皮肤菌群：修订间差异
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'''皮肤菌群'''（英语：Skin flora）也称为'''皮肤微生物群'''（英语：Skin microbiota），通常是指存在于人类[[皮膚|皮肤]]上的[[微生物群落]]。
其中占大多数的是[[细菌]]，人体皮肤上约有1000种细菌，分别来自19个[[门 (生物)|门]]。<ref name="Grice">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grice EA, Kong HH, Conlan S |year=2009 |title=Topographical and Temporal Diversity of the Human Skin Microbiome |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=324 |issue=5931 |pages=1190–92 |bibcode=2009Sci...324.1190G |doi=10.1126/science.1171700 |pmc=2805064 |pmid=19478181}}</ref><ref name="Pappas">{{Cite web|title=Your Body Is a Wonderland ... of Bacteria|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/your-body-wonderland-bacteria|access-date=2023-01-02|website=www.science.org|language=en|archive-date=2022-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209025548/https://www.science.org/content/article/your-body-wonderland-bacteria|dead-url=no}}</ref>大多数存在于[[表皮]]的表层和[[毛囊]]的上部。
皮肤菌群通常是非[[病原体|致病性]]的，并且是[[偏利共生]]（对宿主无害）或[[互利共生|互惠共生]]的（双方获益）。细菌可以提供的好处包括通过竞争[[营养]]、分泌[[化学物质]]或刺激皮肤的[[免疫系统]]以防止短暂的致病生物在皮肤表面[[定殖]]。<ref name="Cogen">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cogen AL, Nizet V, Gallo RL |year=2008 |title=Skin microbiota: a source of disease or defence? |journal=Br J Dermatol |volume=158 |issue=3 |pages=442–55 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08437.x |pmc=2746716 |pmid=18275522}}</ref>然而，常驻微生物也可能引起[[皮膚病|皮肤病]]并进入[[循环系统|血液系统]]，造成危及生命的疾病，尤其是在[[免疫抑制]]人群中。<ref name="Cogen" />
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一项对100名年轻人脚趾间区域的研究发现了14种不同的[[真菌]]。这些包括[[酵母|酵母菌]]，例如[[白色念珠菌]]、[[深红酵母]]和[[皮状丝孢酵母]]；[[皮癬菌|皮癣菌]]真菌，例如[[石膏样小孢子菌]]和[[红色毛癣菌]]；[[非皮癣菌]]真菌，例如[[黑根霉]]、[[皮状丝孢酵母]]、[[鐮孢菌屬|镰孢菌]]、[[短柄帚霉]]、[[弯孢属|弯孢]]、[[链格孢菌]]、[[拟青霉属|拟青霉]]、[[黃麴霉|黄曲霉]]和[[青黴菌|青霉菌]]物种。<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Oyeka CA, Ugwu LO |year=2002 |title=Fungal flora of human toe webs |journal=Mycoses |volume=45 |issue=11–12 |pages=488–91 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00796.x |pmid=12472726 |s2cid=8789635}}</ref>
[[美国]][[马里兰州]][[贝塞斯达 (马里兰州)|贝塞斯达]]的[[国家人类基因组研究所]]进行了一项研究，调查了人体14个不同位置的皮肤真菌的DNA。这些位置分别是[[耳道]]、[[眉毛]]之间、[[后脑|后脑勺]]、耳后、[[踵|脚跟]]、脚趾甲、脚趾之间、[[前臂]]、[[背|背部]]、[[鼠蹊|腹股沟]]、[[鼻|鼻孔]]、[[胸|胸部]]、[[手|手掌]]和肘窝。研究表明，人体各个部位的真菌种类繁多，其中最丰富的栖息地是脚跟，那里有大约80种真菌。相比之下，脚趾甲上有大约60种物种，而脚趾之间有40种物种。其他富含真菌的区域包括手掌、前臂和肘窝内，其真菌物种数在18到32种之间。头部和躯干各有2到10种。<ref>{{Cite news|date=2013-05-22|title=Feet home to more than 100 fungi|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-22622689|access-date=2023-01-02|archive-date=2023-01-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102040430/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-22622689|dead-url=no}}</ref>
==== 脐带的微生物组 ====
[[肚脐]]是身体的一个部位。肚脐很少暴露于[[紫外线]]、[[肥皂]]或身体分泌物（肚脐不产生任何分泌物或[[三酸甘油酯|油脂]]）<ref name="esa2011">{{Cite web|last=Ecological Society of America|date=2011-08-04|title=Bellybutton microbiomes: Ecological research on the human biome|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110803174757.htm|access-date=2013-04-20|work=ScienceDaily|format=Press Release|archive-date=2023-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722125301/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/08/110803174757.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Nierenberg|first=Cari|title=New meaning to 'navel-gazing': Scientists study belly button bacteria|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/new-meaning-navel-gazing-scientists-study-belly-button-bacteria-1C6437445?franchiseSlug=healthmain|access-date=2013-09-29|date=2011-04-14|archive-date=2023-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318120238/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/new-meaning-navel-gazing-scientists-study-belly-button-bacteria-1C6437445?franchiseSlug=healthmain|dead-url=no}}</ref>，由于它是一个几乎不受干扰的细菌群落<ref name="Hulcr">{{cite journal |last=Hulcr |first=Jirir |author2=Andrew M. Latimer |author3=Jessica B. Henley |author4=Nina R. Rountree |author5=Noah Fierer |author6=Andrea Lucky |author7=Margaret D. Lowman |author8=Robert R. Dunn |date=7 November 2012 |title=A Jungle in There: Bacteria in Belly Buttons are Highly Diverse, but Predictable |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e47712 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...747712H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0047712 |pmc=3492386 |pmid=23144827 |doi-access=free}}</ref>，所以它是研究皮肤微生物组的一个很好的部位。