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Article

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tricosanthes cucumerina Leaves: Microencapsulation and Characterization

by
Carlos Felipe Vendramini
1,
Talita A. F. de Campos
1,
Natallya M. da Silva
1,
Marcos Antonio Matiucci
1,
Eloize S. Alves
1,
Patrícia D. S. dos Santos
2,
Carlos Eduardo Barão
3,
Oscar de Oliveira
1,
Lucio Cardozo-Filho
4 and
Andresa Carla Feihrmann
1,*
1
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências de Alimentos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá (UEM), Maringá CEP 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil
2
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, Universidade Estadual de Maringá (UEM), Maringá CEP 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil
3
Instituto Federal do Paraná, Paranavaí CEP 87703-536, Paraná, Brazil
4
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Química, Universidade Estadual de Maringá (UEM), Maringá CEP 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(2), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020397
Submission received: 20 December 2024 / Revised: 24 January 2025 / Accepted: 30 January 2025 / Published: 2 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Chemistry: From Wastes to Value-Added Products (2nd Edition))
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study utilized the ultrasound-assisted extraction method to obtain an extract rich in phenolic compounds from the leaves of Tricosanthes cucumerina. The optimization of the experimental design identified the optimal extraction conditions: a temperature of 40 °C, a duration of 6.25 min, and an amplitude of 40%. Under these conditions, the extraction yielded the highest levels of phenolic compounds, measuring 262.54 mg of GAE (gallic acid equivalent) per gram. Further analysis of these extracts using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) demonstrated that ultrasound extraction increased the availability of bioactive compounds, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and caffeic acid. The resulting extract was microencapsulated with sodium alginate as the wall material and then lyophilized to enhance the shelf life and stability of the phenolic compounds. The thermogravimetric analysis confirmed that the microcapsules exhibited thermal stability, retaining their properties at temperatures up to 250 °C. Additionally, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses corroborated the effectiveness of the encapsulation process. Consequently, the ultrasound-assisted extraction of T. cucumerina leaves is a promising alternative for incorporating bioactive compounds into food products, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics, thus benefiting consumers.

