have one or more of these attributes. However, many more have been lost over the years, and exist only as distant memories, have had their names corrupted or absorbed, or appear only as forgotten names on modern maps. This paper seeks to shed some light on the origins of what is possibly the most important group of place and field names in and
around the Forest of Dean and points to areas of research that would yield dividends in uncovering the social and environmental origins of the forest.
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, Apr 2014
This paper charts the emergence of the concept of Ancient Woodland in the British context and its... more This paper charts the emergence of the concept of Ancient Woodland in the British context and its incorporation into public policy. The basis of the policy is examined and found to be at odds with the science and landscape history through which it is justified . Finally it considers how such a situation may have arisen and promotes a new dialogue between foresters and conservationists based on shared goals and understanding.
Garden History, 2011
Tottenham Park and Savernake Forest in Wiltshire comprise an extensive area of wood pasture and p... more Tottenham Park and Savernake Forest in Wiltshire comprise an extensive area of wood pasture and parkland that was formed into a large unified forest park from the remnant of a royal forest during the eighteenth century. The traditional view of the landscape development is one initially influenced by Lord Burlington who laid out the grounds around Tottenham House as a well as a series of axial rides across the adjacent forest from 1720 onwards. A family bond based on Jacobite sympathies between Lord Burlington and Lord Bruce, owner of the estate, appears to be highly likely. It is assumed that from
1764 Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown was called in and made alterations around Tottenham House with large clumps and tree-lined serpentine rides throughout the forest. He is also credited with the creation of an axial network of rides complete with symmetrical platoons of trees laid out in a geometrical pattern. The historical evidence for this latter work is assessed and found to be untenable: a case is made here for the geometrical design to be that of Charles Bill, steward to Lord Bruce. Evidence for this theory is based on Bill’s previous experience for Lord Cornbury at Cornbury Park, Oxfordshire, and for the Duke of Queensberry at Amesbury, Wiltshire.
Animal, Man and Treescapes by Iain D Rotheram and Christine Handley pp.48-68(Eds.), 2011
This paper looks at how woodland cover has varied, and sometimes alternated, with agricultural us... more This paper looks at how woodland cover has varied, and sometimes alternated, with agricultural use over history and pre-history. It draws examples from around 250 square kilometers of land to the south of Marlborough which once fell within the Royal Forest of Savernake where historic documentation has survived from the twelfth until the twenty-first century, and where modern aerial reconnaissance by lidar has revealed the pattern of ground features beneath the woodland canopy. It interprets these findings in terms of our conceptual understanding of the term "ancient woodland", raising questions about the meaning and application of this category.
Georgian Group Journal XIX , 2011
Gate piers are an underrated element in historic architectural design, often overlooked in the ru... more Gate piers are an underrated element in historic architectural design, often overlooked in the rush to see the principal building. This article examines a group of piers at five architecturally important country houses in Gloucestershire, Wiltshire and Berkshire, all of them related to a pair illustrated in William Kent’s Designs of Inigo Jones (1727), and discusses their wider significance . It finds that the origins of the design probably reside with the Gloucestershire stone mason Valentine Strong. They were later mistaken for the work of Inigo Jones by William Kent and Henry Flitcroft. The latter adapted the design and used in in several projects including Tottenham House and Amesbury Abbey in Wiltshire.
The New regard of the Forest of Dean, 2011
The Lime Tree Ride is a long avenue common lime trees (Tilia x europaea) conceived as a planned f... more The Lime Tree Ride is a long avenue common lime trees (Tilia x europaea) conceived as a planned feature to link the churches of St Paul’s and St John’s. The avenue consists of two clonal varieties of common lime that were abundant in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Around 224 of the original trees still survive. Different sections of the avenue are dominated by each clonal type indicating that establishment was carried out over a number of seasons. The importance accorded to the avenue is attested by the presence of an dated stone at each end of the Middleridge inclosure and the construction of a bridge spanning the Blackpool Brook. The ride may have been conceived as a memorial commemorating the death of Rev. Henry Poole who died in 1857.
