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'Yancin Dan Adam a kasar Sin

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'Yancin Dan Adam a kasar Sin
human rights by country or territory (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙasa Sin
Perpetrator (en) Fassara Xi Jinping, Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping (en) Fassara, Jiang Zemin da Hu Jintao
tutar Kasar sin

Kungiyoyin kasa da kasa suna nazarin haƙƙin ɗan adam a kasar Sin lokaci-lokaci, kamar su hukumomin yarjejeniyar haƙƙin ɗanɗano da kuma Binciken Lokaci na Duniya na Majalisar Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya.[1] Jam'iyyar Kwaminis ta kasar Sin (CCP), Gwamnatin Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin (PRC), magoya bayansu, da sauran masu goyon baya suna da'awar cewa manufofi da matakan tilasta aiki sun isa don karewa daga cin zarafin bil'adama. Koyaya, wasu ƙasashe (kamar Amurka da Kanada), ƙungiyoyin da ba na gwamnati ba (NGOs) ciki har da 'Yancin Dan Adam a China da Amnesty International, da' yan ƙasa, lauyoyi, da Masu adawa a cikin ƙasar, sun bayyana cewa hukumomi a kasar Sin suna ba da izini ko shirya irin wannan cin zarafi.

Kungiyoyin ba da agaji masu zaman kansu kamar Amnesty International da Human Rights Watch, da kuma cibiyoyin gwamnati na kasashen waje kamar Ma'aikatar Harkokin Wajen Amurka, a kai a kai suna gabatar da shaidar cewa PRC ta keta 'yancin magana, motsi, da Addini na' yan ƙasa da sauransu a cikin iko. Hukumomi a cikin PRC suna da'awar inganta haƙƙin ɗan adam, kamar yadda suke bayyana su daban, don su dogara da "al'adun ƙasa" da matakin ci gaba ƙasar.[2] Koyaya, gwamnatoci suna da alhakin ingantawa da kare dukkan haƙƙin ɗan adam a duk duniya, ba tare da la'akari da yanayin ƙasarsu ba.[3] 'Yan siyasa na PRC sun ci gaba da cewa, bisa ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na PRC, "Ka'idoji huɗu" sun maye gurbin' 'Yancin zama ɗan ƙasa. Jami'an PRC suna fassara muhimmancin Ka'idojin Kaddada guda huɗu a matsayin tushen doka don kama mutanen da gwamnati ta ce suna neman kawar da ka'idojin. 'Yan kasar Sin waɗanda hukumomi suka ga suna bin waɗannan ka'idoji, a gefe guda, hukumomin PRC sun ba su izinin jin daɗi da kuma aiwatar da duk haƙƙoƙin da suka zo tare da zama ɗan ƙasa na PRC, muddin ba su keta dokokin PRC ta kowace hanya ba.

Kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam da yawa sun yada batutuwan kare hakkin dan Adam a kasar Sin da suke ganin gwamnati ba ta da kyau, gami da: hukuncin kisa (shar da kisa), manufofin yaro daya (wanda kasar Sin ta yi banbanci ga 'yan tsiraru na kabilanci kafin a soke shi a shekarar 2015), matsayin siyasa da shari'a na Tibet, da kuma watsi da' yancin yada labarai a kasar Sin. Sauran wuraren damuwa sun haɗa da rashin amincewar doka game da haƙƙin ɗan adam da rashin shari'a mai zaman kanta, mulkin doka, da kuma tsari da ya dace. Ƙarin batutuwan da aka tayar game da haƙƙin ɗan adam sun haɗa da rashin haƙƙin ma'aikata (musamman wanda ke ƙuntata 'yancin motsi na ma'aikata masu ƙaura), rashin ƙungiyoyin ma'aikata marasa zaman kansu daga CCP, [4] [5] aiwatar da Tsarin Kudin Jama'a da jerin sunayen ba da izini, waɗanda ke aiki don ƙuntata mutum da haƙƙin membobin danginsu, [6] da kuma zargin nuna bambanci ga ma'aikatan karkara da 'yancin addini - ƙungiyoyin addinin Tibet, [7] [5] [6] [5] [5] [6] [5] [5] [6] [5] [8] [5] [6] [5] [9] [5] [6] [5] [10] [5] [6] [5] [11] [5] [6] [5] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [5] [6] [7] [6] [5] [6] [7] [7] [5] [6] [10] [5] [6] [7] [8] [5] [6] [7] [10] [5] [6] [10] [10] [5] [6] [6] [5] [6] [10] [6] [5] [6] [6] [7] [5] [5] [6] [7] [4] [5] [6] [10] [4] [5] [6] [6] [10] [5] [5] [6] [10]  – Wasu kungiyoyin masu fafutuka na kasar Sin suna kokarin fadada wadannan 'yanci, ciki har da' yancin dan adam a kasar Sin, Masu kare hakkin dan adam na kasar Sin, da kuma Kungiyar Lauyoyin Kare Hakkin Dan Adam ta kasar Sin. Lauyoyin kare hakkin dan adam na kasar Sin wadanda ke daukar shari'o'in da suka shafi wadannan batutuwan, duk da haka, sau da yawa suna fuskantar cin zarafi, korarsu, da kamawa.[12][13]

