Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|African-American military pilots during World War II}}
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{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name= Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)
|image= [[File:Shield of the 332nd Fighter Group.svg|90px]]<br />
[[File:332d Air Expeditionary Wing.png|332nd Air Expeditionary Wing Insignia|90px]]
|caption= Emblems of wing
|dates= 1940–1948
|country= [[United States]]
|allegiance=
|branch= [[United States Army Air Corps]]<br />[[United States Army Air Forces]]<br />[[United States Air Force]]
|type=
|role= Trained for aerial combat
|size=
|command_structure= Graduates assigned to the [[332nd FG|332nd Fighter Group]] ([[99th Fighter Squadron]], [[100th Fighter Squadron]], [[301st Fighter Squadron]], [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302d Fighter Squadron]]), [[477th Fighter Group|477th Medium Bombardment Group]] ([[616th Bombardment Squadron]], [[617th Bombardment Squadron]], [[618th Bombardment Squadron]], [[619th Bombardment Squadron]])
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname= Red Tails<br /> Red-Tail Angels
|patron=
|motto= ''Spit Fire''
|battles= [[World War II]]
}}
The '''Tuskegee Airmen''' {{IPAc-en|t|ʌ|s|ˈ|k|iː|ɡ|iː}}<ref>See [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Tuskegee "Pronunciation of Tuskegee"], thefreedictionary.com; retrieved 3 October 2010.</ref> were a group of [[African American]] military pilots (fighter and bomber) and airmen who fought in [[World War II]]. They formed the [[332nd Fighter Group]] and the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group (Medium)]] of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF). The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks, and other support personnel. The Tuskegee airmen received praise for their excellent combat record earned while protecting white American bombers from enemy fighters. The group was awarded three [[Distinguished Unit Citation]]s.
All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Griel Field, Kennedy Field, [[Moton Field]], Shorter Field, and the Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=June 2014|title=The Tuskegee Airmen Airfields|journal=Air Force Magazine|page=63}}</ref> They were educated at the [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]] (now Tuskegee University), located near [[Tuskegee, Alabama]]. Of the 922 pilots, five were [[Haiti]]ans from the [[Armed Forces of Haiti|Haitian Air Force]] and one pilot was from [[Trinidad]].<ref>[http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx "Tuskegee Airmen Pilot Listing"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000349/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx |date=3 December 2013}}, tuskegee.edu; retrieved 13 May 2014.</ref> It also included a [[Hispanic–Latino naming dispute|Hispanic or Latino]] airman born in the [[Dominican Republic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/unknown-latino-tuskegee-airman-discovered/433479/|title=An Unknown Latino Tuskegee Airman Has Been Discovered|first=Juleyka Lantigua-Williams, National|last=Journal|date=5 November 2015|website=The Atlantic|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
The [[99th Pursuit Squadron]] (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) was the first black flying squadron, and the first to deploy overseas (to North Africa in April 1943, and later to Sicily and other parts of Italy). The [[332nd Fighter Group]], which originally included the 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons, was the first black flying group. It deployed to Italy in early 1944. Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with [[North American B-25 Mitchell]] bombers, they never served in combat. In June 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions and, in July 1944, with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron, it had four fighter squadrons.
The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]] fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s (March 1944), later with [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]]s (June–July 1944) and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the [[North American P-51 Mustang]] (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red [[empennage]]; the P-51B, C and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the [[Jim Crow laws]]{{#tag:ref|U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated ''de jure'' racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the "Jim Crow laws"; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans.{{sfn|Woodward|McFeely|2001|p=6}}|group=N}} and the American military was [[Racial segregation in the United States|racially segregated]], as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside of the army.
==History==
===Origins===
{{See also|Civilian Pilot Training Program}}
====Background====
[[File:P51 Mustang Red Tail.jpg|thumb|The [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51C Mustang]] flown by the [[Commemorative Air Force]] in the markings of the 302nd Fighter Squadron as a tribute to [[Lee Archer (pilot)|Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer]].]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airman P-51 Mustang taken at Airventure.JPG|thumb|Tuskegee Airman P-51 Mustang taken at Airventure. This particular P-51C is part of the [[Red Tail Squadron|Red Tail Project]]]]
[[File:Spirit of Tuskegee plane.jpg|thumb|The [[Boeing-Stearman Model 75|Stearman Kaydet training aircraft]] used by the Tuskegee Airmen, bearing the name ''Spirit of Tuskegee'']]
[[File:Tuskegee airman2.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Tuskegee airman Edward M. Thomas by photographer [[Toni Frissell]], March 1945]]
Before the Tuskegee Airmen, no African-American had been a U.S. military [[aviator|pilot]]. In 1917, African-American men had tried to become aerial observers but were rejected.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|pp=38–9}} African-American [[Eugene Bullard]] served in the French air service during World War I because he was not allowed to serve in an American unit. Instead, Bullard returned to infantry duty with the French.{{sfn|Lloyd|2000|p=176}}
The racially motivated rejections of World War I African-American recruits sparked more than two decades of advocacy by African-Americans who wished to enlist and train as military aviators. The effort was led by such prominent [[civil rights]] leaders as [[Walter Francis White|Walter White]] of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]], labor union leader [[A. Philip Randolph]] and Judge [[William H. Hastie]]. Finally, on 3 April 1939, Appropriations Bill Public Law 18 was passed by Congress containing an amendment by Senator [[Henry H. Schwartz|Harry H. Schwartz]] designating funds for training African-American pilots. The [[United States Department of War|War Department]] managed to put the money into funds of civilian flight schools willing to train black Americans.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|pp=38–9}}
War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the [[9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|9th Cavalry]], [[10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|10th Cavalry]], [[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th Infantry Regiment]] and [[25th Infantry Regiment (United States)|25th Infantry Regiment]]. When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets, their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=19}} In 1941, the War Department and the Army Air Corps, under pressure — [[1941 in aviation#June|three months]] before its transformation into the [[USAAF]] — constituted the first all-black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/tuskegee-airmen.cfm|title=The Tuskegee Airmen|website=www2.gwu.edu}}</ref>
Because of the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans, since in 1940 the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=25}} The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants had already participated in the [[Civilian Pilot Training Program]], unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). [[Tuskegee University]] had participated since 1939.{{sfn|Benton|1999|loc=p. 43 (Noel F. Parrish)}}
====Testing====
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2017}}
The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the [[List of psychological research methods|Psychological Research Unit 1]] at [[Maxwell Army Air Field]], [[Montgomery, Alabama]], and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, [[flight officer|navigators]] and [[bombardier (air force)|bombardiers]]. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first [[standardized tests]] to quantify [[IQ]]<!---{{dubious|first IQ tests were Binet-Simon, which led to [[Stanford-Binet]], which led to [[Army Alpha]], which was in use in World War One|date=September 2011}}--->, dexterity, and leadership qualities to select and train the best-suited personnel for the roles of bombardier, navigator, and pilot. The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the ablest and most intelligent African-American applicants were able to join.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
Airman [[Coleman Young]], later the first [[African-American]] [[List of mayors of Detroit|mayor of Detroit]], told journalist [[Studs Terkel]] about the process:
{{blockquote|They made the standards so high, we actually became an elite group. We were screened and super-screened. We were unquestionably the brightest and most physically fit young blacks in the country. We were super-better because of the irrational laws of Jim Crow. You can't bring that many intelligent young people together and train 'em as fighting men and expect them to supinely roll over when you try to fuck over 'em, right? (Laughs.)<ref>Terkel, Studs, American Dreams: Lost and Found, Patheon Books, 1080, pp. 359–360</ref>}}
====First Lady's flight====
The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] inspected it on 29 March 1941, and flew with African-American chief civilian instructor [[C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson]]. Anderson, who had been flying since 1929 and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots, took his prestigious passenger on a half-hour flight in a [[Piper J-3 Cub]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights|title=Mrs. Roosevelt Goes for a Ride - Red Tail Squadron|work=Red Tail Squadron|access-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324113003/http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights/|archive-date=24 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eleanor Roosevelt and the Tuskegee Airmen |url=https://www.fdrlibrary.org/tuskegee |access-date=2022-05-11 |website=FDR Presidential Library & Museum |language=en-US}}</ref> After landing, she cheerfully announced, "Well, you can fly all right."{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=52–4}}
The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the [[Julius Rosenwald Fund]] to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site|Moton Field]].{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=52–4}}
===Formation===