1. Introduction

Some flavonoids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, tannins, caffeic acid, and chlorogenic acid present in vegetables and fruits have molecules that are classified as bioactive compounds. They are associated with numerous physiological benefits, such as tumor inhibition, prevention of hypertension, and immune regulation [1,2].
Cucurbitaceae is the most prominent family of vegetable and fruit crops, and it includes approximately 125 genera and 960 species, which are part of ancient medicine and culinary traditions [3]. The plant Tricosanthes cucumerina, belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family, is known as snake tomato or snake gourd. It is a tropical vine native to southern and southeastern Asia, cultivated in other tropical areas of Africa and South America. This plant offers large fruits with high nutritional value and a rich source of minerals, vitamins, and proteins. Furthermore, its leaves, shoots, and tendrils are also helpful sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds such as phenolics [4,5].
The search for efficient methods for extracting bioactive compounds has been a priority in several areas of science, especially in the food and pharmaceutical sectors. However, the efficient extraction of these compounds, especially phenolic compounds, has been a challenge since preserving these compounds during the extraction process is crucial, given their importance for human health due to their antioxidant properties and other associated benefits [6,7].
Conventional solvent extraction methods, maceration, and Soxhlet are usually employed to extract bioactive compounds from plant materials. However, these methods suffer from drawbacks, such as prolonged extraction times, low efficiency, and high energy consumption. Recent advancements in extraction technologies have led to innovative methods to address these limitations, including ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction [8].
Ultrasonic-assisted extraction is a technique recognized for its efficiency and versatility, which has shown promise in extracting various bioactive compounds from different plant matrices [9]. By using ultrasound waves to generate cavitation and promote the rupture of plant cells, ultrasound allows for more effective and faster extraction, with lower solvent consumption and less degradation of sensitive compounds [10].
Microencapsulation is an efficient method for preserving bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds, improving their viability and providing high survival and performance. Furthermore, since polyphenolic molecules are unstable to some external factors, such as light, pH, oxygen, metal ions, and heat, microencapsulation is an alternative protection. It consists of capturing molecules of interest within a polymeric material to improve their preservation and maintain the antioxidant effect throughout the storage period [11].
Ionic gelation is a technique used to microencapsulate a compound of interest. The formation of microspheres by ionic gelation is based on the ability of several polysaccharides, such as pectin, sodium alginate, and carrageenan, to form a gel in the presence of polyvalent ions. In inappropriate concentrations, the process involves dripping or spraying an anionic polysaccharide solution onto a cationic solution. With microencapsulation by ionic gelation, three-dimensional structures are formed with a high water content and are responsible for protecting the active compound [12].
Sodium alginate, a type of natural polymer, has electrical charges in its chemical structure. This characteristic allows it to interact with other compounds, facilitating the formation of capsules around active substances. Sodium alginate serves as an effective wall material and shares characteristics like pectin, making it suitable for the ionic gelation method. Sodium alginate is one of the most widely used encapsulating materials because it is a relatively low-cost, easily obtainable, biocompatible, non-toxic, and biodegradable natural polymer that does not require the use of organic solvents or strict temperature conditions for particle formation [13].
The main drawback of microencapsulation via ionic gelation is the acquisition of microspheres with a high moisture content. Drying to complement the process of obtaining microparticles via ionic gelation has the main advantages of increasing shelf life, ease of transportation and marketing, and reducing post-processing losses. Lyophilization is a drying process commonly used in these cases, as it is considered a low-pressure, low-temperature condensation process, widely used for removing solvents by sublimation and widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries to obtain dry products, as it improves the stability characteristics of freeze-dried products [14].
Other studies have evaluated the antioxidant potential of T. cucumerina [15,16]. However, no experimental design has evaluated the best conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction with subsequent encapsulation and lyophilization. In this context, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from T. cucumerina leaves and compare it with the results of a conventional extraction. In addition, to characterize the phenolic compounds present, they were microencapsulated with sodium alginate and the microcapsules were characterized through encapsulation efficiency, hygroscopicity, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and TGA/DTG thermogravimetric analysis.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of the Leaves

The leaves of T. cucumerina were collected in the municipality of Mandaguari, Paraná, Brazil (23°31′13.6″ S 51°41′38.7″ W). They were washed and dried in an oven with forced air circulation (Marconi, MA 35, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil) at 60 °C for 24 h. After dehydration, they were crushed in an electric hammer mill (SL-31, Solab, Piracicaba, Brazil) for ±3 min at a temperature of 25 °C with a final particle size on average of 0.5 mm.

2.2. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

An experimental design was employed to optimize the extraction process of phenolic compounds, as outlined in Table 1. The variables investigated included sonication time (X1 = 2.5, 6.25, and 10 min), temperature (X2 = 40, 50, and 60 °C), and amplitude (X3 = 20, 30, and 40%). The levels of these independent variables were selected based on a previous study [7,17]. To evaluate the model’s statistical significance, ANOVA and the F-test were applied. The total phenolic compound (TPC) response variable was assessed in triplicate using contour surface analysis with the STATISTICA software (version 11.0, Stat Soft, Inc., Tulsa OK USA). To minimize systematic errors, the experiments were conducted in a randomized order.
In each experiment, 2 g of dried, crushed leaves was diluted in 100 mL of ultrapure water and subjected to ultrasound treatment using an Ultrasonic device (Ultronique QR500, Ecosonics, Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil). Following the specified experimental conditions, an ultrasonic probe with a diameter of 13 mm was used. The resulting extracts were filtered through Whatman filter paper No. 1 (Whatman International Ltd., Maidstone, UK) for 5 min at 25 °C. The filtered extracts were stored in amber glass bottles to prevent oxidation and kept in a refrigerator (Electrolux 260 L, Curitiba, PR, Brazil) at 4 °C until further use.