A cewar rahoton Amnesty International daga 2016/2017 gwamnati ta ci gaba da tsarawa da aiwatar da jerin sabbin dokokin tsaron kasa wadanda suka gabatar da babbar barazana ga kare haƙƙin ɗan adam. Rikicin da aka yi wa lauyoyin kare hakkin dan adam da masu fafutuka ya ci gaba a duk shekara. Masu fafutuka da masu kare hakkin dan adam sun ci gaba da kasancewa cikin sa ido, cin zarafi, tsoratarwa, kamawa, da tsare-tsare.[14] Rahoton ya ci gaba da cewa 'yan sanda sun tsare adadi mai yawa na masu kare hakkin dan adam a waje da wuraren tsare-tsare na al'ada, wani lokacin ba tare da samun damar zuwa lauya ba na dogon lokaci, suna fallasa wadanda aka tsare ga haɗarin azabtarwa da sauran rashin kulawa. Masu sayar da littattafai, masu bugawa, masu gwagwarmaya, da kuma ɗan jarida wanda ya ɓace a ƙasashe makwabta a cikin 2015 da 2016 sun fito a tsare a China, suna haifar da damuwa game da hukumomin tilasta bin doka na China da ke aiki a waje da ikonsu.[14]

A cikin rahoton kare hakkin dan adam wanda ke kimanta 'yancin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, da siyasa, kasar Sin ta sami matsayi mafi ƙasƙanci a duniya don aminci daga ayyukan gwamnati da haƙƙin taruwa.

Tsarin shari'a

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Tun bayan sauye-sauyen shari'a na ƙarshen 1970s da 1980s, CCP ta motsa a hukumance ƙoƙarin rungumar harshen mulkin doka kuma ta yi ƙoƙari ta kafa tsarin kotu na zamani. A lokacin wannan tsari, ta kafa dubban sabbin dokoki da ka'idoji, kuma ta fara horar da karin masu sana'a.[12] An jaddada manufar 'dokar doka' a cikin kundin tsarin mulki, kuma jam'iyyar da ke mulki ta fara kamfen don inganta ra'ayin cewa 'yan ƙasa suna da kariya a ƙarƙashin doka. A lokaci guda, duk da haka, akwai babban saɓani a cikin kundin tsarin mulki da kansa, inda Jam'iyyar Kwaminis ta nace cewa ikonta ya maye gurbin na doka.[15] Don haka, kundin tsarin mulki ya tsarkake mulkin doka, duk da haka a lokaci guda ya jaddada ka'idar cewa "shugabanci Jam'iyyar Kwaminis" yana da fifiko a kan doka. Ko da wasu Sinawa da kansu suna da ra'ayi mara kyau game da fifiko na jagorancin CCP akan ikon tsarin mulki da na shari'a.