[[File:First Tuskeegee Class.jpg|thumb|right|Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, as he reviews the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, with [[Vultee BT-13]] trainers in the background, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941]]
On 22 March 1941, the [[99th Fighter Squadron|99th Pursuit Squadron]]{{#tag:ref|"Pursuit" being the U.S. term for "fighter" to May 1942.|group=N}} was activated without pilots at [[Chanute Field]] in [[Rantoul, Illinois]].{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=15}}{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=26–37}}{{#tag:ref|It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate, that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants. [[Yancey Williams]], an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot's training, filed suit in the District Court in Washington, DC for admittance to training. He was backed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.|group=N}}<ref name=FraCas2008>{{cite book |last1=Francis |first1=Charles |last2=Caso |first2=Adolph |date=2008 |title=Tuskegee Airmen - 5th Commemorative Edition with Class Pictures |location=Wellesley, [[Massachusetts|MA]] |publisher=Branden Books |isbn=978-0828321891 |page=309}}</ref>
A cadre of 14 black non-commissioned officers from the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments were sent to Chanute Field to help in the administration and supervision of the trainees. A white officer, Army Captain Harold R. Maddux, was assigned as the first commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron.{{r|FraCas2008}}<ref name=Haulman2017>{{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel Lee |date=2017 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen chronology : a detailed timeline of the Red Tails and other black pilots of World War II |others=Foreword by McGee, Charles E. |location=Montgomery AL |publisher=NewSouth Books |isbn=978-1588383419 |pages=9, 11, 12 |oclc=1002126644}}</ref>
A group of 271 enlisted men began training in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute Field in March 1941 until they were transferred to bases in Alabama in July 1941.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Maurer |editor-first=M. |date=1992 |title=World War II combat squadrons of the United States Air Force: the official military record of every active squadron |location=New York |publisher=Smithmark |isbn=978-0831715014 |oclc=25200303}}</ref> The skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at [[Sharpe Field|Tuskegee]] Fields in Alabama.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=57}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Maurer |editor-first=M. |date=1983 |title=Air Force combat units of World War II |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Office of Air Force History |isbn=0912799021 |oclc=9644436}}</ref>
While the enlisted men were in training, five black youths were admitted to the Officers Training School (OTS) at Chanute Field as aviation cadets. Specifically, Elmer D. Jones, Dudley Stevenson, and James Johnson of Washington, DC; Nelson Brooks of Illinois, and William R. Thompson of Pittsburgh, PA successfully completed OTS and were commissioned as the first Black Army Air Corps Officers.{{r|FraCas2008}}
In June 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama, and remained the only black flying unit in the country, but did not yet have pilots.{{r|Haulman2017}} The famous airmen were actually trained at five airfields surrounding Tuskegee University (formerly Tuskegee Institute)--Griel, Kennedy, Moton, Shorter, and Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<ref name=":1" /> The flying unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469 "Fact sheet:Tuskegee Airmen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019085202/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469 |date=19 October 2010}}, National Museum of the United States Air Force; retrieved 22 October 2010.</ref> and was backed by an entire service arm. On 19 July 1941, thirteen individuals made up the first class of aviation cadets (42-C) when they entered preflight training at Tuskegee Institute.{{r|Haulman2017}} After primary training at [[Moton Field]], they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field, about {{convert|10|mi|km}} to the west for conversion training onto operational types. Consequently, Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training (basic, advanced, and transition) at a single location. Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=93–4}}
By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=68}}
[[File:Tuskegee airman poster.jpg|thumb|left|[[Series E bond|War Bonds]] poster featuring a Tuskegee Airman]]
Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only {{convert|40|mi|km}} distant.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=233}} African-American contractor [[McKissack & McKissack|McKissack and McKissack, Inc.]] was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama [[Works Progress Administration]], and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=31–2}} The airmen were placed under the command of [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]] [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], one of only two black line officers then serving.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/111740/tuskegee-airman-goes-on-to-become-first-air-force-african-american-general/|title=Tuskegee Airman goes on to become first Air Force African-American gen|website=U.S. Air Force|language=en-US|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>
During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and [[Military Police]] had police authority over local [[white American|white]] civilians.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=56}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Jakeman |first=Robert J. |date=2015 |title=The Divided Skies Establishing Segregated Flight Training at Tuskegee, Alabama, 1934–1942 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0817392154 |oclc=1132255062}}</ref>
His successor, Colonel [[Frederick von Kimble]], then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield.<ref name=afhrastudy91pdf134>{{cite web |url=https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf |title=Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917–1952, Volume 1 – A thru L |year=1953 |last=Fogerty |first=Robert P. |pages=994–996 |publisher=[[Air Force Historical Research Agency]] |id= USAF historical studies: no. 91 |access-date=November 9, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831192543/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf |archive-date=August 31, 2021}}</ref> Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=233}} Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of training at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major [[Noel F. Parrish]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Gene |title=Colonel Parrish's Orders |journal=American Heritage |volume=46 |issue=3 - May/June 1995 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/content/colonel-parrish%E2%80%99s-orders?page=show}}</ref> Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=258}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tuskegee Army Flying School Summary|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency|via=Call Number 289.28-100}}</ref>
[[File:Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg|thumb|Instrument certificate for Tuskegee Airman Robert M. Glass, signed by Parrish]]
The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American [[flight surgeon]]s to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref name=FlightSurgeon>Jones, D.R., L.P. Gross and R. Marchbanks-Robinson. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20091130014406/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7973 "United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers, 1941–1949: The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons"]}}, ''SAM-FE-BR-TR-2007-0001: US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine'' (2007); retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.
Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses, until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at [[Randolph Field, Texas]]. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 to 1949. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily, and other parts of Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was [[Vance H. Marchbanks Jr.]], MD, a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis.<ref name=FlightSurgeon/>
The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=214}}
Trained officers were also left idle as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General [[Henry "Hap" Arnold]]: "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation."{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=93–5}}
===Combat assignment===
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen - Circa May 1942 to Aug 1943.jpg|thumb|left|Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a [[Curtiss P-40|P-40]] fighter aircraft]]
The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it joined the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel [[William Momyer|William W. Momyer]]. Given little guidance from battle-experienced pilots, the 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of [[Pantelleria]], code name [[Operation Corkscrew]], in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to clear the sea lanes for the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]] in July 1943. The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June.<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470 "Davis Leads the 99th into Combat"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005031011/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470 |date=5 October 2013}}, ''The National Museum of the United States Air Force''; retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans<ref>Wolk, Herman S. [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx "Pantelleria, 1943"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120161113/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx |date=20 November 2012}}, airforce-magazine.com, June 2002; retrieved 12 February 2012.</ref> due to air attack was the first of its kind.<ref>Molony, Brigadier C.J.C.; Captain F.C. Flynn (R.N.); Major-General H.L. Davies and Group Captain T.P. Gleave. "The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in mainland Italy 3 September 1943 to 31 March 1944", ''History of the Second World War'' (United Kingdom Military Series). Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2004, First edition, 1973 (HMSO); p. 49. {{ISBN|1845740696}}.</ref>
The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] (DUC) for its performance in combat.<ref name=dist/>
[[File:Col Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr.jpg|thumb|upright|Col. [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] in Sicily]]
[[File:James DanielChappie.jpg|thumbnail|upright|Tuskegee airman Instructor Daniel "Chappie" James]]
[[File:Alix Pasquet.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Tuskegee airman Alix Pasquet, date unknown.]]