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 2010
The Bedwyn Dyke is posited as one of a series of enclosing cross valley dykes that express a loca... more The Bedwyn Dyke is posited as one of a series of enclosing cross valley dykes that express a local polity and define a territory of valuable agricultural land possibly associated with Chisbury hillfort. Cognate features can be found across the local landscape closely correlated to soil and topography. Other features displaying the same general characteristics may be less obvious due to continued or subsequent use as routes or boundary features. The Bedwyn Dyke does not appear to have been conceived as a continuous feature but as a series of demarcating boundaries across open chalk valleys. The gaps between the sections lie on clay soils, which may have been occupied by light woodland or wood pasture. This would have provided a sense of complete visual enclosure within the valley. The area enclosed by the dyke system is almost entirely visible from the Iron Age hillfort of Chisbury Camp and this may be significant, although the link is not conclusive. It is conjectured that the dyke was created as an expression of territoriality or as a statement of prestige rather than any meaningful form of defence. In the absence of any recovered stratified material a period of construction between the late Bronze Age and the middle Iron Age is posited as most likely. A similar relationship between the late Iron Age oppidum at Forest Hill, Marlborough, is also considered in relation to a similar pattern of dykes in the surrounding landscape.
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine , 2010
For at least three hundred years the linear earthwork now known as the Bedwyn Dyke was held to be... more For at least three hundred years the linear earthwork now known as the Bedwyn Dyke was held to be a part of the Wansdyke system. It was not until 1960 that the Wansdyke was finally established by Fox and Fox as terminating at New Buildings to the west of Savernake Forest. From this point forward the nature of the Bedwyn Dyke was divorced from studies relating the Wansdyke. Since this time the Bedwyn Dyke has been mentioned only in relation to the study of other features in the area and no critical reassessment has been carried out. This paper charts the historiography of the east end of Wansdyke to examine how the concept of an extended Wansdyke frontier became established and was perpetuated for so long.
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 2009
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is an aerial surveying technique that enables the creation of... more LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is an aerial surveying technique that enables the creation of a digital surface model of the land. This is achieved through the saturation of the landscape by a high density of airborne ‘eye safe’ laser pulses. The time it takes for the reflected light from each pulse to return to the onboard computer is measured and the distance then calculated. This enables the creation of millions of three dimensional co-ordinates that can be joined to create a model of the surface below. Computer processing of the data can be applied to digitally remove any trees present to reveal the underlying terrain. In the woodland environment, LiDAR surveys are useful in disclosing landscape and earthwork features that are difficult to detect by using more traditional field or aerial survey techniques. A LiDAR survey of Savernake was carried out in 2006 on behalf of the Forestry Commission and has revealed a large number of previously unrecorded features of archaeological potential. These include a number of earthworks, field systems, other boundary banks, lynchets and route-ways. Comparison with known features suggests that a number are ancient in origin but other earthworks within Savernake were created over a long period of time, up to and including World War II. The landscape that is revealed by LiDAR casts new light on the historic uses of ancient woodland and forests suggesting extensive use and exploitation from prehistory until the present day. Despite the apparent success of the survey, it should be noted that LiDAR is indiscriminate and a number of features identified may be of modern origin, or given an appearance of solidity when in fact they are due to changes in vegetation. Any project involving LiDAR should be regarded as the beginning of a process of survey rather than an end result.
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 2009
‘Ley’ or ‘leigh’ names are among the most widespread and intensively studied of English place-nam... more ‘Ley’ or ‘leigh’ names are among the most widespread and intensively studied of English place-names. They are a common feature within Anglo-Saxon charter bounds of the 8th to 11th centuries. The corpus of charters constitutes a unique subset of leah names that represent the earliest recorded instances of the element. Analysis of the charter evidence is used to disclose common characteristics relating to their early use and formation as well as the social and physical landscape in which they were created. Historical interpretations of the meaning of leah are reviewed and the etymology examined. It is conjectured that the term refers to a form of wood pasture. The use of this term satisfies and incorporates both traditional interpretations of the word as meaning ‘woodland’ and later ‘a clearing within woodland’. The presence of these features in early landscapes, however, is not necessarily an indicator of primary woodland but may have arisen quite quickly where cultivation or grazing had lapsed. A study of first elements combined with leah from early Wiltshire charters indicates that personal names are rarely associated with leah names. This feature is interpreted as indicative of a common resource rather than an exclusively held privilege or right of ownership. The distribution of Wiltshire leah names is also considered with concentrations in some of the medieval forests. It is suggested that a correlation exists between the distribution of soil type and leah features with leahs being particularly common on heavy clay soils and rare on the chalk. This study of early leah features in Wiltshire represents a set of provisional observations and is submitted as a stimulus for further debate of early medieval landscapes.