Shari'a ba ta da 'yanci daga Jam'iyyar Kwaminis, kuma alƙalai suna fuskantar matsin siyasa; a lokuta da yawa, kwamitocin jam'iyya masu zaman kansu suna ba da sakamakon shari'o'in.[16] Ta wannan hanyar, CCP tana sarrafa bangaren shari'a ta hanyar tasirin ta.[12] Wanna tasirin ya samar da tsarin da ake yawan bayyanawa a matsayin "mulkin doka" (yana nuni da ikon CCP), maimakon mulkin doka.[17] Bugu da ƙari, tsarin shari'a ba shi da kariya ga haƙƙin jama'a, kuma sau da yawa ya kasa tabbatar da tsarin da ya dace.[18] Wannan yana adawa da tsarin dubawa da ma'auni ko rabuwa da iko.

Masana kasashen waje sun kiyasta cewa a cikin 2000, akwai tsakanin mutane miliyan 1.5 zuwa miliyan 4 a kurkuku a kasar Sin.  PRC ba ta ba da izinin baƙi su bincika tsarin azabtarwa.[19]

'Yancin Jama'a

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'Yanci na magana

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zanga-zangar siyasa a Hong Kong game da tsare-tsaren Liu Xiaobo wanda ya lashe kyautar Nobel ta kasar Sin.

Kodayake kundin tsarin mulki na 1982 ya ba da tabbacin 'yancin magana, [20] gwamnatin kasar Sin sau da yawa tana amfani da sassan "rashin ikon gwamnati" da "kariya ga asirin gwamnati" a cikin tsarin shari'arsu don ɗaure waɗanda ke sukar gwamnati. Wani laifi da aka yi amfani da shi don ɗaure masu sukar kamar Sun Dawu shine "karɓar jayayya da haifar da matsala".

A lokacin wasannin Olympics na bazara na shekara ta 2008, gwamnati ta yi alkawarin bayar da izini da ke ba mutane izinin yin zanga-zanga a cikin "gidan shakatawa na zanga-zanga" a Beijing. Koyaya, an janye yawancin aikace-aikacen, an dakatar da su, ko kuma an dakatar da shi, kuma 'yan sanda sun tsare wasu daga cikin mutanen da suka yi amfani da su.

Nuni ga wasu abubuwan da suka faru da rikice-rikice da ƙungiyoyin siyasa, da kuma samun dama ga shafukan yanar gizo da hukumomin PRC suka ɗauka "mai haɗari" ko "mai barazana ga tsaron jihar", An toshe shi a intanet a cikin PRC; kuma abubuwan da ake jayayya da su ko kuma masu sukar hukumomin PRc ba su cikin wallafe-wallafe-wallon da yawa, kuma suna ƙarƙashin ikon CCP a cikin ƙasar Sin.[21] Dokoki a Jamhuriyar Jama'ar Sin sun haramta bayar da shawarwari game da rabuwa da kowane bangare na yankin da ake da'awar daga kasar Sin, ko kalubalen jama'a ga mulkin CCP na gwamnatin kasar Sin. An share zanga-zangar da ba a ba da izini ba a lokacin wasannin Olympics da 'yan gwagwarmayar kasashen waje bakwai suka yi a Gidan Tarihin Kasashen China, suna nuna rashin amincewa da Tibet kyauta da kuma toshe ƙofar, kuma an fitar da masu zanga-zambe.

Injinan bincike na Intanet na kasashen waje ciki har da Microsoft Bing, Yahoo! !, da Google China sun kasance cikin zargi don taimakawa waɗannan ayyukan. Yahoo! !, musamman, ya bayyana cewa ba zai kare sirrin da sirri na abokan cinikinsa na kasar Sin daga hukumomi ba.[22]

A shekara ta 2005, bayan Yahoo! China ta ba da imel din sirri da Adireshin IP ga gwamnatin kasar Sin, an yanke wa mai ba da rahoto Shi Tao hukuncin ɗaurin kurkuku na tsawon shekaru goma saboda sakin takardar Jam'iyyar Kwaminisanci ta ciki zuwa shafin dimokuradiyya na kasar Sin.[23] Shugaban Skype Josh Silverman ya ce "sanin gama gari" ne cewa TOM Online "ya kafa hanyoyin da za su ... toshe saƙonnin nan take dauke da wasu kalmomin da hukumomin kasar Sin suka ɗauka abin ƙyama".[24]