By the end of February 1944, the all-black [[332nd Fighter Group]] had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The [[100th Fighter Squadron|100th]], [[301st Fighter Squadron|301st]] and [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302nd]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/195963/escort-excellence/|title=Escort Excellence|website=National Museum of the US Air Force|language=en-US|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>
Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on 1 May 1944, joined them on 6 June at [[Ramitelli Airfield]], nine kilometers south-southeast of the small city of [[Campomarino]], on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic coast]]. From Ramitelli, the 332nd Fighter Group escorted [[Fifteenth Air Force]] heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany.<ref name="332d"/>
Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.<ref name="Rice">Rice, Markus. [http://logicalthinker2.tripod.com/Tuskegeeaircraft.html "The Men and Their Airplanes: The Fighters"], ''Tuskegee Airmen'' via logicalthinker2.tripod.com, 1 March 2000.</ref>
A B-25 bomb group, the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], was forming in the U.S. but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.<ref name="Rice"/>
====Active air units====
[[File:Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group.jpg|thumb|left|Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group at [[Ramitelli Airfield]], [[Italy]]; from left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelson Jr., Captain [[Andrew D. Turner]], and Lt. [[Clarence D. Lester|Clarence P. Lester]]]]
The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. were considered to be highly successful.<ref name=shsu>[http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html "Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225702/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html |date=7 June 2011}} ''Sam Houston State University''; retrieved 11 June 2011.</ref><ref name=sd>[http://www.sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/african_american_exhibit/military-inspirations.php "Celebrating African Americans in Aviation"], ''San Diego Air & Space Museum''; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref>
In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three [[Distinguished Unit Citation#Army and Air Force|Distinguished Unit Citations]] (DUC) during World War II. The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May – 11 June 1943, Monastery Hill near [[Battle of Monte Cassino|Cassino]] from 12 to 14 May 1944, and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945. The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war.<ref name=dist>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722181355/http://www.randolph.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5896 "99th Flying Training Squadron History."] ''United States Air Force''; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref><ref name=jet>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2 "Escort Excellence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141314/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2 |date=3 December 2013}}, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref> The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, [[Anzio]], Normandy, the [[Rhineland]], the [[Po Valley]] and Rome-Arno and others. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes.<ref name=shsu/>
The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day.<ref name=NMUSAF>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 "Escort Excellence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 |date=9 March 2012}}, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> On 24 March 1945, 43 P-51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B-17 bombers over {{convert|1600|mi|km}} into Germany and back. The bombers' target, a massive Daimler-Benz tank factory in Berlin, was heavily defended by ''Luftwaffe'' aircraft, including propeller-driven [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190|Fw 190s]], [[Messerschmitt Me 163|Me 163 "Komet"]] rocket-powered fighters, and 25 of the much more formidable [[Messerschmitt Me 262|Me 262s]], history's first operational jet fighter. Pilots Charles Brantley, Earl Lane and [[Roscoe Brown]] all shot down German jets over Berlin that day.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} For the mission, the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.<ref name="332d">[http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm "332d Fighter Squadron"], everworld.com; retrieved 9 July 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025100903/http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref>
Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy-occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]], [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]], [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]] and [[North American P-51 Mustang]] fighter aircraft.<ref name=shsu/>
===Tuskegee Airmen bomber units===
====Formation====
With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the [[NAACP]] and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time,{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=123}} or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training,{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=219}} represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.{{#tag:ref|The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches, weight under 170 pounds, precluded many larger African-American men from eligibility.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=123}}|group=N}}
On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], an all-white group. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=214}}<ref name=Maurer1994>{{cite book |last=Maurer |first=M. |date=1994 |title=Air Force combat units of World War II |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=0785801944 |oclc=30111671}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|title=477th Bombardment Group Lineage and Honors History|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite journal|title=477th Bombardment Group Histories for 1943 and 1944|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency}}</ref> By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated—an all-Black group.{{r|Maurer1994}}<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=94, 124}}
The 477th eventually contained four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit operated 60 [[North American B-25 Mitchell]] bombers.{{#tag:ref|Each B-25 bomber cost $175,000. The overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=177}}|group=N}} The 477th went on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=457}} The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=186}}
The home field for the 477th was [[Selfridge Field]], located outside Detroit, with forays to [[Wurtsmith Air Force Base|Oscoda Army Air Field]] in [[Oscoda, Michigan]].{{#tag:ref|15 of these aviators died while training in Michigan. Among them was 2nd Lieutenant Frank Moody, whose [[P-39 Airacobra]] emitted black smoke and [[Cartwheel (gymnastics)|cartwheeled]] into [[Lake Huron]] on 11 April 1944. His body was recovered shortly thereafter in the [[Saint Clair River]]. His aircraft was discovered by divers 70 years to the day after the accident.<ref name="Alcona">{{cite news |title=Recovering Michigan's history of the Tuskegee airmen |page=16 |date=8 September 2021 |volume=150 |number=35|newspaper=Alcona County Review}}</ref> Per the ''Alcona County Review'':"The first African American pilots training by the United States Army Air Corps earned their wings at Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama during World War II. Beginning in the spring of1943, fighter pilots from Tuskegee received advanced training in Michigan. "The relative safety of Midwestern America, along with weather in geographical conditions that approximated what aviators could expect to encounter in Europe, encouraged the military to use airfields at Selfridge northeast of Detroit, and at Oscoda on the shores of Lake Huron."<ref name="Alcona"/>|group=N}} Other bases were used for various types of training courses. Twin-engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while the transition to multi-engine pilot training was at [[Mather Air Force Base|Mather Field, California]]. Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to [[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]]. Gunners learned to shoot at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin Field, Florida]]. Bombers-navigators learned their trades at [[Hondo Army Air Field]] and [[Midland Air Field|Midland Air Field, Texas]] or at [[Roswell, New Mexico]]. Training of the new African-American crewmen also took place at [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]], [[Lincoln, Nebraska]], and [[Scott Air Force Base|Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois]]. Once trained, the air and ground crews were spliced into a working unit at Selfridge.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=207}}{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=180–2}}
====Command difficulties====
The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel [[Robert Selway]], who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=Summer 2018|title=A Tale of Two Commanders|journal=Air Power History|volume=65|pages=45{{en dash}}49}}</ref> Like his ranking officer, Major General [[Frank O'Driscoll Hunter]] from Georgia, Selway was a racial segregationist. Hunter was blunt about it, saying such things as "...racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together."{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=184, 187}} He backed Selway's violations of Army Regulation 210–10, which forbade segregation of airbase facilities. They segregated base facilities so thoroughly that they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by race. When the audience sat in random patterns as part of "Operation Checkerboard," the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=185–6}} African-American officers petitioned base [[Commanding Officer]] William Boyd for access to the only [[Military officers' club|officer's club]] on base.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B13CGJMiyOIC&pg=PA158|title=Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military|last=Nalty|first=Bernard C.|date=1989|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780029224113|page=158|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=126}} Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights; he was court-martialed for this.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8GSDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP163|title=Facing the Rising Sun: African Americans, Japan, and the Rise of Afro-Asian Solidarity|last=Horne|first=Gerald|date=16 January 2018|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=9781479854936|language=en}}</ref>
Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans, although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=126–7}} The 477th was transferred to [[Godman Field]], Kentucky before the club was built. They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge's size, with no air-to-ground gunnery range and deteriorating runways that were too short for B-25 landings. Colonel Selway took on the second role of the commanding officer of Godman Field. In that capacity, he ceded Godman Field's officers club to African-American airmen. White officers used the whites-only clubs at nearby Fort Knox, much to the displeasure of African-American officers.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=128–9}}
Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]], transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a [[Major (United States)|major]]. He was replaced by another white officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=131–2}}
On 15 March 1945,{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=187}} the 477th was transferred to [[Freeman Field]], near [[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]], Indiana. The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men. Superimposed on it were 400 African-American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units. Freeman Field had a firing range, usable runways, and other amenities useful for training. African-American airmen worked in proximity with white ones; both lived in a public housing project adjacent to the base.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=132}}{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=184, 187}}