2.3. Characterization of the Extract

2.3.1. Total Phenolic Compounds

The total phenolic content was determined according to Singleton and Rossi [18]. An amount of 125 μL of the extract was mixed with 125 μL of 50% Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, and 2250 μL of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was added and left to stand in a dark environment at room temperature for 30 min. The samples for each test were carried out in triplicate and read in a spectrophotometer (Agilent UV-8553, Santa Clara, CA, USA) at 765 nm. Total phenolics were calculated by comparison with the gallic acid standard solution (0.1 g L−1 of gallic acid in 50% ethanol) and are expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per g of sample.

2.3.2. Determination of Bioactive Compounds by Electrospray Ionization (ESI-MS)

The optimized extract obtained under ultrasound-assisted extraction conditions underwent analysis using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) to determine and identify its antioxidant compounds. A comparison with a conventional water bath extraction (WBE) method under identical parameters was conducted for rigorous evaluation. The analytical procedure utilized an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) system (ACQUITY UPLC® H-Class, Waters, Milford, CO, USA) equipped with an electrospray ionization source (Zspray™, Waters, Milford, CO, USA) and a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer (Xevo TQDTM, Waters, Milford, CO, USA).
Chromatographic separation was achieved with an Acquity UPLC® Bridged Ethane Hybrid (BEH), Waters, Milford, CO, USA) C18 column (50 × 2.1 mm i.d., 1.7 μm particle size) at a 0.150 mL min⁻1 flow rate. The column temperature was maintained at 30 ± 1 °C, and the injection volume was set to 1.5 μL. The mobile phase consisted of Milli-Q® water with 0.1% formic acid (solvent A) and methanol (solvent B), utilizing a gradient elution program with the following sequence: 0–0.01 min (90:10 A:B), 1 min (70:30 A:B), 1.5 min (60:40 A:B), 2 min (50:50 A:B), 4–7 min (40:60 A:B), 7.5 min (50:50 A:B), 8 min (70:30 A:B), and 8.5–13 min (90:10 A:B).
The ESI-MS conditions were optimized as follows: capillary voltage of 3.0 kV, extractor voltage of 3.0 V, source temperature of 130 °C, desolvation gas temperature of 550 °C, cone gas flow (nitrogen) of 50 L h⁻1, and desolvation gas flow (nitrogen) of 700 L h⁻1. Argon (99.9% purity) was employed as the collision gas at a 3.00 × 10⁻3 bar pressure. The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) method was utilized for analyte identification, selecting the most intense ion transition for quantification and a secondary transition for qualification. Parameter optimization was performed via the direct infusion of each compound (10 µL min⁻1) at a 1 mg L⁻1 concentration in methanol.
The MassLynx and QuanLynx version 4.1 software (Waters, Milford, CO, USA) were employed for instrument operation and data analysis. Quantitative results are expressed in mg per 100 g of the sample.

2.4. Microencapsulation

The extract from the best extraction condition related to the content of phenolic compounds (6.25 min, amplitude of 40%, and temperature of 40 °C) was microencapsulated by the extrusion method (25 ± 2 °C), with 1% sodium alginate (w/v), maintaining the agitation until the solution was completely homogenized, resulting in a viscous solution. Using a syringe, the sodium alginate solution was dripped in calcium chloride at a concentration of 1.0 mol·L−1 according to dos Santos et al. [19]. After the process, the microcapsules were washed with distilled water, weighed, and lyophilized (Alpha 1–2 LD Plus, model 101.522, Osterode, Germany) at approx. −52 °C and 0.031 mbar, until completely dry (±24 h).