An yanke wa Mai rubutun ra'ayin yanar gizo kuma mai fafutukar kare hakkin dan adam Wu Gan hukuncin shekaru 8 a kurkuku a watan Disamba na shekara ta 2017

A watan Yunin 2020, Cai Xia, farfesa mai ritaya na Makarantar Jam'iyyar CCP, ya soki Xi Jinping, Babban Sakataren CCP, wanda ya kira shi "shugaban Mafia" kuma Jam'iyyar Kwaminis mai mulki "zombie na siyasa". A cikin sauti na minti 20 a shafukan sada zumunta, ta ce kowa da kowa bawan Xi ne, kuma babu haƙƙin ɗan adam da mulkin doka, Ta ba da shawarar cewa Xi ya yi ritaya. A ranar 17 ga watan Agustan 2020, an kori Cai Xia daga Makarantar Jam'iyyar CCP ta Tsakiya kuma an soke fansho ta na ritaya.[25]

'Yanci na magana a lokacin rikicin Coronavirus na 2020

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A lokacin Rikicin Coronavirus na 2020, an ruwaito cewa PRC ta hana labarai game da kwayar cutar kuma ta yi ƙoƙari ta ragewa da kuma bayar da rahoton mutuwar. Akwai rahotanni game da tsare-tsare, hare-hare, azabtarwa, da kuma bacewar masu ba da labari ciki har da masu gwagwarmaya, likitoci, lauyoyi, dalibai, da 'yan kasuwa waɗanda suka kirkiro da kuma ɗora bidiyo na asibitoci masu yawa da kuma yawan mutuwar.[26]Wasu daga cikin wadannan masu ba da labari sune:

  • Li Wenliang, likitan likitan kasar Sin wanda ya yi aiki a asibitin Wuhan kuma ya ba da gargadi na gaggawa ga wasu asibitoci da likitoci game da sabon cutar. An kama shi kuma an zarge shi da "yi maganganun ƙarya" wanda ya "tabbatar da tsarin zamantakewa sosai".
  • Fang Bin, ɗan kasuwa na kasar Sin, ɗan jarida ɗan ƙasa kuma mai ba da labari wanda ya watsa hotunan Wuhan a lokacin rikicin Coronavirus. Ya ɓace tun daga 9 ga Fabrairu 2020.[26]
  • Chen Qiushi, lauya ne na kasar Sin, mai fafutuka, kuma ɗan jarida ɗan ƙasa wanda ya rufe zanga-zangar Hong Kong ta 2019-20 da annobar COVID-19 kuma ya ɓace tun daga 6 ga Fabrairu 2020 har zuwa Satumba 2020 lokacin da aka same shi amma "ba kyauta ba". Bayan kwanaki 600, ya sake bayyana a cikin wasika a asusun Twitter.[26] "A cikin shekara da watanni takwas da suka gabata, na fuskanci abubuwa da yawa. Wasu daga cikinsu za a iya magana, wasu daga cikinsu ba za a iya ba, wasikar Chen ta karanta. "Na yi imanin kun fahimta.
  • Li Zehua, ɗan jaridar ɗan ƙasar Sin, rapper, kuma YouTuber wanda ke ƙoƙarin gano lauya da ya ɓace kuma ɗan jarida ɗan ƙasa Chen Qiushi. Ya ɓace tun daga 26 ga Fabrairu 2020 har zuwa ƙarshen Afrilu 2020 lokacin da ya sanya bidiyon YouTube cewa an keɓe shi da karfi kusan watanni biyu.
  • Chen Mei da El amogid Wei, masu gwagwarmaya waɗanda ke raba labaran da aka tantance game da barkewar coronavirus a kan wani tarihin kan layi, ba za a iya tuntuɓar su ba tun daga 19 ga Afrilu 2020
  • Li-Meng Yan, masanin ilimin ƙwayoyin cuta na Hong Kong kuma mai ba da labari dole ne ya tsere zuwa Amurka, bayan da ta sami manyan abubuwan rufe cutar ta hukumomin kasar Sin. Ta ce idan ta ba da labarinta game da rufewa a kasar Sin, za a "yi ta ɓace kuma a kashe ta".
  • An yanke wa 'yar Jaridar mai zaman kanta Zhang Zhan hukuncin shekaru hudu a kurkuku saboda "karɓar jayayya da haifar da matsala", cajin da ta karɓa bayan ta tashi zuwa Wuhan bayan barkewar COVID-19. A lokacin, ta san tana cikin hadarin tsaron kanta da kamawa, amma tana so ta kara koyo game da halin da ake ciki na COVID-19 kuma ta raba abubuwan da ta gano tare da wasu.