Colonel Selway turned the noncommissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers' club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers' club became the cadre's club. The old [[Non-Commissioned Officer]]s Club, promptly sarcastically dubbed "Uncle Tom's Cabin", became the trainees' officers club. At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots and had about four years in service. Four others had completed training as pilots, bombardiers and navigators and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps. Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time. Nevertheless, by Colonel Selway's fiat, they were trainees.{{r|FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187}}{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=132–3}}
Off base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their clothes and yet willingly laundered those of [[German prisoners of war in the United States|captured German soldiers]].{{r|FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187}}
In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only officer's club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call and had the assistant [[provost marshal]] and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers' entry. The latter, a major, ordered them to leave and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused. It was the beginning of the [[Freeman Field Mutiny]].{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=133}}
In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was redesignated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]] A complete sweep of Selway's white staff followed, with all vacated jobs filled by African-American officers. The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action. The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on 8 October 1945. On 13 March 1946, the two-squadron group, supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron (later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron), the 118th Base Unit, and a band, moved to its final station, [[Lockbourne Field]]. The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on 1 July 1947, ending the 477th Composite Group. It was reorganized as the [[332nd Air Expeditionary Wing|332nd Fighter Wing]].{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=206–8}}{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=263}}
===War accomplishments===
[[File:"GOOD HUNTING, SON,- YOU'RE ON YOUR OWN NOW^^" - NARA - 535667.jpg|thumb|right|Office of War Information poster]]
In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives.<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 "Escort Excellence."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 |date=9 March 2012}} ''National Museum of the United States Air Force''; retrieved 12 August 2013.</ref> The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions{{sfn|Tillman|2012|p=24}} and 32 captured as prisoners of war.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=394}}{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|loc= [https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C pp. 405–13] (Tuskegee Honor Roll)}}
The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments:
* 1578 combat missions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/tuskegee-airmen/|title=The Tuskegee Airmen|website=National Archives Foundation|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref> 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haulman |first=Daniel |date=2010 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat |journal=Air Power History |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=14–21 |jstor=26275921}}</ref>
* 179 bomber escort missions,<ref name=NMUSAF/> with a good record of protection,{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=394}} losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27, compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P-51 groups{{sfn|Haulman|2013|}}
* 112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air, another 150 on the ground<ref name=NMUSAF/> and 148 damaged. This included three [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] jet fighters shot down
* 950 rail cars, trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed (over 600 rail cars<ref name=NMUSAF/>)
* One torpedo boat put out of action. {{ship|German torpedo boat|TA22||2}} was an Italian World War I-era warship (''Giuseppe Missori''), that had been [[Torpedoboot Ausland#Ex-Italian ships|seized by the Germans and put into service]]. It was attacked on 25 June 1944, and [[Constructive total loss|damaged so severely]] she was never repaired. She was decommissioned on 8 November 1944, and finally [[Scuttling|scuttled]] on 5 February 1945.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=21 October 2011 |title=Nine Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen |publisher=tuskegee.edu |url=https://www.tuskegee.edu/Content/Uploads/Tuskegee/files/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf |df=dmy-all |access-date=2021-01-26}}</ref><ref name=mutiny>[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/97-0429.pdf "The Freeman Field Mutiny: A Study In Leadership"], ''Air University, Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base'', Montgomery, Alabama; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref>
* 40 boats and barges destroyed<ref name= NMUSAF/>
Awards and decorations included:
* Three [[Distinguished Unit Citation]]s
** 99th Pursuit Squadron: 30 May – 11 June 1943, for actions over Sicily{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haulman |first=D.L. |date=2010 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat |journal=Air Power History |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=14–21}}</ref>
** 99th Fighter Squadron: 12–14 May 1944: for successful airstrikes against [[Monte Cassino]], Italy. The first two Distinguished Unit Citations received by the 99th Fighter Squadron were awarded to the groups to which the squadron was attached. At the time, when a group received the honor, it was shared with the squadrons the were assigned or attached to the group.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
** 332nd Fighter Group (and its 99th, 100th, and 301st Fighter Squadrons): 24 March 1945: for a bomber escort mission to Berlin, during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy Me 262 jets. The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on 6 March 1945.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* At least one [[Silver Star]]{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* 96 [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Crosses]] to 95 Airmen; Captain [[William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)|William A. Campbell]] was awarded two.{{sfn|Haulman|2012|p=52}}<ref>Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. [https://archive.org/details/ChronologicalTableOfTuskegeeAirmen "Chronological Table of Tuskegee Airmen Who Earned the Distinguished Flying Cross"]; retrieved 26 January 2021.</ref>
* 14 [[Bronze Star]]s{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* 744 [[Air Medal]]s{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* At least 60 [[Purple Heart]]s<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tuskegee Airmen awarded Purple Hearts |url=https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-purple-hearts/collection_0539a48c-6928-11df-8a06-00127992bc8b.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221112160555/https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-purple-hearts/collection_0539a48c-6928-11df-8a06-00127992bc8b.html |archive-date=2022-11-12 |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=St. Louis Post-Dispatch |language=en}}</ref>
====Controversy over escort record====
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group pilots ppmsca13245u.jpg|thumb|upright|Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in [[Italy]] 1945]]
For decades, the Tuskegee Airmen were popularly believed to have never lost a bomber under escort. This belief derived most directly to an article, "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss", published by the ''[[Chicago Defender]]'' on 24 March 1945. Citing information supplied by the 15th Air Force,<ref name="USAtoday_1">{{Cite web |date=1 April 2007 |title=Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-04-01-tuskegee-airmen_N.htm |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=USA Today}}</ref>{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=122}} the article said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire.<ref name=WApost_01042007>Johnson, Bob. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/16/AR2006121600849.html "Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen"], p. A18, WashingtonPost.com, 17 December 2006; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.{{r|WApost_01042007}} Alan Gropman, a professor at the [[National Defense University]], disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters.{{r|WApost_01042007}}
Daniel Haulman of the [[Air Force Historical Research Agency]] (AFHRA) reassessed the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. He documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen, citing after-mission reports filed by the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, records of missing air crew, and witness testimony.{{r|USAtoday_1}}
[[File:Tuskegee airmen 2.jpg|thumb|left|Several Tuskegee Airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945]]
Haulman wrote a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth," published in the ''[[Alabama Review]]'' and by [[NewSouth Books]] as an e-book, and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013. The article documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group. This total included 15 B-17s of the [[483rd Bombardment Group]] shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944, that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd.{{sfn|Haulman|2016|p=29}}
Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.{{sfn|Haulman|2013|}}
In 2022, Dr. Haulman published a comprehensive study that established that the record of the 322d differed substantially from that of the three other P-51 [[group (military aviation unit)|groups]] assigned to Fifteenth Air Force in terms of bombers lost. The group was noticeably better at protecting bombers they escorted, even if not perfect. While the 332nd only lost 27 escorted [[heavy bomber]]s while flying 179 escort missions,<ref group=N>Statistics for the 332nd Group include escort missions flown with P-47s.</ref> the [[31st Fighter Group]] lost 49 in 184 missions, the [[325th Operations Group|325th]] lost 68 in 192 escort missions, while the [[52nd Operations Group|52nd]] lost 88 in 193 missions. Moreover, the 332nd flew more missions than any of the other three groups on which they lost no escorted bombers. Combining these numbers with the numbers of enemy aircraft destroyed by each of these groups suggests that the 332nd stuck closer to protect the bombers they escorted, while the other groups were willing to pursue enemy fighters away from the bombers.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://www.afhistory.org/air-space-power-history/ |last1=Haulman|first1=Daniel L.|title=Measuring Up: A Comparison of the Mustang Fighter Escort Groups of the Fifteenth Air Force June 1944 – April 1945|year=2022 |volume=69 |issue=4|periodical=Air & Space Power History|publisher=Air Force Historical Foundation|access-date=December 22, 2022}} (web access limited to members)</ref>
[[File:Tuskegee airmen (archive photo).jpg|thumb|Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations|Mediterranean theater]]]]
The historical record shows several examples of the fighter group's losses. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944, noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."<ref>Banerji, Shilpa. [http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml "Historians Question Record of Tuskegee Airmen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720031259/http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml |date=20 July 2008}}, Diverse education, 19 June 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
[[William H. Holloman]] was reported by the ''Times'' as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the [[University of Washington]] and chaired the Airmen's history committee.{{r|WApost_01042007}} According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the ''Chicago Defender'' article was published.{{r|USAtoday_1}} The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.{{sfn|Haulman|2016|p=55}}
===Postwar===
[[File:Alfonso Harris and Tuskegee Airmen - Flickr - San Diego Air ^ Space Museum Archives.jpg|thumb|right|Various Tuskegee Airmen by a P-51 Mustang at [[Luke Air Force Base|Luke Field]], around January or February 1946.]]
Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training.<!--measured how? see below--> Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight [[racism]]. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, but other units continued to harass these airmen.<ref name="Tuskegee Airmen Combat record">[http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html "Tuskegee Airmen History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130165710/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html |date=30 November 2010}}, Tuskegee airmen; retrieved 11 October 2010.</ref>
In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial and ground targets and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long-range escort mission in the [[Pacific War|Pacific theatre of World War II]]), the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class. The pilots were Captain [[Alva Temple]], Lts. [[Harry Stewart, Jr.]], [[James H. Harvey]] III and [[Halbert Alexander]]. Staff Sergeant [[Buford A. Johnson]] (30 August 1927 – 15 April 2017) served as the pilots' aircraft crew chief.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-18|title=Buford Alvin Johnson|url=https://cafriseabove.org/buford-alvin-johnson/|access-date=2021-07-06|website=CAF RISE ABOVE|language=en-US}}</ref> Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good."<ref>''Aviation History Magazine'', March 2012.</ref><!--needs article title, author, page number---> They received congratulations from the governor of Ohio and Air Force commanders across the nation.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|pp=402–4}}
After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President [[Harry S. Truman]] with [[Executive Order 9981]], the veteran Tuskegee Airmen found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed [[United States Air Force]]. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned [[Columbia Air Center]] in Maryland.<ref>Zieminski, Andy. [http://www.gazette.net/stories/020708/prinnew170059_32361.shtml "County's first black-owned airport becomes training ground."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108063412/http://www.gazette.net/stories/020708/prinnew170059_32361.shtml |date=8 January 2009}} ''Gazette.net: Maryland Community Newspapers Online'', 7 February 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> On 11 May 1949, ''Air Force Letter 35.3'' mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf|title=Study Guide for Testing to Technical Sergeant|page=32|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207111235/http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs, a civilian flight instructor who helped launch in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee,{{sfn|Gubert|Sawyer|Fannine|2002|p=130}} later became the founder of [[Negro Airmen International]], an association joined by many airmen. USAF General [[Daniel James Jr.|Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.]] (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of [[List of United States Air Force four-star generals|four-star general]].<ref>[http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/Biographies/Display/tabid/225/Article/106647/general-daniel-james-jr.aspx "General Daniel James Jr."] ''United States Air Force'' (1978); retrieved 20 November 2015.</ref> Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron [[Marion Rodgers]] went on to work in communications for [[NORAD]] and as a program developer for the [[Apollo 13]] project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jeremy Bloom |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeremy-bloom/wishes-for-our-warriors_b_7360732.html|title=Wishes for Our Warriors|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref>
In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including {{Anchor|Herbert Carter}}Lieutenant Colonel [[Herbert Carter (pilot)|Herbert Carter]], Colonel [[Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)|Charles McGee]], group historian Ted Johnson, and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer, flew to [[Balad, Iraq]], to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the [[332nd Air Expeditionary Wing]]. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the [[Ninth Air Force]] and [[United States Central Command Air Forces|U.S. Central Command Air Forces]].<ref name=Iraq2005>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2005-10-22-tuskegee-airmen_x.htm "Tuskegee Airmen suit up, head to Iraq."] ''USA Today'', 22 October 2005; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
{{asof|2008}}, no one knew how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel were still alive.<ref>Seelye, Katharine Q. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?ref=us "Inauguration Is a Culmination for Black Airmen."] ''The New York Times'' via nytimes.com, 12 October 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> In August 2019, 14 documented original surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participated at the annual Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.<ref>[http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org "Latest Tuskegee Airmen News"], tuskegeeairmen.org; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref><ref>[http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/ President's Post Convention Letter to Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203191648/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/ |date=3 February 2020}}, tuskegeeairmen.org; 12 November 2019; retrieved 4 February 2020</ref>
Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving members of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in [[St. Petersburg, Florida]], following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers during a mission in Italy in January 1943.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.airforcetimes.com/articles/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke|title=Willie Rogers, Tuskegee Airman, dies at 101 after stroke |website=Air Force Times |date=21 November 2016 |access-date=27 November 2016}} (conflicting info in source) - This entry requires additional research--no record showing Willie Rogers was a Red Tail pilot. In addition, no record exists showing any Tuskegee Airmen ground support personnel assigned in Italy was shot by German soldiers. See also [http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/11/21/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-in-florida.html Fox News webpage] 21 November 2016. It is unclear if the veteran was vetted by the Harry A. Sheppard Research Committee of Tuskegee Airmen</ref> In 2007, President [[George W. Bush]] awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 300 surviving Tuskegee Airmen, but Rogers was not present. He was given a medal in 2013 after he revealed his previously undisclosed involvement. His pastor, Rev. Irby, said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian."
Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson, 24, had gone missing while flying a [[P-51 Mustang]] and escorting a reconnaissance flight to Prague from Italy on 23 December 1944. He was on his 68th mission and had previously been awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]. On 27 July 2018, his remains, which had been recovered in Austria a year earlier, were conclusively identified and confirmed to his daughter – included with them was a ring inscribed from her mother to her father and dated 1943. The day before to the announcement, his wingman, 2nd Lt. Robert L. Martin, had died at 99, in [[Olympia Fields, Illinois]]. The bodies of 26 other Tuskegee Airmen who disappeared in WWII remain unrecovered.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/07/27/pentagon-identifies-tuskegee-airman-missing-from-world-war-ii/ Pentagon identifies Tuskegee Airman missing from World War II], ''[[Washington Post]]'', 27 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/tuskegee-airmans-daughter-gets-a-golden-ring-found-at-his-wartime-crash-site/2018/08/11/e25386e6-99ab-11e8-843b-36e177f3081c_story.html |title=Tuskegee airman's daughter gets a golden ring found at his wartime crash site |last=Ruane |first=Michael E. |date=11 August 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref>
In 2019, [[Robert Friend (pilot)|Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend]], one of 12 remaining Tuskegee Airmen at the time, died on 21 June in [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]] at the age of 99.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/Tuskegee-Airman-Who-Flew-142-WWII-Combat-Missions-Dies-at-99-511690001.html|title=Tuskegee Airman Who Flew 142 WWII Combat Missions Dies at 99 |publisher= [[NBC New York]]|date=21 June 2019|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He had flown 142 combat missions in World War II. A public viewing and memorial was held at the [[Palm Springs Air Museum]] on 6 July.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/ny-last-surviving-tuskegee-airmen-died-20190622-flyix6o22bd33pq3wlgmmxotxi-story.html |title=One of last surviving Tuskegee Airmen, Lt. Col. Robert Friend, has died|newspaper= [[New York Daily News]] |date=21 June 2019|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He had spoken about his experiences in many different events before to his death, such as in [[Garden Grove Unified School District|John Murdy Elementary School's "The Gratitude Project"]] in [[Garden Grove, California|Garden Grove]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://ggusd.us/news/murdy-elementary-schools-gratitude-project-honors-real-life-heroes|title=Murdy Elementary School's Gratitude Project Honors Real Life Heroes|publisher=[[GGUSD]]|date=1 June 2018|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
On January 16, 2022, Brigadier General [[Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)|Charles McGee]] died in his sleep at the age of 102.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/tuskegee-airman-charles-mcgee-dies-at-102/2938419/ |title=Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee Dies at 102 |last=Cook |first=Gina |date=January 16, 2022 |work=[[WRC-TV]] |access-date=January 16, 2022}}</ref> His 30-year military career included 409 combat missions in [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]], and [[Vietnam War]].