2.5. Microcapsule Characterization

Encapsulation Efficiency, Size, and Hygroscopicity

The lyophilized capsules’ encapsulation efficiency (EE) was calculated as described by Saénz et al. [20], with minor modifications. The total phenolic content of the microcapsules was determined using 100 mg of the sample dispersed in 1 mL of a solution containing ethanol, acetic acid, and distilled water (50:8:42 v/v). The mixture was vortex-stirred for 1 min and filtered through a 0.45 μm microfilter. The total phenolic content on the surface of the microcapsules was analyzed by dispersing 100 mg of microcapsules in 1 mL of an ethanol and methanol mixture (1:1 v/v); this mixture was gently stirred for 5 min and subsequently filtered through a 0.45 μm microfilter. The final result was determined by calculating the difference.
For thickness measurements of the microcapsules, a Tech digital micrometer (Model 3102, Insize, Boituva, SP, Brazil) with an accuracy of 0.001 mm and a resolution range of 0–25 mm was utilized. The results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation.
Hygroscopicity was determined using the methodology proposed by Fritzen-Freire et al. [21], with some modifications. A sample of 1.5 g of microcapsules was placed at 25 °C in an airtight container containing a saturated sodium chloride solution, maintaining 75% relative humidity. After 7 days, the samples were weighed, with hygroscopicity expressed as grams of moisture absorbed per 100 g of solids.

2.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The physical and structural characteristics of the microcapsules that had undergone the lyophilized process were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This method used a scanning electron microscope, the SS-550 model manufactured by Shimadzu Corporation ( Kyoto, Japan) in this case, to examine the surface and morphological details of the microcapsules in high resolution. The samples were fixed on 10 mm diameter metal cylindrical supports using an energy-conducting double-sided adhesive tape containing a carbon source. Subsequently, the samples were coated with gold and analyzed with an accelerating voltage from 19 kV to 50 kV and a magnification of 19×, 50×, 40×, and 800×.

2.7. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy technique (Bruker Vertex 70v, Bruker Optics, Ettlingen, Germany) was used in transmittance mode using potassium bromide (KBr FTIR grade, ≥99% trace metal base, Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). Sample preparation was performed in the microcapsule with its precursors sodium alginate and the dry extract of T. cucumerina leaf in a 1:100 ratio (sample: KBr, w/w). The FTIR spectra were obtained between 400 and 4000 cm−1 wave numbers, with a resolution of 4 cm−1 and 128 scans.2.8. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA-DTG)
The thermostability of the microcapsules in comparison with their precursor polymer (sodium alginate) was determined using thermogravimetric analysis via differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTG) (Model TGA Q50 V20.13 Build from TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA). The analysis was performed in one repetition per sample. An initial mass of samples of approximately 7 mg was placed in unsealed standard aluminum containers under an air flow (oxygen and nitrogen at 100 mL min−1) and heated between 30 °C and 300 °C at a heating rate of 10 °C min−1. The equipment was previously calibrated with the calcium oxalate standard.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

The experiments were performed in triplicate and data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s test for the minimum significance difference (p < 0.05). The correlation and contour surface were also calculated using the statistical program STATISTICA version 11.0 (Stat Soft., Inc., USA).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Contour Surface Experimental Design for Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