'Yanci na' yan jarida

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Masu sukar suna jayayya cewa CCP ta kasa cika alkawuranta game da 'yancin kafofin watsa labarai na kasar Sin. Gidan 'Yanci jama'a na Amurka koyaushe yana sanya kasar Sin a matsayin "Ba Free" [27] a cikin binciken' yancin jarida na shekara-shekara, gami da rahoton 2014. Jaridar PRC He Qinglian ta ce kafofin watsa labarai na PRC suna sarrafawa ta hanyar umarni daga sashen farfaganda na Jam'iyyar Kwaminis, kuma suna ƙarƙashin kulawa mai zurfi wanda ke barazanar azabtarwa ga masu laifi, maimakon tantancewa kafin bugawa.[28] A shekara ta 2008, an kama mai ba da rahoto na ITV News John Ray yayin da yake rufe zanga-zangar "Free Tibet". Rahotanni na kafofin watsa labarai na kasa da kasa game da zanga-zangar Tibet 'yan watanni kafin wasannin Olympics na Beijing a 2008 sun haifar da martani mai karfi a cikin China. Masu aikin kafofin watsa labarai na kasar Sin sun yi amfani da damar yin jayayya da hukumomin farfaganda don ƙarin 'yancin kafofin watsa labarai: wani ɗan jarida ya tambaya, 'Idan ba a yarda da' yan jarida na kasar Sin su bayar da rahoto game da matsalolin da ke faruwa a Tibet ba, ta yaya' yan jaridar kasashen waje za su iya sanin game da hangen nesa na kasar Sin game da abubuwan da suka faru?' 'yan jarida na kasashen waje sun kuma bayar da rahoton cewa an hana su shiga wasu shafukan yanar gizo, gami da na kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam.[29] Shugaban kwamitin wasannin Olympics na kasa da kasa Jacques Rogge ya bayyana a ƙarshen wasannin Olympics da 'Dokokin [da ke kula da 'yancin kafofin watsa labarai na kasashen waje a lokacin wasannin Olympics] bazai zama cikakke ba amma suna da canjin teku idan aka kwatanta da halin da ake ciki a baya. Muna fatan za su ci gaba.' Kungiyar Wakilan Kasashen Waje-kashen Waje ta China (FCCC) ta fitar da wata sanarwa a lokacin wasannun wasannin Olympics cewa "duk da karɓar ci gaba dangane da samun dama da yawan taron manema labarai a cikin wasannin Olympics, FCCC ta kasance mai tsoratar da sauran wasannin Olympics sun fi damuwa a lokacin da aka bayar da rahoton ranar 30 da rahoton budewa a waje".

