fault

fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust, where compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the fracture. Faults range in length from a few centimetres to many hundreds of kilometres, and displacement likewise may range from less than a centimetre to several hundred kilometres along the fracture surface (the fault plane). In some instances, the movement is distributed over a fault zone composed of many individual faults that occupy a belt hundreds of metres wide. The geographic distribution of faults varies; some large areas have almost none, others are cut by innumerable faults.

Faults may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle. Although the angle of inclination of a specific fault plane tends to be relatively uniform, it may differ considerably along its length from place to place. When rocks slip past each other in faulting, the upper or overlying block along the fault plane is called the hanging wall, or headwall; the block below is called the footwall. The fault strike is the direction of the line of intersection between the fault plane and Earth’s surface. The dip of a fault plane is its angle of inclination measured from the horizontal.

Faults are classified according to their angle of dip and their relative displacement. Normal dip-slip faults are produced by vertical compression as Earth’s crust lengthens. The hanging wall slides down relative to the footwall. Normal faults are common; they bound many of the mountain ranges of the world and many of the rift valleys found along spreading margins of tectonic plates. Rift valleys are formed by the sliding of the hanging walls downward many thousands of metres, where they then become the valley floors.

A block that has dropped relatively downward between two normal faults dipping toward each other is called a graben. A block that has been relatively uplifted between two normal faults that dip away from each other is called a horst. A tilted block that lies between two normal faults dipping in the same direction is a tilted fault block.

Reverse dip-slip faults result from horizontal compressional forces caused by a shortening, or contraction, of Earth’s crust. The hanging wall moves up and over the footwall. Thrust faults are reverse faults that dip less than 45°. Thrust faults with a very low angle of dip and a very large total displacement are called overthrusts or detachments; these are often found in intensely deformed mountain belts. Large thrust faults are characteristic of compressive tectonic plate boundaries, such as those that have created the Himalayas and the subduction zones along the west coast of South America.

Strike-slip (also called transcurrent, wrench, or lateral) faults are similarly caused by horizontal compression, but they release their energy by rock displacement in a horizontal direction almost parallel to the compressional force. The fault plane is essentially vertical, and the relative slip is lateral along the plane. These faults are widespread. Many are found at the boundary between obliquely converging oceanic and continental tectonic plates. Well-known terrestrial examples include the San Andreas Fault, which, during the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, had a maximum movement of 6 metres (20 feet), and the Anatolian Fault, which, during the İzmit earthquake of 1999, moved more than 2.5 metres (8.1 feet).

Oblique-slip faults have simultaneous displacement up or down the dip and along the strike. The displacement of the blocks on the opposite sides of the fault plane usually is measured in relation to sedimentary strata or other stratigraphic markers, such as veins and dikes. The movement along a fault may be rotational, with the offset blocks rotating relative to one another.

Fault slip may polish smooth the walls of the fault plane, marking them with striations called slickensides, or it may crush them to a fine-grained, claylike substance known as fault gouge; when the crushed rock is relatively coarse-grained, it is referred to as fault breccia. Occasionally, the beds adjacent to the fault plane fold or bend as they resist slippage because of friction. Areas of deep sedimentary rock cover often show no surface indications of the faulting below.

Movement of rock along a fault may occur as a continuous creep or as a series of spasmodic jumps of a few metres during a few seconds. Such jumps are separated by intervals during which stress builds up until it overcomes the frictional forces along the fault plane and causes another slip. Most, if not all, earthquakes are caused by rapid slip along faults.