The response surface methodology was applied to determine the effect of time, temperature, and ultrasound amplitude on the total phenolic content of T. cucumerina leaf extract. In Table 1, it is possible to observe the levels of phenolic compounds in the samples that varied between 218.86 and 262.54 mg GAE/g. The response surfaces (Figure 1A–D) showed that the linear and quadratic time (X1), the temperature (X2), the amplitude (X3), and the relationships X1X2, X1X3, and X2X3 were significant for the concentration of phenolic compounds (R2 = 0.94217). The optimal conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction were determined using ANOVA results and critical values with Statisc 11.0 software. The extraction time was 6.25 min, the amplitude was 40%, and the temperature was 40 °C. Improving the process by increasing ultrasound intensity aims to increase the likelihood of cavitation in the liquid medium. This effect increases turbulence and temperature in the liquid system, which favors mass transfer rates, i.e., the diffusion coefficients of solutes (bioactive compounds), increasing their migration from the plant matrix to the solvent [22].
The temperature of 40 °C was the most effective in extracting phenolic compounds. At this temperature, the vapor pressure in the solvent was likely to be low, promoting a more effective bubbling with intense collapse of the cavitation bubbles, inducing the breakdown of the matrix bonds, disrupting the cellular tissues, and consequently promoting the greater extraction of compounds. However, the use of higher temperatures (50 and 60 °C) can impair the cavitation phenomenon and thus negatively interfere with the extraction process of phenolic compounds and promote their degradation [17].
Choudhary, Tanwer, and Vijayvergia [23] evaluated the phenolic compounds present in T. cucumerina Linn. leaves and reported levels of 32.2 ± 0.49 mg GAE/g. It should be noted that the authors used methanol as a solvent, while in our study, we used distilled water because it is a solvent that is considered green [24].
Rodrigues et al. [7] performed ultrasound-assisted aqueous extraction to extract bioactive compounds from the Uvaia residue (seed and bark). The authors concluded that the ideal conditions were 40 °C, 2.5 min, and 40% amplitude. The results suggest that curcumin leaf extract is a good source of antioxidants.
The extract of T. cucumerina leaves, obtained under optimal conditions based on the experimental design, was characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify the bioactive compounds present. A control sample was also evaluated under the same extraction conditions but without ultrasound treatment. The compounds were identified using public mass spectral libraries, including GNPS, PubChem, and CheBI. A total of eight phenolic compounds were identified in both samples: p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, salicylic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, and chlorogenic acid (see Table 2 and Figure 2).
The use of ultrasound significantly increased the extraction of several compounds, including p-coumaric acid (from 10.55 ± 0.02 to 11.12 ± 0.03), ferulic acid (from 1.66 ± 0.04 to 2.08 ± 0.03), caffeic acid (from 0.65 ± 0.01 to 0.92 ± 0.01), and salicylic acid (from 0.105 ± 0.007 to 0.185 ± 0.007), with a statistical significance of p < 0.05. p-Coumaric acid was found to be present in the highest concentrations in both samples. However, ultrasound resulted in significantly higher levels (p < 0.05). p-Coumaric acid has potent antioxidant and antifungal potential alone or in combination with caffeic acid and has biological activity with antimicrobial and antitumor action [25].
Ferulic acid was the second most abundant bioactive compound found in the samples. Similarly, there was a significant difference between traditional extraction and ultrasound; again, ultrasound proved more efficient. It acts as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory. It has therapeutic effects in treating cancer, diabetes, and pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases, and has hepatic, neuro-, and photoprotective effects. It may also competitively inhibit HMG-CoA reductase and activate glucokinase, reducing hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia, respectively [26]. The quantities of hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, and chlorogenic acid were similar in samples without ultrasound.

3.2. Encapsulation Efficiency, Size, and Hygroscopicity

The analysis of the encapsulation efficiency (EE) of bioactive compounds of T. cucumerina leaves showed a result of 67.54% ± 0.08. A similar result was reported by Live et al. [27] in alginate microcapsules of yerba mate residues, where the efficiency was 62 ± 1%. The size of the lyophilized microcapsules was 1.729 mm ± 3.68. According to Tonon, Brabet, and Hubinger [28] in their study of the morphological characteristics of açaí (Euterpe overhear Mart.), the larger the particle size, the smaller the exposed surface area and, consequently, the lower the water absorption. The hygroscopicity value of the microcapsules was 16.96 ± 0.38 (%), which can be considered low hygroscopicity, contributing to the preservation and conservation of the bioactive compounds. According to de Souza et al. [29], values up to 16.90 ± 0.41 (%) were found for maple grape pigment extract (Vitis labrusca) encapsulated with maltodextrin (DE 9–12). dos Santos et al. [19] found different values for hygroscopicity (6.51 ± 0.51) and encapsulation efficiency (85.72 ± 0.44) in gelled blackberry pomace capsules. The differences can be attributed to the characteristics of the encapsulation equipment and the wall materials used.3.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the encapsulated samples are displayed in Figure 3A (3000×) and Figure 3B (2000×). The characteristics of sodium alginate show a uniform and smooth morphology, confirming the good encapsulation of the T. cucumerina extract. The study of the images obtained by SEM coincides with the work carried out by Radünz et al. [30] in the evaluation of the capsules of phenolic compounds and glucosinolates in broccoli extract. These spherical microcapsules absorb the extract and allow the components to remain in the coating materials after drying. This protective capacity is due to the microparticles’ degree of integrity and porosity [31]. As can be seen in Figure 3B, some granules of okra extract were also incorporated into the surface, as in the work of López-Córdoba et al. [32], in the encapsulation of starch matrices, corn, and calcium alginate for the simultaneous transport of the antioxidants zinc and yerba mate.