Tun lokacin da kasar Sin ke ci gaba da yin amfani da iko mai yawa a kan kafofin watsa labarai, tallafin jama'a ga rahotanni na cikin gida ya zama abin mamaki ga masu kallo da yawa.[29] Ba a san abubuwa da yawa game da yadda 'yan kasar Sin suka yi imani da maganganun hukuma na CCP ba, ko kuma game da waɗanne kafofin watsa labarai suke ganin gaskiya ne da kuma dalilin da ya sa. Ya zuwa yanzu, bincike kan kafofin watsa labarai a kasar Sin ya mayar da hankali kan sauya dangantakar da ke tsakanin kafofin watsa labarai da jihar a lokacin sake fasalin.[29] Har ila yau, ba a san shi sosai game da yadda yanayin kafofin watsa labarai na kasar Sin ya shafi ikon gwamnati na shawo kan masu sauraron kafofin watsa labarai ba.[29] Bincike kan amincewar siyasa ya nuna cewa fallasawa ga kafofin watsa labarai yana da alaƙa da goyon baya ga gwamnati a wasu lokuta, kuma a wasu ba su da kyau. An ambaci binciken a matsayin shaida cewa jama'ar kasar Sin sun yi imanin farfaganda da aka watsa musu ta hanyar kafofin watsa labarai, amma kuma cewa ba su yarda da shi ba.[30][31] Ana iya bayyana waɗannan sakamakon da suka sabawa ta hanyar fahimtar cewa talakawa suna ɗaukar tushen kafofin watsa labarai a matsayin abin dogaro zuwa mafi girma ko ƙarami, dangane da yadda kafofin watsa labarai suka sami gyare-gyare.[29]

A cikin 2012 Babban Kwamishinan Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na 'Yancin Dan Adam ya bukaci gwamnatin kasar Sin da ta ɗaga takunkumin kan damar samun damar kafofin watsa labarai zuwa yankin da kuma ba da damar masu sa ido masu zaman kansu, marasa son kai su ziyarci da kuma tantance yanayin a Tibet.[32] Gwamnatin kasar Sin ba ta canza matsayinta ba.

A watan Maris na 2020, kasar Sin ta kori ma'aikatan The New York Times, The Washington Post, da The Wall Street Journal don mayar da martani ga Amurka da ta bayyana cewa kafofin watsa labarai na kasar Sin guda biyar suna aiki a matsayin ofisoshin kasashen waje na gwamnati tare da ma'aikatan su da aka sake sanya su ma'aikatan gwamnatin kasar Sin, suna buƙatar amincewa kamar ma'aikatan diflomasiyya.[33]

Kasar Sin ta fitar da 'yan jarida na kasashen waje lokaci-lokaci. Ursula Gauthier, 'yar jarida daga Faransa da ke aiki a kungiyar kafofin watsa labarai ta L'Obs, an tura ta Faransa bayan ta yi sharhi game da martani na kasar Sin ga Hare-haren Paris da suka faru a watan Nuwamba 2015. Ta lura cewa matsayin tausayi na kasar Sin ba "ba tare da wani dalili ba".

Gauthier ya riga ya ba da rahoto game da tsanantawar da kasar Sin ta yi wa kabilun Uyghur, da yawa daga cikinsu sun yi imani da Islama. Sau da yawa kasar Sin tana zargin mutanen Uyghur da ta'addanci kuma ta kafa tsarin sansanoni, wanda suke da'awar su ne "cibiyoyin horar da sana'a". [34] Koyaya, waɗanda suka rayu a cikin sansanonin suna da'awar cewa hukumomi suna azabtarwa, fyade, da cin zarafin jima'i ga fursunoni tare da tilasta musu yin aiki ba tare da biyan su ba kuma suna lalata mata. Bugu da ƙari, masana da yawa da masu tsara manufofi na ƙasashen waje suna la'akari da tsare-tsaren da ba su dace ba maimakon alaƙa da tuhumar ta'addanci.[35] Saboda haka, 'yan jarida kamar Gauthier sun soki ayyukan kasar Sin.

A lokacin korar Gauthier, ita ce 'yar jarida ta farko da aka kore ta tun lokacin da China ta kori Melissa Chan daga Al Jazeera a shekarar 2015. Chan ya ba da rahoto game da "black kurkuku" na kasar Sin da kuma kwace ƙasar gwamnati. Game da korar ta, Yang Rui na China Global Television Network ya rubuta, "Ya kamata mu rufe wadanda ke lalata kasar Sin kuma mu tura su cikin kaya", a cewar The Wall Street Journal .