John White's method of the non-intrusive dating of large and veteran trees provides a useful fram... more John White's method of the non-intrusive dating of large and veteran trees provides a useful framework to the understanding of the historic development of treed landscapes in Britain. The method is based on the dating of individual veteran trees and can return immensely variable results among trees of a common establishment date. It is proposed that the method for single trees may be extended to clumps, avenues and other features of historic landscapes through the analysis of the frequency distribution of girth. Although individually very variable, trees of a common species, planting age, site type and management regime conform to a natural pattern of variability with a predictable frequency distribution of girth. Analysis of the distribution of girth within a given population can reveal certain characteristics in relation to its establishment period and development over time. These models can then be applied to other known populations of trees and individual specimens within the same landscape in order to establish a historical pattern of development. Differences in growths patterns between different species can also be exploited to refine models. This method is best applied to the level of the landscape where there is an abundance of relevant data and supporting documentary evidence. Where establishment dates cannot be accurately derived a chronological pattern of establishmenl may be predicted. It is not reliable where there is a paucity of data or where populations of trees are small.
Conference Presentations by Ben Lennon
The Forest of Dean lies in the confluence of the Rivers Severn and Wye on the borders of England... more The Forest of Dean lies in the confluence of the Rivers Severn and Wye on the borders of England and Wales. As a place on the fringes of many things it has a strong sense of identity with a streak of independence embedded in the local character.
The incidence of the field name meend is locally significant but has thus far received little systematic study. A national rarity in this form, there is a concentration around the forest extending along the welsh borders. Since the publication of the Place Names of Gloucestershire by the EPNS in the 1960s it has been attributed to a Brittonic origin deriving from Old Welsh minid meaning mountain or moorland.
Spatial analysis of the distribution of the field name in the historic record suggests a strong correspondence with poor soil types, manorial and forest boundaries. This paper questions the brittonic derivation and proposes an Old English origin based on ge-mǽne meaning “common” or “mutual”. It is posited that meends represented liminal spaces between communities in the pre-conquest landscape of the Dean. Whilst many of these have been lost, some meends still retain that liminality albeit in a sense that reflects a dynamic culture.
"Whilst the majority of the day’s speakers are approaching this subject from an archaeological pe... more "Whilst the majority of the day’s speakers are approaching this subject from an archaeological perspective it is worth reflecting that internationally archaeology constitutes a relatively minor end use of the technology. Lidar has a wide variety of applications ranging from flood risk mapping and coastal erosion analysis to canopy modelling and transportation planning. Lidar data can yield a large amount of valuable data for the woodland manager. The spatial and multi-dimensional nature of lidar is a key component of the value to land managers, but equally the manipulation and processing of that data can yield a wide range of information particularly in the GIS environment.
There are three processed data sets that are of principal use to the woodland manager, Digital Surface Model (DSM), Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and the Canopy Height Model (CHM). DSMs are useful as mapping tools for identifying changes in crop data and complement existing aerial photographs. CHMs are essentially pure tree height data that can be symbolised on elevation without the confounding factor of underlying terrain. This allows for a clearer analysis of crop type differentiation, height structure and canopy porosity. It can also be used for determining canopy height and differences in growth rates.