<gallery widths="200px" heights="155px">
File:T-1A 3.jpg|''Red Tails'' continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at [[Randolph Air Force Base]] in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen
File:Tuskegee Airmen + US Congressional Gold Medals, 2007March29.jpg|The [[Congressional Gold Medal]] was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the [[United States Capitol rotunda|U.S. Capitol rotunda]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] by President [[George W. Bush]] on March 29, 2007.
File:State of the Union 2020 (49494263147).jpg|Brigadier General [[Charles McGee (pilot)|Charles McGee]] being honored by President [[Donald Trump]] at the [[2020 State of the Union Address]], with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady [[Karen Pence]] to the right
</gallery>
==Legacy and honors==
[[File:A P-51 tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen.jpg|thumb|upright|A tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen located at the [[Palm Springs Air Museum]], [[Palm Springs, California]].]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.JPG|thumb|The Hangar One Museum at the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] at [[Moton Field Municipal Airport|Moton Field, Tuskegee, Alabama]].]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airman Tech. Sgt. (Ret.) George Watson Sr. is presented the Purple Heart medal by Congressman Christopher Smith and Col. Gina M. Grosso, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst commander.jpg|thumb|Congressman [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Christopher Smith]] presented the [[Purple Heart Medal]] to [[Tuskegee Airman]] Tech. Sgt. (Ret.) George Watson Sr. with then Col. [[Gina Grosso|Gina M. Grosso]], [[Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst]] commander in 2010]]
[[File:P-51C-18.jpg|thumb|The restored P-51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen, now flown by [[Red Tail Project]] as described in ''[[Red Tail Reborn]]'']]
[[File:F-16B Fighting Falcon.png.jpg|thumb|A [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon]] (an F-16B, specifically) on display at the [[Aviation Challenge]] campus of the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]; note its acknowledgement to the Tuskegee Airmen on its dorsal fin.]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen.png|thumb|The new redesigned Tuskegee Airmen Depot sticker.]]
On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a [[Congressional Gold Medal]]<ref name=THOMAS>{{USBill|110|S.Con.Res.|15|pipe=S.Con.Res.15: A concurrent resolution authorizing the Rotunda of the Capitol to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award the Congressional Gold Medal to the Tuskegee Airmen}}</ref> at a ceremony in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|U.S. Capitol rotunda]].<ref name="Evans 2007">{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Ben |title=Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal |website=The Times and Democrat |date=2007-03-30 |url=https://thetandd.com/news/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-congressional-gold-medal/article_44fb187a-7858-5e15-8698-ffe78617203e.html |access-date=2023-07-07 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The medal is currently on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]].{{r|USAtoday_1}} The airfield where the airmen trained is now the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/tuai "Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site"], nps.gov; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
[[Thurgood Marshall]], the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).<ref name="Facts">[http://www.history.com/news/the-tuskegee-airmen-5-fascinating-facts "History in the Headlines: The Tuskegee Airmen: 5 Fascinating Facts"], History.com, 20 January 2012; retrieved 9 July 2012.</ref>
Robert W. Williams Jr., a navigator/bombardier in the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], became a judge in the First Judicial District, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In 1979, he was elected to the Commonwealth Court, an appellate court, and the first African American to serve on that court. In 1985, he resigned from the court to run for the District Attorney of Philadelphia County. He was the first African American to successfully become a city-wide candidate for that office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pacchs.org/subsequent_bios.html|title=Subsequent Commissioned Judge Biographies - Pennsylvania Commonwealth Court Historical Society|website=pacchs.org |df=dmy-all|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref> On July 3, 2023, Williams reached the age of 100, making him one of the last Tuskegee Airmen alive.<ref name="Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. 2023">{{cite web | title=Judge Robert Wesley Williams, Jr., (1923- )Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. | website=Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. | date=2023-05-02 | url=https://phillyredtails.org/flight-officer-robert-wesley-williams-jr-1923/ | access-date=2023-07-07}}</ref>
Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. [[Eugene Winslow]] founded Afro-Am Publishing in [[Chicago]], Illinois, which published ''Great Negroes Past and Present'' in 1963.<ref>[http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-07-11/news/0107110264_1_tuskegee-airman-mr-winslow-design "Eugene Winslow, 81: Tuskegee Airman, Pioneering Designer"], ''Chicago Tribune'', 11 July 2001.</ref>
Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of [[Wheelus Air Base]] outside of Tripoli.<ref name="Facts"/>
Four Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a [[brigadier general]] by President Nixon. He was not the only Tuskegee graduate to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members.<ref name="Facts"/> In 2019, at 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was promoted to honorary Brigadier General.<ref name=McGee/>
[[Coleman Young]] served in the 477th Medium-Bomber Group of the as a second lieutenant, bombardier, and navigator. As a lieutenant in the 477th, Young played a role in the Freeman Field Mutiny in 1945. Young later was elected mayor of Detroit, MI and served from 1974 to 1994. Young was the first African-American mayor of Detroit.