<ref>{{cite web|title=The Wild Life of Your Body|url=http://www.yourwildlife.org/projects/belly-button-biodiversity/|access-date=1 September 2013|archive-date=2014-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810200343/http://www.yourwildlife.org/projects/belly-button-biodiversity/|dead-url=no}}</ref>肚脐是人体的潮湿微生物组（湿度和温度都很高）<ref name="Kong">{{cite journal |last=Kong |first=Hiedi |date=June 17, 2011 |title=Skin microbiome: genomics-based insights into the diversity and role of skin microbes |journal=Trends Mol. Med. |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=320–8 |doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2011.01.013 |pmc=3115422 |pmid=21376666}}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal |last=Grice |first=Elizabeth |author2=Julia Segre |date=9 April 2011 |title=The Skin Microbiome |journal=Nat Rev Microbiol |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=244–53 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2537 |pmc=3535073 |pmid=21407241}}</ref>，含有大量细菌<ref>{{cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Karen|title=Study shows you're covered in bacteria - live with it.|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-200941418.html?key=01-42160D517E1A14691A0E031B07664B36254D35463B78700E730E0B60641A617F1371193F|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111044351/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-200941418.html?key=01-42160D517E1A14691A0E031B07664B36254D35463B78700E730E0B60641A617F1371193F|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2013|access-date=29 September 2013|newspaper=The Star|date=1 June 2009}}</ref>，尤其是棒状杆菌<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grice |first=Elizabeth |author2=Heidi H. Kong |author3=Sean Conlan |author4=Clayton B. Deming |author5=Joie Davis |author6=Alice C. Young |author7=Gerard G. Bouffard |author8=Robert W. Blakesley |author9=Patrick R. Murray |author10=Eric D. Green |author11=Maria L. Turner |date=29 May 2009 |title=Topographical and Temporal Diversity of the Human Skin Microbiome |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5931 |pages=1190–2 |bibcode=2009Sci...324.1190G |doi=10.1126/science.1171700 |pmc=2805064 |pmid=19478181 |author12=Julia A. Segre}}</ref>和葡萄球菌<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" />等喜欢潮湿环境的细菌。
肚脐生物多样性项目于2011年初在[[北卡罗来纳州立大学]]启动，最初有两组志愿者，分别由35名志愿者和25名志愿者组成。<ref name="Hulcr" />志愿者被分配了无菌[[棉花棒|棉签]]，并被要求将棉签插入他们的肚脐中，将棉签旋转三圈，然后将棉签放在装有0.5毫升10%[[磷酸鹽|磷酸盐]][[缓冲溶液|缓冲液]]的小瓶中返回给研究人员。<ref name="Parker-Pope">{{cite web|last=Parker-Pope|first=Tara|date=2011-04-14|title=What's in Your Belly Button|url=http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/whats-in-your-belly-button/?_r=1|access-date=2013-09-29|archive-date=2021-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308101237/https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/whats-in-your-belly-button/?_r=1|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name="Hulcr" />由Jiri Hulcr领导的北卡罗来纳州立大学的研究人员<ref name="Nierenberg">{{cite web|last=Nierenberg|first=Cari|title=New meaning to 'navel-gazing': Scientists study Belly Button Bacteria|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/new-meaning-navel-gazing-scientists-study-belly-button-bacteria-1C6437445?franchiseSlug=healthmain|access-date=2013-09-29|website=[[NBC News]]|archive-date=2023-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318120238/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/new-meaning-navel-gazing-scientists-study-belly-button-bacteria-1C6437445?franchiseSlug=healthmain|dead-url=no}}</ref>随后在培养物中培养样本，直到细菌[[菌落]]大到可以拍照，然后将这些照片发布在肚脐生物多样性项目的网站上（志愿者获得样本编号，以便他们可以在线查看自己的样本）。<ref name="Parker-Pope" />然后使用16S核糖体RNA文库对这些样本进行分析，以便识别在培养物中生长不良的菌株。<ref name="Hulcr" />
