Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Testosterone and violent crime

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Testosterone and violent crime:
What is the relationship between testosterone and violent crime?

Overview

Figure 1. Testosterone, a hormone that is primarily produced in the testicles of males and in the ovaries of females.

Scenario

Imagine a scenario where two individuals, both facing similar socioeconomic challenges, react differently to a stressful situation. One individual, driven by impulsive aggression, engages in violent behavior, while the other manages to de-escalate the conflict peacefully. What could explain these divergent responses? One potential factor is testosterone—a hormone often associated with aggression and dominance.

Recent statistics indicate a troubling 30% increase in domestic violence incidents and a 5% rise in overall violent crimes over the past year (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2024). This surge raises critical questions about the underlying factors contributing to aggressive behaviors.

The importance of understanding the relationship between testosterone and violent crime lies in its implications for public safety and mental health interventions. Testosterone is often associated with aggression; however, it is crucial to recognize that aggression does not always lead to violence. Factors such as mental health conditions, socioeconomic stressors, and substance abuse can amplify or mitigate these tendencies.

Research indicates that while higher testosterone (see Figure1) levels may correlate with increased aggression in some individuals, it is not a direct cause of violent crime. Instead, it interacts with other variables, such as psychological state and environmental context to influence behavior. Understanding these interactions can help inform prevention strategies aimed at reducing violent crime rates.


Focus Questions:

  • How do fluctuations in testosterone levels correlate with aggressive behaviors in individuals from varying socioeconomic backgrounds?
  • What role does mental health play in mediating the relationship between testosterone levels and violent crime?
  • In what ways does substance abuse exacerbate the effects of testosterone on aggressive behavior?
  • How can policy initiatives be designed to address both biological factors (like hormone levels) and social determinants (like poverty) contributing to violent crime?
  • What evidence-based prevention strategies can be implemented to reduce incidents of violence among individuals identified as having high testosterone levels?

Introduction to testosterone, violent crimes and aggression

[Provide more detail]

What is testosterone?

  • Testosterone is a hormone that is predominantly produced in the testes in males, in women smaller amounts are produced in the ovaries and adrenal glands. Testosterone belongs to a class of hormones known as androgens, which are responsible for the development of male characteristics and reproductive functions. Testosterone plays a crucial role in various physiological processes such as development of male characteristics, regulation of reproductive function, muscle mass and mood regulation (Nassar & Leslie, 2023).

Criteria for violent crimes

  • There is a criteria that classifies a crime as being violent, the 'violent' crime has to fall under one or more of these categories; murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault (U.S. Department of Justice—Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2020).
  • REFERENCE: U.S. Department of Justice—Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2020). Uniform Crime Report Crime in the United States, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement.pdf
  • A crime is classified as violent when it involves the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against another person or their property (National Institute of Justice, 2022).

The biological mechanisms linking testosterone to aggression

What is the role of testosterone in violent behavior?

DO I TALK ABOUT CHALLANGE HYPOTHESIS, or the General Aggression Model (GAM)??? - is this my psychological theory? and the rest of my stuff is research that supports this theory?? Or have a talked about a theory already integrating all the different factors - which is like the biopsychosocial model??

Correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive acts

Gender differences in testosterone’s impact on violence

  • The relationship between testosterone and violence is particularly pronounced in males, where higher levels of this hormone are correlated with increased aggression and violent behavior. This phenomenon can be understood through both biological and evolutionary lenses. This is not to say that testosterone doesn't have a significant influence on women and aggression.
  • Studies ___ & ____ & ____ all support that there is a strong correlation between testosterone and violence with in men....
  • However study Dabbs et al. (1988) also supported that there strong correlation between testosterone and aggression with in women.
  • However it is to be noted that there were some differences that could be noted due to gender this included ____ that whilst Dabbs et al. (1988) supported increased testosterone levels and increased violence, ____
  • Indicating that testosterone does impact genders in the following areas

maybe only talk about how there is only limited no. of studies that talk about testosterone in women and specifically violence... only talk about Dabbs et al. (1988), make reference to the Assari et al. (2014) that compares women and men and talks about how there is a biological and evolutionary lens - difference between men and women???

the specific behaviours that delay people into going to sleep.