In 2006, California Congressman [[Adam Schiff]] and Missouri Congressman [[William Lacy Clay Jr.]], led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>Oblack, Sean. [http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm "Schiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726004155/http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm |date=26 July 2007}} , schiff.house.gov;, retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
The [[99th Flying Training Squadron]] flies [[T-1A Jayhawk]]s and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red. On 1 August 2008, Camp Creek Parkway, a portion of [[Georgia State Route 6|State Route 6]] in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point [[East Point, Georgia|near Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into [[Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/en-US/display/20072008/HR/1023|title=Georgia General Assembly (2008) House Resolution 1023 Act 745|date=14 May 2008|website=Georgia General Assembly Legislation|publisher=Georgia General Assembly|format=pdf|access-date=31 January 2017}}</ref>
The [[Heinz History Center]] in [[Pittsburgh]] presented an award to several [[Western Pennsylvania]] Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban [[Sewickley, Pennsylvania]] dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality.<ref>Majors, Dan. [http://www.postgazette.com/pg/12021/1205112-455-0.stm "Real Tuskegee airman approves of new film about their service in WW II: One good tale"]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 21 January 2012; retrieved 5 February 2012.</ref> An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.<ref>Ove, Torsten. [http://www.post-gazette.com/local/region/2013/09/13/Airport-exhibit-kicks-off-honors-for-Pittsburgh-s-Tuskegee-Airmen/stories/201309130161 "Tuskegee Airmen exhibit opens at airport"], post-gazette.com, 13 September 2013; accessed 5 January 2017.</ref>
On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the [[First inauguration of Barack Obama|inauguration of Barack Obama]], the first African-American elected as president. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of [[Upper Marlboro, Maryland]], a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on 4 Nov.. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."<ref>Seelye, Katharine Q. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?hp "Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration."] ''The New York Times'', 9 December 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref><ref>''We've Completed Our Mission''. ''Washington Post'', 13 December 2008, p. B01.</ref> More than 180 airmen attended 20 January 2009 inauguration.<ref>Longoria, R. Michael (20 January 2009). [http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/121359/inauguration-brings-tuskegee-airmen-to-bolling.aspx "Inauguration Brings Tuskegee Airmen to Bolling"], U.S. Air Force website; retrieved 5 April 2016.</ref>
In July 2009, 15-year-old [[Kimberly Anyadike]] became the youngest female African-American pilot to complete a [[transcontinental flight]] across the United States. She cited the Tuskegee Airmen as one of her biggest inspirations, and was accompanied on her trip by 87-year-old former Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/15-yr-old-youngest-black-pilot-fly-cross-country-article-1.399825?barcprox=true|title=15-yr.-old becomes youngest black pilot to fly cross-country|work=NY Daily News|access-date=11 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>
The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at [[Lowcountry Regional Airport|Walterboro Army Airfield]], South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors, and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} In the 2010 [[Tournament of Roses Parade|Rose Parade]], the city of [[West Covina, California]] paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled ''"Tuskegee Airmen—A Cut Above"'', which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II ''"Redtail"'' fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served. The float won the mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry—national or international.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of [[Columbus Ohio]].{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
In 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the [[International Air & Space Hall of Fame]] at the [[San Diego Air & Space Museum]].<ref>Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. ''These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame''. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1578643974}}.</ref>
In January 2012, [[MTA Regional Bus Operations]] officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the [[Bus depots of MTA Regional Bus Operations#Tuskegee Airmen Depot|Tuskegee Airmen Depot]]. In 2012, [[George Lucas]] produced ''[[Red Tails]]'', a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>della Cava, Marco R. [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/story/2012-01-04/george-lucas-on-red-tails-tuskegee-airmen/52378382/1 "George Lucas' 'Red Tails' salutes Tuskegee Airmen"], ''USA Today'', 5 January 2012.</ref>
In 2012, [[Aldine Independent School District]] in [[Harris County, Texas]] named [[Benjamin O. Davis High School]] in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/First-day-comes-with-grade-school-glitches-3819578.php|title=First day comes with grade-school glitches|date=12 August 2012|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref>
On 16 September 2019, the USAF officially named the winning [[T-X program]] aircraft the "[[Boeing T-7 Red Hawk|T-7A Red Hawk]]" as a tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen, who painted their airplanes' tails red, and to the [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]], one of the aircraft flown by the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1960964/air-force-announces-newest-red-tail-t-7a-red-hawk/ |title=Air Force announces newest Red Tail: 'T-7A Red Hawk' |website=AF.mil |publisher=Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs |date=16 September 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 |quote='The name Red Hawk honors the legacy of Tuskegee Airmen and pays homage to their signature red-tailed aircraft from World War II,' Donovan said. 'The name is also a tribute to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, an American fighter aircraft that first flew in 1938 and was flown by the 99th Fighter Squadron, the U.S. Army Air Forces' first African American fighter squadron.'}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/afa-air-space/2019/09/16/this-is-the-name-of-the-air-forces-new-training-jet/ |title=This is the name of the Air Force's new training jet |website=Defense News |date=16 September 2019 |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref>
On 2 February 2020, McGee brought out the commemorative coin for the [[Super Bowl]] coin flip.<ref name=McGee>[https://baltimore.cbslocal.com/2020/02/02/tuskegee-airman-col-charles-mcgee-participates-in-super-bowl-liv-coin-toss/ Tuskegee Airman Col. Charles McGee Presents Coin In Super Bowl LIV Coin Toss],''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', 2 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.al.com/news/2020/02/tuskegee-airman-brings-out-coin-for-super-bowl-coin-flip.html |title=Tuskegee Airman brings out coin for Super Bowl coin flip |website=al.com |publisher=Advance Local |date=2 February 2020 |access-date=2 February 2020 |quote= 'Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee, 100, brought out the commemorative coin for the Super Bowl coin flip and handed it to NFL referee Bill Vinovich.'}}</ref>
In 2021, the [[United States Mint]] issued an [[America the Beautiful quarters|America the Beautiful quarter]] commemorating the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]]. The coin depicts a Tuskegee Airman suiting up with two [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustangs]] flying overhead and the motto "They fought two wars".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usmint.gov/coins/coin-medal-programs/america-the-beautiful-quarters/tuskegee-airmen-national-historic-site |title=Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site Quarter |website=U.S. Mint |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>
On 25 April 2021, [[NASCAR]] Cup Series driver [[Erik Jones]] honored the Airmen with a paint scheme at [[Talladega Superspeedway]] similar to the design of the [[P-51 Mustang]] they flew in World War II. Jones led 7 laps in the race, but crashed while running fourth on the final lap, and had to settle for a 27th-place finish.<ref name="Joint Base San Antonio 2021">{{cite web |title=Air Force Recruiting unveils Tuskegee Airmen paint scheme for Indy 500 and NASCAR races |website=Joint Base San Antonio |date=2021-04-20 |url=https://www.jbsa.mil/News/News/Article/2578633/air-force-recruiting-unveils-tuskegee-airmen-paint-scheme-for-indy-500-and-nasc/ |access-date=2021-05-05}}</ref>
[[File:Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg|thumb|Tuskegee Airmen at the Aircraft Exchange ceremony July 26, 2023]]
A commemoration of the 75th anniversary of the official desegregation of the US military during which several Tuskegee Airmen were present was held on July 26, 2023 at [[Joint Base Andrews]] in Maryland.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Stecker, Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs |first=Staff Sgt Olivia B. |date=2023-07-27 |title=CSAF, Tuskegee Airmen recognize 75 years of trailblazing |url=https://www.jba.af.mil/News/Article/3474070/csaf-tuskegee-airmen-recognize-75-years-of-trailblazing/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=[[Joint Base Andrews]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Pérez-Moreno |first=Heidi |date=2023-07-27 |title=Tuskegee Airmen, including D.C. native, honored at Joint Base Andrews |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/07/26/tuskegee-airmen-andrews-aircraft/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-08-06 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> During the event, a [[Boeing-Stearman Model 75|PT-17 Stearman]] was officially inducted to the National Museum of the Air Force, located at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base|Wright-Patterson AFB]] in Ohio.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/image/7936162/air-force-gains-piece-tuskegee-airmen-history-75-years-after-military-segregation-ends |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=DVIDS |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends |url=https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Photos/igphoto/2003269918/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=www.defense.gov}}</ref> Most Tuskegee pilots were originally trained on the Stearman-class aircraft.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />
In 2023, the Pentagon identified the remains of 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr of the 100th Fighter Squadron, 332nd Fighter Group, whose P-51C Mustang crashed during a bomber escort mission over Regensburg Germany in October 1944. After Lt. Brewer's plane crashed he was declared missing in action. In July 2023, the Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA) exhumed a set of previously unidentified remains and positively identified them through lab tests as belonging to Brewer. He will be buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery.<ref>https://www.wral.com/story/pentagon-identifies-remains-of-north-carolina-tuskegee-airman-after-79-years/21031899/</ref><ref>https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/3513337/pilot-accounted-for-from-wwii-brewer-f/</ref>
==Artistic depictions==
* ''The Legend of the Red Tails,'' by artist Ray Simon<ref name="clammers 2021">{{cite web |author=clammers |title=Edward Pernotto Aviation Artwork Gallery |date=2021-02-08 |url=https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Self_guided_tour_book_GOOD_-_Art.pdf |website=Ohio State University Airport |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref><ref name="Certificate of Authenticity 2011">{{cite web |date=January 11, 2011 |url=https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/uploads/legend_of_the_red_tails.pdf |title=Legend of the Red Tails Certificate of Authenticity |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref> is displayed in the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Museum.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}
* ''Red Tails Escorting the B17s'', a watercolor by [[Kay Smith (artist)|Kay Smith]] is in the collections of the [[Pritzker Military Library|Pritzker Military Museum & Library]].<ref>[http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm Pritzker Military Library Dedicates Oral History Room With Painting Unveiling and Program About the Tuskegee Airmen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094705/http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm |date=13 February 2023 }}, prweb.com; accessed 5 January 2017.</ref>
*There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/|title=Tuskegee Airmen: They Met the Challenge|website=Mural Arts Philadelphia|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
* ''Tuskegee Airmen'', a watercolor mural by [[Andrew J. Woodstock (artist)|Andrew J. Woodstock]] has been displayed at the [[Air Zoo]] Aerospace and Aviation Museum in Portage, Michigan.<ref>[http://www.artprize.org/53463 ArtPrize Grand Rapids], artprize.org; accessed 10 January 2020.</ref>
* Richmond, Kentucky’s seven Tuskegee Airmen who served during World War II are honored with an artist's rendering of airman Frank D. Walker at the Madison County Public Library.<ref>[https://www.wkyt.com/2020/11/13/member-of-famed-tuskegee-airmen-honored-with-mural-at-madison-county-library/ WKYT], wkyt.com; accessed 8 Match 2023.</ref>
==In popular culture==
<!--===============({{NoMoreCruft}})===============-->
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Please do not add the many minor appearances of the Tuskegee Airmen. This section is only for major cultural appearances where the Tuskegee Airmen play a major role in the storyline, or have an "especially notable" role in what is listed. A verifiable source proving the appearance's notability may be required. Random cruft will be removed.