3.3. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

As shown in Figure 4, the FTIR spectra exhibited more intense absorption peaks in the range of 3700–3000 cm−1 and around 1600 cm−1. These peaks correspond to the aromatic O-H and C=C bonds attributed to phenolic compounds and sodium alginate [33]. Peak absorption in the region of 3300 cm−1 in the spectrum of the T. cucumerina extract and at 3400 cm−1 in the microcapsule were assigned to the OH elongation mode, indicating the presence of higher moisture and other molecules, such as alcohols, phenols, and hydroperoxides [34]. Changes in the position and intensity of the peaks were observed, which can be attributed to hydrogen bonds between polyphenols and sodium alginate. Low-intensity peaks were recorded in the region of 2920 cm−1 in the spectra of precursor materials, indicating –CH2 groups of alkyls [35]. Similarly, Luo et al. [36] demonstrated interactions between sodium alginate and guava leaf extract by the slight change during absorption at 2920 cm−1, attributing to C–H elongation. The attributions indicate that molecular interactions occurred between the precursors, as evidenced by the slight modification in the spectral profile of the microcapsule. Additionally, the characterization of the glycosidic bonds was demonstrated by the asymmetric elongation of the C=O and OH bands, which were observed in the range of 1035–1055 cm−1 across all evaluated spectra [37].
Other characteristic peaks were observed at 2204 cm−1, 2152 cm−1, and 2036 cm−1 in the microcapsule and sodium alginate spectra, corresponding to the ionic bonding of the OH groups, defined by the encapsulation process with sodium alginate, thus suggesting a homogeneously dispersed solution during synthesis [35]. These results corroborate the structural complexity and diversity of chemical interactions in the materials studied. Thus, through this analysis, a molecular fingerprint characteristic of the materials used was presented since all the vibrations present in the spectrum of the microcapsule were also present in its precursors. These interactions between the two components in microcapsule formation resulted in improved microcapsule integrity, as observed and supported by the results of the other analyses.

3.4. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA-DTA)

The thermal stability of the microcapsule of T. cucumerina was evaluated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) compared to the encapsulating polymer sodium alginate. The thermograms (TGs) and their differential thermal analysis by the derivative of thermogravimetry (DTG) are shown in Figure 5. Through TGA/DTG analysis, it is possible to identify thermal degradation through mass loss in a temperature range, determining the stability or decomposition temperature of the chemical composition [33]. As in the study by Laureanti et al. [38], the thermal decomposition of the microcapsule occurred in three main stages, with slight variations in mass loss that may be related to the presence of the encapsulating agent and the technique used. In Figure 5A, the TGA thermogram showed significant mass loss during thermal depolymerization between 200 and 250 °C. Pure sodium alginate showed an initial mass loss previously at 100 °C, attributed to the two types of water in the sodium alginate structure, a portion of unbound water related to moisture and another portion of water bound to the polymer [39]. Above a temperature of 220 °C, it was attributed to moisture loss with a reduction of 40%, and a more pronounced mass loss at 258 °C, reducing 94%, due to the destruction of glycosidic bonds and the breakdown of the monomeric units of the alginate, resulting in the release of CO2 [40]. On the other hand, a higher weight fraction was observed in the microcapsule at 250 °C, greater than 40%, while pure sodium alginate had a content of less than 5% in the same region. In addition, according to Bruni et al. [41], DTG curves indicate the degradation temperature.
The DTG thermogram (Figure 5B) showed the main decomposition temperature of pure sodium alginate at a sharp peak at 239 °C. However, the DTG of the microcapsule contrasts with two distinct peaks, the first at 226 °C associated with the endothermic transition and the second at 250 °C related to the exothermic transition. The endothermic transition is linked to an initial interaction between the microcapsule components, while the exothermic transition suggests structural modification of the polymeric wall material [42]. Thus, the DTG profile displayed in the microcapsule thermogram indicates interactions between the okra leaf extract and sodium alginate, evidencing different stages of decomposition and possible mechanisms of stabilization or cross-linking of the polymer [43]. Therefore, the thermostability of the microcapsule can be attributed to the melting behavior of the components used, combining the individual thermal properties of the okra leaf extract and sodium alginate. Paswan et al. [40] demonstrated significant improvements in thermal stability when forming curcumin hydrogel using sodium alginate and lactic acid polyacid, evidenced by the hydrogel’s thermal stability recorded at 610 °C, exceeding the degradation temperatures of the individual components, sodium alginate (287 °C), curcumin (320 °C), and lactic acid polyacid (396 °C).