Test your knowledge

Testosterone has the same effect on men as it does on women?

True
False

What psychological factors influence the relationship between testosterone and violence?

  • it has been established that testosterone does trigger aggression and can result in violence and violent crimes, but what about other factors that can heighten this response and the likelihood of this increase in testosterone occurring? Let's look at a scenario:

Scenario:

Two friends, Josh and Ben, find themselves at a local bar after a long week. Josh, who has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, is on medication but struggles with adherence due to his fluctuating moods. Ben, on the other hand, has recently started using anabolic steroids to enhance his athletic performance. As the night progresses, their conversation shifts from light-hearted banter to heated debates about life choices.

  • lets discuss how other factors can influence this scenario...

Mental health considerations

  • Depression:
  • Individuals with depression have indicated they have low levels of testosterone. However once treated with antidepressants there is an increase in testosterone which generally balances out the hormone to a stable level, however there have been some cases where the treatment of antidepressants has significantly increased testosterone, resulting in emotions of aggression and irritation as a side effect. (MUST FIND WHERE I FOUND THIS INFO!!)
  • Case study example: This case involved a middle-aged man undergoing treatment for major depressive disorder who initially presented with low testosterone levels. After several months of antidepressant therapy combined with lifestyle changes (including exercise), his testosterone levels increased significantly. Following this increase, he reported feelings of heightened confidence but also noted instances of irritability that led to aggressive outbursts when provoked.
  • Bipolar disorder:
  • Lyu et al. (2023) investigated the hormonal and inflammatory markers that were associated with various mood episodes in individuals diagnosed with bipolar disorder. The research aimed to identify specific biological signatures that correlate with manic, depressive, and euthymic (stable) states in bipolar patients.
  • Notably, testosterone levels were specifically mentioned as being significantly altered during different mood episodes. Higher testosterone levels were correlated with manic states, indicating a potential link between elevated testosterone and increased manic symptoms.
  • link back to how those with BD could could be at higher risk of violent behavior due to their increase in testosterone levels when in a manic state.

Scenario - mental health:

Relate back to scenario - As they drink and share stories, underlying psychological factors begin to surface. Josh's bipolar disorder leads him to experience intense emotional highs and lows. During a manic phase, he feels invincible and overly confident, which can heighten aggressive tendencies when provoked. Conversely, during depressive episodes, he may feel hopeless and withdrawn but can also react violently if he perceives a threat or insult.

The influence of substance abuse

  • Anabolic Steroid Abuse:
  • Maybe explain what this is then open into the below points
  • Anabolic steroids have been proven to hold the potential to significantly alter mood and behavior. It can be noted that users may experience heightened aggression, irritability, and mood swings, commonly referred to as “roid rage.” This phenomenon is characterized by sudden outbursts of anger or violence that are disproportionate to the triggering event. Research indicates that these aggressive tendencies can lead to an increased likelihood of engaging in violent acts (Christoffersen et al., 2019).
  • https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31421475/
  • Also to be noted when anabolic steroids are combined with alcohol can face an increased risk of defensive aggression (Johansson et al., 2000).
  • Case study: A documented case of a young athlete who began using anabolic steroids for performance enhancement exhibited dramatic changes not only physically but also psychologically. He developed symptoms consistent with aggressive behavior—frequent altercations and impulsive decision-making were reported by peers and family members. His elevated testosterone levels were confirmed through blood tests conducted before and after his steroid use began.
  • Smokers:
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6571549/
  • with in mind several studies have been conducted involving nicotine (smoking) and testosterone, there have been conflicting results, whilst some studies including Trummer et al. (2002) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12042277/ , Blanco-Muñoz et al. (2012) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22534361/ & Svartberg et al. (2003) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12887292/ have indicated that smoking does increase testosterone levels there have been other studies that show there has been no difference. These studies that have indicated that smoking does increase testosterone levels has also not provided information about participants physical and/or emotional side effects, therefore it is hard to determine if this spike in testosterone due to smoking can result in an increase in aggression and lead to violent crime.