In relation to the management of the historic environment and the management of woodlands lidar can augment existing sources of information in operational planning and long term management planning. Operational planning is the management of forestry operations on the ground. Lidar is particularly useful here in identifying features of potential archaeological significance that are previously unknown, or of uncertain extent. This is a ‘feature-based’ approach that seeks to conserve individual features from potentially damaging operations. In management planning a deeper understanding of the distribution of features across the landscape will be required. This may be particularly applicable in extensive forest areas where there is a historical paucity of archaeological information. In such cases the emergence of patterns of historical development may provide cues for future management of the woodland resource.
For the small woodland owner the expense of acquiring bespoke lidar data may be prohibitive and pre-flown data may be an attractive proposition. Data for much of England is widely available but it is important to be aware of the limitations of such data which may come in a variety of resolutions and formats.
Lidar should be regarded as technology that facilitates woodland management rather than constrains it. With regard to historic environment surveys, being able to identify features of potential archaeological significance is the first step to avoiding its destruction through ignorance, neglect or oversight. In this respect, lidar surveys for archaeological purposes should be regarded as the beginning of a process of refinement and focus of resources possibly in liaison with County Archaeology Services and woodland management staff."
Uploads
Books by Ben Lennon
.
Papers by Ben Lennon
and compared with archival material. It is suggested that the majority of veteran trees
date from the late eighteenth century. A small number of oaks are indicated as being of
older cohorts in the medieval period. Three may have their origins before the Norman
Conquest.
around the Forest of Dean and points to areas of research that would yield dividends in uncovering the social and environmental origins of the forest.
1764 Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown was called in and made alterations around Tottenham House with large clumps and tree-lined serpentine rides throughout the forest. He is also credited with the creation of an axial network of rides complete with symmetrical platoons of trees laid out in a geometrical pattern. The historical evidence for this latter work is assessed and found to be untenable: a case is made here for the geometrical design to be that of Charles Bill, steward to Lord Bruce. Evidence for this theory is based on Bill’s previous experience for Lord Cornbury at Cornbury Park, Oxfordshire, and for the Duke of Queensberry at Amesbury, Wiltshire.
Conference Presentations by Ben Lennon
The incidence of the field name meend is locally significant but has thus far received little systematic study. A national rarity in this form, there is a concentration around the forest extending along the welsh borders. Since the publication of the Place Names of Gloucestershire by the EPNS in the 1960s it has been attributed to a Brittonic origin deriving from Old Welsh minid meaning mountain or moorland.
Spatial analysis of the distribution of the field name in the historic record suggests a strong correspondence with poor soil types, manorial and forest boundaries. This paper questions the brittonic derivation and proposes an Old English origin based on ge-mǽne meaning “common” or “mutual”. It is posited that meends represented liminal spaces between communities in the pre-conquest landscape of the Dean. Whilst many of these have been lost, some meends still retain that liminality albeit in a sense that reflects a dynamic culture.
There are three processed data sets that are of principal use to the woodland manager, Digital Surface Model (DSM), Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and the Canopy Height Model (CHM). DSMs are useful as mapping tools for identifying changes in crop data and complement existing aerial photographs. CHMs are essentially pure tree height data that can be symbolised on elevation without the confounding factor of underlying terrain. This allows for a clearer analysis of crop type differentiation, height structure and canopy porosity. It can also be used for determining canopy height and differences in growth rates.
In relation to the management of the historic environment and the management of woodlands lidar can augment existing sources of information in operational planning and long term management planning. Operational planning is the management of forestry operations on the ground. Lidar is particularly useful here in identifying features of potential archaeological significance that are previously unknown, or of uncertain extent. This is a ‘feature-based’ approach that seeks to conserve individual features from potentially damaging operations. In management planning a deeper understanding of the distribution of features across the landscape will be required. This may be particularly applicable in extensive forest areas where there is a historical paucity of archaeological information. In such cases the emergence of patterns of historical development may provide cues for future management of the woodland resource.
For the small woodland owner the expense of acquiring bespoke lidar data may be prohibitive and pre-flown data may be an attractive proposition. Data for much of England is widely available but it is important to be aware of the limitations of such data which may come in a variety of resolutions and formats.