北卡罗来纳州立大学的研究人员发现，虽然很难预测肚脐微生物组中的每一种细菌菌株，但他们可以预测哪些菌株会普遍存在，而哪些菌株会非常罕见。<ref name="Hulcr" />结果发现，肚脐微生物组仅包含几种常见的细菌，即[[葡萄球菌属|葡萄球菌]]、[[棒状杆菌属|棒状杆菌]]、[[放线菌属|放线菌]]、[[真细菌目|真细菌]]和[[芽孢桿菌綱|芽孢杆菌]]，以及许多不同类型的稀有细菌。<ref name="Hulcr" />在志愿者的肚脐内还发现了其他类型的稀有生物，包括三种[[古菌|古细菌]]，其中两种是在一名自称多年未洗澡的志愿者身上发现的。<ref name="Hulcr" />
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在这个项目的志愿者的肚脐中，葡萄球菌和棒状杆菌是最常见的细菌类型，这些类型的细菌在更大规模的皮肤微生物组研究中<ref name="Callewaert">{{cite journal |last=Callewaert |first=Chris |author2=Frederiek-Maarten Kerckhof |author3=Michael S. Granitsiotis |author4=Mireille Van Gele |author5=Tom Van de Wiele |author6=Nico Boon |date=12 August 2013 |title=Characterization of Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium Clusters in the Human Axillary Region |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=e70538 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...870538C |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0070538 |pmc=3741381 |pmid=23950955 |doi-access=free}}</ref>（肚脐生物多样性项目是其中一部分）也被发现是皮肤微生物组中最常见的细菌类型。<ref name="Hulcr" />在这些更大规模的研究中发现，女性的皮肤微生物组中通常有更多的葡萄球菌<ref name="Callewaert" />（通常是表皮葡萄球菌）<ref name="Parker-Pope" />，而男性的皮肤微生物组中则有更多的棒状杆菌。<ref name="Callewaert" />
根据北卡罗来纳州立大学的肚脐生物多样性项目<ref name="Hulcr" />，在肚脐和周围区域发现了两种类型的微生物。短暂性细菌（不繁殖的细菌）<ref name="Kong" />构成了肚脐中发现的大部分生物，估计在95%的研究参与者中发现了1400多种不同的菌株。<ref name="saunders-blog">{{Cite web|last=Saunders|first=Chris|date=2011-07-12|title=Navel gazing at NC State leads to important discovery|url=http://www.alumniblog.ncsu.edu/2011/07/12/navel-gazing-at-nc-state-leads-to-important-discovery/|access-date=2013-04-20|work=Red & White for Life :: NC State University Alumni Association|archive-date=2016-12-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214183347/https://www.alumniblog.ncsu.edu/2011/07/12/navel-gazing-at-nc-state-leads-to-important-discovery/|dead-url=no}}</ref>
肚脐生物多样性项目正在进行中，现在已经从500多人身上取了样本。<ref name="Hulcr" />该项目的设计旨在反驳一个错误观念，即即细菌总是对人类有害的<ref>{{cite web|last=Aldhous|first=Peter|title=Belly button biome is more than a piece of fluff|url=http://newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/04/belly-button-biome-is-more-tha.html|access-date=2013-09-29|archive-date=2013-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002214747/http://newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/04/belly-button-biome-is-more-tha.html|dead-url=no}}</ref>，而人类正在与细菌作战。<ref>{{cite web|title=Human microbes|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b011jv8r|access-date=2013-09-29|archive-date=2023-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613032822/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b011jv8r|dead-url=no}}</ref>实际上，即使对人体无益<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=Salar |author2=Shailly Anand |author3=Rup Lal |date=September 2012 |title=Skin Commensals Regulate Skin Immunity |journal=Indian J. Microbiol. |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=517–8 |doi=10.1007/s12088-012-0301-z |pmc=3460106 |pmid=23997352}}</ref>，大多数细菌菌株也是无害的。<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" />该项目的另一个目标是培养公众对微生物学的兴趣。<ref name="Nierenberg" />与人体微生物组计划协作，肚脐生物多样性项目还研究人类微生物组与[[年龄]]、[[性别]]、[[人種|种族]]、地点<ref name="Nierenberg" />和整体健康等因素之间的联系。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grice |first=Elizabeth |author2=Julia Segre |date=6 June 2012 |title=The Human Microbiome: Our Second Genome |journal=Annu Rev Genom Hum Genet |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=151–70 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-090711-163814 |pmc=3518434 |pmid=22703178}}</ref>
== 与宿主的关系 ==
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623011743/http://cellulitistreatmentnow.com/ 蜂窝织炎皮肤感染]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101210013519/http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/hmp/ 人类微生物组计划]
* [http://textbookofbacteriology.net/index.html Todar的在线细菌学教科书] {{Wayback|url=http://textbookofbacteriology.net/index.html |date=20230729025648 }}
* [https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/7/2/70-0225_article 皮肤卫生：什么时候太干净了？] {{Wayback|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/7/2/70-0225_article |date=20230731000218 }}
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