Optimising Energy Efficiency and Daylighting Performance for Designing Vernacular Architecture—A Case Study of Rawshan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
3.1. Criteria for Case Study Selection
3.2. Case Study
3.2.1. Description of the Room
3.2.2. Description of the Rawshan
3.3. Calibration of Electricity Bills with Simulation Results
3.3.1. First Scenario: The Whole Building Simulation
3.3.2. Second Scenario: The Ground Floor Simulation
3.3.3. Third Scenario: The Case Study Room Simulation
4. Simulation Software and Optimisation Tools
4.1. Energy and Daylight Simulation Tools and Processes
- UDI is less than 100 lux, which is insufficient to be the only source of illumination.
- UDI between 100 and 2000 is sufficient to be the sole source of illumination or in conjunction with artificial lighting and can be either desirable or at least acceptable.
- UDI over 2000 lux is likely to cause thermal or visual discomfort or both.
- For right and left sides, (0.1328 − X × 2)/0.1325
- For front side, (0.122X × 2)/0.122.
4.2. Optimization Tools and Processes
5. Analysis and Result of Calibrated a Case Study
5.1. Calibration Process
5.2. Actual Living Room Simulation
5.2.1. Actual Living Room Simulation in Mecca
5.2.2. Actual Living Room Simulation in Jeddah
5.2.3. Actual Living Room Simulation in Riyadh
5.2.4. Actual Living Room Simulation in Al-Baha
6. Optimisation Analysis Results and Discussion
6.1. Energy Consumption as an Objective
6.1.1. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Mecca
6.1.2. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Jeddah
6.1.3. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Riyadh
6.1.4. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Al-Baha
6.2. Useful Daylight Illuminance as an Objective
6.2.1. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Mecca
6.2.2. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Jeddah
6.2.3. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Riyadh
6.2.4. Actual Living Room Optimisation Results in Al-Baha
7. Compare Results
7.1. Mecca
7.2. Jeddah
7.3. Riyadh
7.4. Al-Baha
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 2403.68 |
Spring | 3525.78 |
Summer | 3862.19 |
Autumn | 3188.09 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 2417.80 |
Spring | 4125.28 |
Summer | 5413.60 |
Autumn | 3915.91 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 1068.17 |
Spring | 3017.70 |
Summer | 4118.79 |
Autumn | 1821.06 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 1085.54 |
Spring | 2224.51 |
Summer | 2866.10 |
Autumn | 1603.29 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 2296.88 |
Spring | 4014.08 |
Summer | 4750.13 |
Autumn | 3565.21 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 2419.86 |
Spring | 4125.99 |
Summer | 5414.51 |
Autumn | 3919.15 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 1069.14 |
Spring | 3019.92 |
Summer | 4121.49 |
Autumn | 1821.96 |
Seasons | Energy Consumption (kWh) |
---|---|
Winter | 1445.27 |
Spring | 2751.25 |
Summer | 2524.76 |
Autumn | 2030.84 |
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Area (m2) | Percentage of Built Area (%) | Standard Built Area (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
Ground Floor | 357.12 | 59.52% | 60% |
First Floor | 410.03 | 68.39% | 70% |
Second Floor | 98.03 | 37.33% | 40% |
Land Area | 600 | - | - |
Room Area | 32.45 m2 |
---|---|
Window-to-Wall Ratio WWR | 40% |
No. of Window | 1 (single pane) |
Main Window Dimension | 2.85 m × 2.00 m |
Sill Height | 1 m |
Glass Transmittance | 0.807 |
Name | Thickness (m) | Conductivity (W/mK) | Density (kg/m3) | Specific Heat (J/Kg.K) | Thermal Absorptance (Value Range: 0–1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jordanian stone | 0.06 | 1.6 | 1936 | 710 | 0.2 |
Cement mortar | 0.003 | 0.001 | 1648 | 920 | 0.7 |
Saudi hollow blocks | 0.25 | 0.2 | 694 | 2000 | 0.2 |
Insulation | 0.06 | 0.049 | 265 | 836 | 0.9 |
Gypsum board | 0.013 | 0.17 | 800 | 830 | 0.9 |
Indoor plaster | 0.003 | 0.02 | 800 | 840 | 0.002 |
Name | Thickness (m) | Conductivity (W/mk) | Density (kg/m3) | Specific Heat (J/Kg.K) | Thermal Absorptance (Value Range: 0–1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Concrete slab | 0.20 | 1.95 | 2240 | 900 | 0.9 |
Insulation | 0.06 | 0.049 | 265 | 836 | 0.9 |
Sand | 0.05 | 1.94 | 2240 | 980 | 0.7 |
Cement floor | 0.05 | 0.184 | 2100 | 840 | 0.7 |
Ceramic floor tiles | 0.01 | 0.01 | 3500 | 840 | 0.7 |
Front Perf. Screens | Right Perf. Screen | Left Perf. Screen | |
---|---|---|---|
Opening Size | 1.33 m × 0.65 m | 0.61 m × 0.54 m | 0.61 m × 0.54 m |
Cell Dim. (width × depth × thickness) | 0.65 m × 0.10 m × 0.13 m | 0.54 m × 0.07 m × 0.12 m | 0.54 m × 0.07 m × 0.12 m |
Name | Thickness (m) | Conductivity (W/mk) | Density (kg/m3) | Specific Heat (J/Kg.K) | Thermal Absorptance (Value Range: 0–1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wood | 0.3 | 0.11 | 544.62 | 1210 | 0.9 |
Plaster | 0.003 | 0.02 | 800 | 840 | 0.002 |
Utility Bill | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
First Floor Reading Meter | Second Floor Reading Meter | Third Floor Reading Meter | |||