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ "China". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  2. ↑ "Progress in China's Human Rights Cause in 1996". March 1997.
  3. ↑ "Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 25 June 1993. paragraph I.5. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  4. ↑ "Trade Union Law and Collective Bargaining in China". China Business Review (in Turanci). 21 April 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  5. ↑ 中华全国总工会网站. acftu.org (in Harshen Sinanci). Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
  6. ↑ "Social Credit System in China: Why it is so scary". Nov 10, 2022.
  7. ↑ "Christians face waves of persecution". 24 November 2001. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  8. ↑ "China's Crackdown on Christians Worsens, Christian News". 7 February 2008. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  9. ↑ "Chinese government persecutes dissidents | TheCabin.net – Conway, Arkansas". Archived from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
  10. ↑ Department of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (19 September 2008). "China includes Tibet, Hong Kong, Macau". Retrieved 13 January 2012.
  11. ↑ "The Social Credit System: Not Just Another Chinese Idiosyncrasy". May 1, 2020.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Human Rights Watch. Walking on Thin Ice 28 April 2008.
  13. ↑ Amnesty International, "China: No Rule of Law when Defence Lawyers Cannot Perform their Legitimate Role", 5 October 2010
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Human rights in China". Amnesty International.
  15. ↑ Eva Pils, 'Asking the Tiger for His Skin: Rights Activism in China', Fordham International Law Journal, Volume 30, Issue 4 (2006).
  16. ↑ Yardley, Jim (28 November 2005). "A young judge tests China's legal system". Retrieved 23 August 2006.
  17. ↑ The New York Times. Rule by Law: A Series 2005.
  18. ↑ Belkin, Ira (Fall 2000). "China's Criminal Justice System: A Work in Progress" (PDF). Washington Journal of Modern China. 6 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
  19. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  20. ↑ "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  21. ↑ "Freedom on the Net Report: China" (PDF). April 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2011.
  22. ↑ Gunther, Marc. "Tech execs get grilled over mainland China business: Yahoo, Google, Microsoft, and Cisco, facing attack in Congress, say they're doing more good than harm in China". CNN. 16 February 2006.
  23. ↑ "China: Internet Companies Aid Censorship". 10 August 2006. Retrieved 6 February 2007.
  24. ↑ "China 'spying on Skype messages'", BBC News. 3 October.2008.
  25. ↑ "The CCP's Central Party School (College of National Administration) severely dealt with the serious violation of discipline by retired teacher Cai Xia". CCP's Central Party School (College of National Administration). Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 "China: Free Covid-19 Activists, 'Citizen Journalists'". Human Rights Watch. 27 April 2020.
  27. ↑ "Freedom of the Press Report: China". May 2011.
  28. ↑ "The Hijacked Potential of China's Internet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2006. "The Hijacked Potential of China's Internet", English translation of a chapter in the 2006 revised edition of Media Control in China published in Chinese by Liming Enterprises of Taiwan in 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2007
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Stockmann, Daniela (17 June 2010). "Who Believes Propaganda? Media Effects during the Anti-Japanese Protests in Beijing". The China Quarterly. 202: 269–289. doi:10.1017/S0305741010000238. S2CID 154907890.
  30. ↑ Kennedy, John James (1 October 2009). "Maintaining Popular Support for the Chinese Communist Party: The Influence of Education and the State-Controlled Media". Political Studies. 57 (3): 517–536. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2008.00740.x. S2CID 144636358.
  31. ↑ Chen, Xueyi; Shi, Tianjian (31 August 2001). "Media effects on political confidence and trust in the People's Republic of China in the post-Tiananmen period". East Asia. 19 (3): 84–118. doi:10.1007/s12140-001-0011-3. S2CID 154892012.
  32. ↑ UN News Centre (2 November 2012). "China must urgently address rights violations in Tibet – UN senior official". United Nations. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  33. ↑ Flynn, Kerry; Jiang, Steven (17 March 2020). "China to expel New York Times, Wall Street Journal, and Washington Post reporters | CNN Business". CNN.
  34. ↑ Maizland, Lindsay (1 March 2021). "China's Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang". councilonforeignrelations.com. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 12 October 2021. vocational training centers
  35. ↑ "European Parliament resolution of 4 October 2018 on mass arbitrary detention of Uyghurs and Kazakhs in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region". europarl.eu. European Parliament. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
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