Scenario - substance abuse:

Relate back to scenario - Meanwhile, Ben's substance abuse intensifies his aggression. The anabolic steroids increase his testosterone levels significantly, which is linked to heightened aggression and impulsivity. When combined with alcohol (a depressant that lowers inhibitions), Ben becomes increasingly confrontational as the night wears on.

Social environment and upbringing

  • upper class
  • lower class
  • what criteria was involved in those factors
  • /
  • Environmental stressors/ factors
  • what are the classes of socioeconomic factors/ what is involved
  • Socioeconomic factors can significantly influence both testosterone levels and aggressive behavior. Individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may experience higher stress levels, leading to increased aggression and violence, especially when combined with high testosterone levels.
  • Stress levels can increase testosterone levels due to that stress can make the testes more sensitive to hormones such as LH (luteinising hormone), a hormone that triggers testosterone production (Deuter et al., 2021). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33517905/
  • Talk about this study and how those with lower testosterone levels committed nonviolent crimes and how those from 'delinquent' 'low socioeconomic' backgrounds had higher testosterone levels and committed more violent crimes Dabbs et al. (1987). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3575604/

Scenario - social environment and upbringing:

Relate back to scenario - Additionally their socioeconomic status plays a role; both come from low-income backgrounds where stressors such as job insecurity and lack of access to mental health resources are prevalent. This environment fosters feelings of frustration and anger that can manifest in violent behavior.

What are the critiques and counterarguments regarding testosterone and violent crime?

[Provide more detail]

Alternative explanations for violent behavior

  • Biological - Genetics, Brain chemistry
  • Psychological influences - Mental health disorders, emotional regulation, history of trauma, drugs that actually lower testosterone but increase the emotion of aggression.
  • Environmental influences - Exposure to violence, peer influence, access to weapons
  • Cultural influences - cultural norms about aggression, media influence, socioeconomic factors (gangs)

Limitations of current studies

  • lack of gender studies, specifically female studies
  • unclear as to if these emotions of aggression would be highly likely to lead to violent crimes
  • there are substances that are known to lower testosterone yet cause aggressive/violent behavior... therefore is there truly a connection or is it the involvement of another/ other hormones etc..
  • complex interactions
  • Not deterministic

What are the implications for policy and prevention strategies?

Understanding the role of hormones in crime prevention programs

- Maybe don't use this

Potential interventions targeting high-risk individuals

  • Psychological Interventions -
  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): This therapy helps individuals recognize and change negative thought patterns that lead to aggression.
  • Anger Management Programs: These programs teach individuals how to control their anger and respond to provocations more constructively.
  • Medical Interventions -
  • Hormonal Treatments: In some cases, anti-androgens or medications that lower testosterone levels may be considered for individuals exhibiting extreme aggression linked to high testosterone.
  • Regular Screening: Monitoring hormone levels in at-risk populations could help identify those who might benefit from intervention before violent behavior occurs.
  • Social Interventions -
  • Community Programs: Initiatives aimed at reducing violence through community engagement can help address underlying issues such as poverty and lack of education.
  • Support Groups: Creating support networks for at-risk individuals can provide them with resources and coping strategies.
  • Educational Programs -
  • Awareness Campaigns: Educating communities about the signs of aggression and available resources can empower individuals to seek help before situations escalate.
  • Life Skills Training: Teaching conflict resolution skills, emotional regulation, and stress management can reduce the likelihood of violent outbursts.