Month-Year | kWh | Month-Year | kWh | Month-Year | kWh |
January 2018 | 3430 | January 2018 | 3975 | January 2018 | 1438 |
February 2018 | 3008 | February 2018 | 3648 | February 2018 | 1172 |
March 2018 | 4787 | March 2018 | 5098 | March 2018 | 2107 |
April 2018 | 7395 | April 2018 | 9706 | April 2018 | 3399 |
May 2018 | 4967 | May 2018 | 7648 | May 2018 | 3043 |
June 2018 | 4808 | June 2018 | 6068 | June 2018 | 2923 |
July 2018 | 5008 | July 2018 | 6384 | July 2018 | 2872 |
August 2018 | 4854 | August 2018 | 6081 | August 2018 | 2756 |
September 2018 | 4882 | September 2018 | 6435 | September 2018 | 2678 |
October 2018 | 3619 | October 2018 | 7360 | October 2018 | 1980 |
November 2018 | 2714 | November 2018 | 6283 | November 2018 | 1802 |
December 2018 | 2618 | December 2018 | 4304 | December 2018 | 1630 |
Total | 52,090 | Total | 72,990 | Total | 27,800 |
Total annual energy consumption = 152,880 kWh |
Month-Year | Utility Bill (kWh) | Simulation Result (kWh) |
---|---|---|
January 2018 | 8843 | 8977.34 |
February 2018 | 7828 | 8440.84 |
March 2018 | 11,992 | 14,363.78 |
April 2018 | 20,500 | 21,749.82 |
May 2018 | 15,658 | 12,826.65 |
June 2018 | 13,799 | 12,618.52 |
July 2018 | 14,264 | 13,033.52 |
August 2018 | 13,691 | 13,365.10 |
September 2018 | 13,995 | 12,953.40 |
October 2018 | 12,959 | 12,763.43 |
November 2018 | 10,799 | 11,472.64 |
December 2018 | 8552 | 10,147.68 |
Total | 152,880 | 152,712.72 |
First Floor Meter | Second Floor Meter | Third Floor Meter | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month-Year | kWh | Month-Year | kWh | Month-Year | kWh |
January 2018 | 3384.71 | January 2018 | 4199.12 | January 2018 | 1393.50 |
February 2018 | 3159.57 | February 2018 | 3947.22 | February 2018 | 1334.05 |
March 2018 | 5400.42 | March 2018 | 6708.95 | March 2018 | 2254.41 |
April 2018 | 8000.97 | April 2018 | 10,229.85 | April 2018 | 3519.00 |
May 2018 | 4661.16 | May 2018 | 6065.89 | May 2018 | 2099.60 |
June 2018 | 4568.58 | June 2018 | 5978.33 | June 2018 | 2071.60 |
July 2018 | 4717.19 | July 2018 | 6175.62 | July 2018 | 2140.71 |
August 2018 | 4847.70 | August 2018 | 6326.11 | August 2018 | 2191.28 |
September 2018 | 4711.77 | September 2018 | 6125.29 | September 2018 | 2116.34 |
October 2018 | 4667.45 | October 2018 | 6028.21 | October 2018 | 2067.77 |
November 2018 | 4242.31 | November 2018 | 5402.03 | November 2018 | 1828.30 |
December 2018 | 3797.61 | December 2018 | 4763.50 | December 2018 | 1586.57 |
Total | 56,159.45 | Total | 71,950.12 | Total | 24,603.15 |
Total annual energy consumption = 152,712.72 kWh |
Direction | Without Rawshan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EnergyPlus | Radiance | |||||
Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | |
East | 10,237.85 | 2968.28 | 725.50 | 0 | 40.1 | |
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | ||||||
13,931.63 |
Direction | Without Rawshan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EnergyPlus | Radiance | |||||
Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | |
East | 10,185.77 | 2968.28 | 725.50 | 0 | 40.1 | |
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | ||||||
13,879.55 |
Direction | Without Rawshan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EnergyPlus | Radiance | |||||
Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | |
East | 6696.32 | 2983.30 | 725.50 | 0 | 38.9 | |
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | ||||||
10,405.13 |
Direction | Without Rawshan | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EnergyPlus | Radiance | |||||
Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | |
East | 5635.42 | 2970.88 | 725.50 | 0.02 | 40.11 | |
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | ||||||
9331.82 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Objective | Constraint | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 821 and 3352 | 0.01 m | 0.0102 m | 0.011 m | 9125.93 | 3128.32 | 1177.88 | 0 | 15.57 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
13,432.12 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Objective | Constraint | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electric Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 2861 and 5402 | 0.014 m | 0.01 m | 0.025 m | 11,561.40 | 3133.31 | 1177.88 | 0 | 17.03 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
15,872.58 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Objective | Constraint | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electric Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 2600 | 0.014 m | 0.01 m | 0.015 m | 7060.62 | 1744.72 | 1177.88 | 42.51 | 15.23 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
10,025.72 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Objective | Constraint | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electric Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 1187 and 3702 | 0.015 m | 0.01 m | 0.015 m | 4860.30 | 1728.66 | 1177.88 | 12.59 | 16.4 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