Lidar should be regarded as technology that facilitates woodland management rather than constrains it. With regard to historic environment surveys, being able to identify features of potential archaeological significance is the first step to avoiding its destruction through ignorance, neglect or oversight. In this respect, lidar surveys for archaeological purposes should be regarded as the beginning of a process of refinement and focus of resources possibly in liaison with County Archaeology Services and woodland management staff."
.
and compared with archival material. It is suggested that the majority of veteran trees
date from the late eighteenth century. A small number of oaks are indicated as being of
older cohorts in the medieval period. Three may have their origins before the Norman
Conquest.
around the Forest of Dean and points to areas of research that would yield dividends in uncovering the social and environmental origins of the forest.
1764 Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown was called in and made alterations around Tottenham House with large clumps and tree-lined serpentine rides throughout the forest. He is also credited with the creation of an axial network of rides complete with symmetrical platoons of trees laid out in a geometrical pattern. The historical evidence for this latter work is assessed and found to be untenable: a case is made here for the geometrical design to be that of Charles Bill, steward to Lord Bruce. Evidence for this theory is based on Bill’s previous experience for Lord Cornbury at Cornbury Park, Oxfordshire, and for the Duke of Queensberry at Amesbury, Wiltshire.
The incidence of the field name meend is locally significant but has thus far received little systematic study. A national rarity in this form, there is a concentration around the forest extending along the welsh borders. Since the publication of the Place Names of Gloucestershire by the EPNS in the 1960s it has been attributed to a Brittonic origin deriving from Old Welsh minid meaning mountain or moorland.
Spatial analysis of the distribution of the field name in the historic record suggests a strong correspondence with poor soil types, manorial and forest boundaries. This paper questions the brittonic derivation and proposes an Old English origin based on ge-mǽne meaning “common” or “mutual”. It is posited that meends represented liminal spaces between communities in the pre-conquest landscape of the Dean. Whilst many of these have been lost, some meends still retain that liminality albeit in a sense that reflects a dynamic culture.
There are three processed data sets that are of principal use to the woodland manager, Digital Surface Model (DSM), Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and the Canopy Height Model (CHM). DSMs are useful as mapping tools for identifying changes in crop data and complement existing aerial photographs. CHMs are essentially pure tree height data that can be symbolised on elevation without the confounding factor of underlying terrain. This allows for a clearer analysis of crop type differentiation, height structure and canopy porosity. It can also be used for determining canopy height and differences in growth rates.
In relation to the management of the historic environment and the management of woodlands lidar can augment existing sources of information in operational planning and long term management planning. Operational planning is the management of forestry operations on the ground. Lidar is particularly useful here in identifying features of potential archaeological significance that are previously unknown, or of uncertain extent. This is a ‘feature-based’ approach that seeks to conserve individual features from potentially damaging operations. In management planning a deeper understanding of the distribution of features across the landscape will be required. This may be particularly applicable in extensive forest areas where there is a historical paucity of archaeological information. In such cases the emergence of patterns of historical development may provide cues for future management of the woodland resource.
For the small woodland owner the expense of acquiring bespoke lidar data may be prohibitive and pre-flown data may be an attractive proposition. Data for much of England is widely available but it is important to be aware of the limitations of such data which may come in a variety of resolutions and formats.
Lidar should be regarded as technology that facilitates woodland management rather than constrains it. With regard to historic environment surveys, being able to identify features of potential archaeological significance is the first step to avoiding its destruction through ignorance, neglect or oversight. In this respect, lidar surveys for archaeological purposes should be regarded as the beginning of a process of refinement and focus of resources possibly in liaison with County Archaeology Services and woodland management staff."
The paper seeks to clarify that antiquity is an indicator of potential ecological value. It is not necessarily a value in its own right. The continuing need to actively manage ancient woodland has been eclipsed by the obsession with restoration. The gains made in restoration of PAWS are modest compared to the losses caused by neglect of existing ASNW. Similarly, some well-managed secondary woodlands can deliver as much as, or more than, poorly managed ancient ones. There is a call to jettison the philosophical baggage and stultifying nostalgia that has accumulated around the concept of ancient woodland."