4. Conclusions

This study examined the optimal conditions for extracting phenolic compounds from the leaves of T. cucumerina using an ultrasound-assisted method. The results indicate that ultrasounds applied for 6.25 min at an amplitude of 40% and a temperature of 40 °C achieved a higher extraction efficiency than the conventional method. Eight phenolic compounds were identified in the extracts, demonstrating that the ultrasound technique allowed for a greater concentration of p-coumaric, ferulic, and caffeic acids. The potential applications of these findings are vast, from enhancing the nutritional value of food products to developing new antioxidant-rich formulations. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses confirmed that sodium alginate efficiently encapsulated the antioxidants present in the extract, making them suitable for incorporation into various products as alternatives to synthetic antioxidants.

Author Contributions

Formal analysis, C.F.V., M.A.M., P.D.S.d.S., E.S.A., T.A.F.d.C., N.M.d.S., C.E.B. and O.d.O.; writing—review and editing, L.C.-F. and A.C.F.; project administration, A.C.F.; resources, A.C.F.; supervision, A.C.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed at the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPQ); the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES); and COMCAP/UEM.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Processes 13 00397 g001aProcesses 13 00397 g001b
Figure 1. Contour surface representations for interaction of three tested extraction variables on the total phenolic content. (A) (Temperature × Time), (B) (Amplitude × Time), (C) (Temperature × Amplitude), and (D) (Time × Temperature).
Figure 1. Contour surface representations for interaction of three tested extraction variables on the total phenolic content. (A) (Temperature × Time), (B) (Amplitude × Time), (C) (Temperature × Amplitude), and (D) (Time × Temperature).
Processes 13 00397 g001aProcesses 13 00397 g001b
Processes 13 00397 g002
Figure 2. Chromatograms of the sample without (A) and with the use of ultrasound (B).
Figure 2. Chromatograms of the sample without (A) and with the use of ultrasound (B).
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Processes 13 00397 g003
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of lyophilized microcapsules of T. cucumerina extract. (A) 3000×. (B) 2000×.
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of lyophilized microcapsules of T. cucumerina extract. (A) 3000×. (B) 2000×.
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Processes 13 00397 g004
Figure 4. Microcapsule FTIR spectrum of T. cucumerina extract.
Figure 4. Microcapsule FTIR spectrum of T. cucumerina extract.
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Processes 13 00397 g005
Figure 5. Thermograms defined in microcapsule form of T. cucumerina extract and sodium alginate. (A) Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). (B) Differential thermal gravimetry (DTG).
Figure 5. Thermograms defined in microcapsule form of T. cucumerina extract and sodium alginate. (A) Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). (B) Differential thermal gravimetry (DTG).
Processes 13 00397 g005
Table 1. Experimental design with coded and uncoded independent variables for extraction of bioactive compounds in T. cucumerina leaves.