7779.43 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Constraint | Objective | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 3239 and 5752 | 0.026 m | 0.0107 m | 0.013 m | 11,718.85 | 1729.57 | 1177.88 | 0 | 16.14 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
14,626.30 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Constraint | Objective | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 4873 and 7401 | 0.018 m | 0.01 m | 0.01 m | 11,564.36 | 3137.26 | 1177.88 | 0 | 18.71 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
15,879.50 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Constraint | Objective | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 1069 and 3602 | 0.018 m | 0.01 m | 0.01 m | 7063.45 | 1748.68 | 1177.88 | 42.50 | 16.7 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
10,032.51 |
Direction | With Rawshan | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population No. | Optimum Perforation (Thickness) | Constraint | Objective | ||||||||
North | East | South | West | Cooling Load (kWh) | Total Lights Use (kWh) | Total Electrical Equipment Use (kWh) | Heating Load (kWh) | Average % of UDI 100–2000 | Preview UDI 100–2000 | ||
East | 1071 and 3602 | 0.01 m | 0.014 m | 0.015 m | 5435.81 | 3136.01 | 1177.88 | 2.41 | 16.91 | ||
Total Energy Consumption (kWh) | |||||||||||
9752.11 |
Sim. Results | Opt. Results (Energy as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Cooling Load (kWh) | 10,237.85 | 9125.93 | −10.9 | Decreased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2968.28 | 3128.32 | 5.4 | Increased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 0 | 0 | - |
Sim. Results | Opt. Result (Daylight as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cooling Load (kWh) | 10,237.85 | 11,718.85 | 14.5 | Increased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2968.28 | 1729.57 | −41.7 | Decreased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 0 | 0 | - |
Sim. Results | Opt. Results (Energy as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cooling Load (kWh) | 10,185.77 | 11,561.4 | 13.5 | Increased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2968.28 | 3133.31 | 5.6 | Increased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 0 | 0 | - |
Sim. Results | Opt. Result (Daylight as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cooling Load (kWh) | 10,185.77 | 11,564.36 | 13.5 | Increased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2968.28 | 3137.26 | 5.6 | Increased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 0 | 0 | - |
Sim. Results | Opt. Results (Energy as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Cooling Load (kWh) | 6696.32 | 7060.62 | 5.4 | Increased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2983.3 | 1744.72 | −41.5 | Decreased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 42.51 | 100.0 | Increased |
Sim. Results | Opt. Result (Daylight as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cooling Load (kWh) | 6696.32 | 7063.45 | 5.5 | Increased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2983.3 | 1748.68 | −41.4 | Decreased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0 | 42.5 | 100.0 | Increased |
Sim. Results | Opt. Results (Energy as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total Cooling Load (kWh) | 5635.42 | 4860.3 | −13.8 | Decreased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2970.88 | 1728.66 | −41.8 | Decreased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0.02 | 12.59 | 99.8 | Increased |
Sim. Results | Opt. Result (Daylight as an Objective) | Percent | Percentage Difference | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cooling Load (kWh) | 5635.42 | 5435.81 | −3.5 | Decreased |
Total Lights use (kWh) | 2970.88 | 3136.01 | 5.6 | Increased |
Total Electrical Equipment use (kWh) | 725.5 | 1177.88 | 62.4 | Increased |
Total Heating Load (kWh) | 0.02 | 2.41 | 99.2 | Increased |
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Alelwani, R.; Ahmad, M.W.; Rezgui, Y.; Alshammari, K. Optimising Energy Efficiency and Daylighting Performance for Designing Vernacular Architecture—A Case Study of Rawshan. Sustainability 2025, 17, 315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010315
Alelwani R, Ahmad MW, Rezgui Y, Alshammari K. Optimising Energy Efficiency and Daylighting Performance for Designing Vernacular Architecture—A Case Study of Rawshan. Sustainability. 2025; 17(1):315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010315
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlelwani, Raed, Muhammad Waseem Ahmad, Yacine Rezgui, and Kaznah Alshammari. 2025. "Optimising Energy Efficiency and Daylighting Performance for Designing Vernacular Architecture—A Case Study of Rawshan" Sustainability 17, no. 1: 315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010315
APA StyleAlelwani, R., Ahmad, M. W., Rezgui, Y., & Alshammari, K. (2025). Optimising Energy Efficiency and Daylighting Performance for Designing Vernacular Architecture—A Case Study of Rawshan. Sustainability, 17(1), 315. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010315