Future directions for research on hormones and violence

  • limitations of studies discussed
  • + look at the other hormones that contribute to aggression and violent behaviors and how these come into play... will this knowledge then effect the legal systems ect.

Conclusion

  • There is a relationship between testosterone and violent crime, however how significant and accurate this is, is debatable... have a lot more research to be conducted... however it is obvious that with a combination of factors such as (what has been discussed) that these factors as well as an increase in testosterone can intensify the rate of aggression and can have the result of leading to violent crimes
  • answer all the focus questions.
  • Take-home message - everyone is different we all react and work differently, however if there is a link between hormone imbalances, specifically testosterone and this is a 'fixable' issue that could result in less people being not only hurt from violent crimes but for more people to not end-up in the legal system this is a cause to look further into???
  • The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
  • Suggested word count: 150 to 330 words
  • It should be possible for someone to only read the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a pretty good idea of the problem and what is known based on psychological science

Suggestions for this section:

  • What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
  • What are the answers to the focus questions?
  • What are the practical, take-home messages? (Even for the topic development, have a go at the likely take-home message)

See also

References

Assari, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. (2014). Association of Gender with Testosterone and Violent Behaviors. Trauma Monthly, 19(3). https://doi.org/10.5812/traumamon.18040

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2024, June 27). Recorded Crime - Victims, 2023. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/recorded-crime-victims/latest-release#:~:text=In%202023%2C%20there%20were%20409,2%20victims%20per%20100%2C000%20persons.

Blanco-Muñoz, J., Lacasaña, M., & Aguilar-Garduño, C. (2012). Effect of current tobacco consumption on the male reproductive hormone profile. The Science of the Total Environment, 426, 100–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.071

Christoffersen, T., Andersen, J. T., Dalhoff, K. P., & Horwitz, H. (2019). Anabolic-androgenic steroids and the risk of imprisonment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 203, 92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.04.041

Dabbs, J. M., Frady, R. L., Carr, T. S., & Besch, N. F. (1987). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence in young adult prison inmates. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49(2), 174–182. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-198703000-00007

Dabbs, J. M., Ruback, R., Frady, R. L., Hopper, C. H., & Sgoutas, D. S. (1988). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence among women. Personality and Individual Differences, 9(2), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(88)90088-8

Deuter, C. E., Duesenberg, M., Hellmann-Regen, J., Metz, S., Roepke, S., Wolf, O. T., Otte, C., & Wingenfeld, K. (2021). Psychosocial stress increases testosterone in patients with borderline personality disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and healthy participants. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-021-00145-x

Johansson, P., Lindqvist, A., Nyberg, F., & Fahlke, C. (2000). Anabolic androgenic steroids affects alcohol intake, defensive behaviors and brain opioid peptides in the rat. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 67(2), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0091-3057(00)00365-8

Lyu, N., Zhao, Q., Fu, B., Li, J., Wang, H., Yang, F., Liu, S., Huang, J., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., & Li, R. (2023). Hormonal and inflammatory signatures of different mood episodes in bipolar disorder: a large-scale clinical study. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04846-1

Nassar, G. N., & Leslie, S. W. (2023, January 2). Physiology, testosterone. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526128/

National Institute of Justice. (2022). Violent crime. https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/crimes/violent-crime

Svartberg, J., Midtby, M., Bønaa, K. H., Sundsfjord, J., Joakimsen, R. M., & Jorde, R. (2003). The associations of age, lifestyle factors and chronic disease with testosterone in men: the Tromso Study. European Journal of Endocrinology, 149(2), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1490145

Trummer, H., Habermann, H., Haas, J., & Pummer, K. (2002). The impact of cigarette smoking on human semen parameters and hormones. Human Reproduction, 17(6), 1554–1559. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/17.6.1554

U.S. Department of Justice—Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2020). Uniform Crime Report Crime in the United States, 2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2019/crime-in-the-u.s.-2019/topic-pages/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement.pdf

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