Table 1. Experimental design with coded and uncoded independent variables for extraction of bioactive compounds in T. cucumerina leaves.
Independent VariablesLevels
RunsTime
(min)		Temperature
(°C)		Amplitude (%)TPC *
(mg of GAE/g)
12.5 (−1)40 (−1)20 (−1)234.85
210 (+1)40 (−1)20 (−1)238.41
32.5 (−1)40 (−1)40 (+1)235.36
410 (+1)40 (−1)40 (+1)262.54
52.5 (−1)60 (+1)20 (−1)218.86
610 (+1)60 (+1)20 (−1)226.38
72.5 (−1)60 (+1)40 (+1)226.10
810 (+1)60 (+1)40 (+1)232.06
96.25 (0)50 (0)30 (0)237.06
106.25 (0)50 (0)30 (0)231.52
116.25 (0)50 (0)30 (0)248.86
* Total phenolic compounds (TPCs).
Table 2. Bioactive compounds of T. cucumerina extract (without (C) and with the use of ultrasound (U)) identified by UPLC-MS/MS.
Table 2. Bioactive compounds of T. cucumerina extract (without (C) and with the use of ultrasound (U)) identified by UPLC-MS/MS.
Ion Precursor (m/z)Ion Quantity (m/z)RT *
(min)		C
(mg 100 g−1)		U
(mg 100 g−1)
p-cumaric acid163.00119.005.210.55 ± 0.02 b11.12 ± 0.03 a
Ferulic acid193.10134.025.271.66 ± 0.04 b2.08 ± 0.03 a
Caffeic acid179.00134.964.580.65 ± 0.01 b0.92 ± 0.01 a
Hydroxybenzoic acid137.0092.956.050.24 ± 0.01 a0.26 ± 0.00 a
Salicylic acid138.0092.906.10.10 ± 0.00 b0.18 ± 0.00 a
Protocatechuic acid152.80108.823.270.06 ± 0.00 a0.07 ± 0.01 a
Vanillic acid167.00152.004.580.03 ± 0.00 a0.03 ± 0.00 a
Chlorogenic acid353.10191.104.310.01 ± 0.00 a0.01 ± 0.00 a
* RT—retention time. Means ± standard error in the same line followed by different letters indicate significant difference (p < 0.05), according to Tukey’s test.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Vendramini, C.F.; de Campos, T.A.F.; da Silva, N.M.; Matiucci, M.A.; Alves, E.S.; dos Santos, P.D.S.; Barão, C.E.; de Oliveira, O.; Cardozo-Filho, L.; Feihrmann, A.C. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tricosanthes cucumerina Leaves: Microencapsulation and Characterization. Processes 2025, 13, 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020397

AMA Style

Vendramini CF, de Campos TAF, da Silva NM, Matiucci MA, Alves ES, dos Santos PDS, Barão CE, de Oliveira O, Cardozo-Filho L, Feihrmann AC. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tricosanthes cucumerina Leaves: Microencapsulation and Characterization. Processes. 2025; 13(2):397. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020397

Chicago/Turabian Style

Vendramini, Carlos Felipe, Talita A. F. de Campos, Natallya M. da Silva, Marcos Antonio Matiucci, Eloize S. Alves, Patrícia D. S. dos Santos, Carlos Eduardo Barão, Oscar de Oliveira, Lucio Cardozo-Filho, and Andresa Carla Feihrmann. 2025. "Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tricosanthes cucumerina Leaves: Microencapsulation and Characterization" Processes 13, no. 2: 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020397

APA Style

Vendramini, C. F., de Campos, T. A. F., da Silva, N. M., Matiucci, M. A., Alves, E. S., dos Santos, P. D. S., Barão, C. E., de Oliveira, O., Cardozo-Filho, L., & Feihrmann, A. C. (2025). Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Tricosanthes cucumerina Leaves: Microencapsulation and Characterization. Processes, 13(2), 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13020397

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