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[[File:Wings for this Man.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=02:00|Tuskegee Airmen were featured in ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' (1945)]]
* ''The Homestead Grays'' (1978), a wartime novel by James Wylie, loosely based on the combat exploits of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group.{{citation needed |date=September 2023}}
* ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' (1945), a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the [[First Motion Picture Unit]] of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by [[Ronald Reagan]].
* "Graveyard", an episode of ''[[Twelve O'Clock High (TV series)|Twelve O'Clock High]]'' (1966), starring [[Ossie Davis]], [[Jon Voight]], [[Lloyd Haynes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0734436/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl|title="12 O'Clock High" Graveyard (TV Episode 1966)|work=IMDb}}</ref>
* ''[[The Tuskegee Airmen]]'' (1995), a film starring [[Laurence Fishburne]], was produced and aired by [[HBO]].
* "The Tuskegee Airmen", an [[Dogfights (TV series)#Season two|season two]] episode of the documentary TV series ''[[Dogfights (TV series)|Dogfights]]'', was originally aired on the [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] on 6 December 2007.
* The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the [[G.I. Joe]] action figure series.<ref>[http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html "1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617061250/http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html |date=17 June 2007}}, mastercollector.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
* ''The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany'' (2001), a book by [[Stephen Ambrose]], describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.{{sfn|Ambrose|2001|p=27}}
* ''[[Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly]]'' (2004) is a documentary that was the first film to feature information regarding the "[[Freeman Field Mutiny]]", the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.<ref>[http://www.fight2fly.com ''Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320001335/http://www.fight2fly.com/ |date=20 March 2005}}, fight2fly.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
* ''[[Red Tail Reborn]]'' is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them.
* ''[[Red Tails]]'' is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen produced by [[Lucasfilm]] and released in January 2012. The film was written by [[John Ridley]] and [[Aaron McGruder]], and directed by [[Anthony Hemingway]].
* ''[[Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian]]'' (2009) features the Tuskegee Airmen. One of the Airmen, played by [[Keith Powell]], narrates the group's activities in a stentorian voice ("The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again!"). Another one of the Airmen ([[Craig Robinson (actor)|Craig Robinson]]) says to [[Amelia Earhart]] ([[Amy Adams]]), "A lot of people didn't think we could fly, either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us."{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
* ''[[Black Angels Over Tuskegee]]'' (2015), an [[Off-Broadway]] play about the Airmen written and directed by [[Layon Gray]], currently performs in [[New York City]].{{citation needed |date=September 2023}}
* The story of one such airman is retold in the radio drama "Last Letter Home" presented by ''[[Destination Freedom]]''.<ref>"[https://archive.org/details/DestinationFreedom/DF_50-08-13_ep103-Last_Letter_Home.mp3 Last Letter Home]", ''[[Destination Freedom]]''</ref>
==Squadron images==
<gallery class="center">
File:99th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|Patch of the [[99th Fighter Squadron]]
File:100th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|Patch of the [[100th Fighter Squadron]]
File:301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png |Patch of the [[301st Fighter Squadron]]
File:302d Fighter Squadron.jpg|Patch of the [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302d Fighter Squadron]]
</gallery>
==See also==
* [[92nd Infantry Division (United States)|92nd Infantry Division]]
* [[93rd Infantry Division (United States)|93rd Infantry Division]]
* [[555th Parachute Infantry Battalion (United States)|555th Parachute Infantry Battalion "Triple Nickle"]]
* [[761st Tank Battalion (United States)|761st Tank Battalion]]
* [[Bessie Coleman]] – first African-American civil aviator
* ''[[Fly (play)|Fly]]'' (2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen)
* [[List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients]]
* [[List of Tuskegee Airmen]]
* [[List of Tuskegee Airmen Cadet Pilot Graduation Classes]], 1942–1946, listing graduating Cadet Pilots by Class, Year and Class Type
* [[Military history of African Americans|Military history of African-Americans]]
* [[Racial discrimination against African Americans in the U.S. Military|Racial discrimination against African-Americans in the U.S. Military]]
* [[Red Ball Express]]
* [[Strategic bombing during World War II]]
* [[Port Chicago disaster]]
* [[Lowcountry Regional Airport|Walterboro Army Airfield training site and memorial]]
* [[Willa Brown]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=N}}
== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
=== General and cited references ===
<!-- some entries require publishing, ISSN/ISBN, etc. -->
* {{cite book |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose |date=2001 |title=[[The Wild Blue|The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys Who Flew the B-24s Over Germany]] |location=New York City |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0743203399
}}
* {{cite book |last=Benton |first=Jeffrey C. |date=1999 |title=They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men |location=Maxwell AFB, Montgomery [[Alabama|AL]] |publisher=Air University Press |isbn=978-1585660742}}
* Berry, Ben. ''Tuskegee Airmen: To the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Secrets Revealed)''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011; {{ISBN|1460931076}} {{OCLC|827831542}}
* Broadnax, Samuel L. ''Blue Skies, Black Wings: African-American Pioneers of Aviation''. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007; {{ISBN|0275991954}}.
* Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. ''332nd Fighter Group – Tuskegee Airmen''. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007; {{ISBN|1846030447}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Caldwell |first1=Donald L. |last2=Muller |first2=Richard R. |author-link2=Richard R. Muller |date=2007 |title=The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich |location=London |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1853677120
}}
* Caver, Joseph, Jerome Ennels, and Daniel Haulman. ''The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History, 1939–1949''. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2011; {{ISBN|978-1588382443}}.
* Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project", ''Flypast No. 248'', March 2002.
* {{cite book |last1=Francis |first1=Charles E. |last2=Caso |date=1997 |first2=Adolph |title=The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation |location=Boston |publisher=Branden Books |isbn=0828320292 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C&pg=PA402
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gubert |first1=Betty Kaplan |last2=Sawyer |first2=Miriam |last3=Fannine |first3=Caroline M. |date=2002 |title=Distinguished African-Americans in Aviation and Space Science |location=Westport [[Connecticut|CT]] |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1573562461
}}
* Haulman, Daniel L. "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", ''The Alabama Review'', Vol. 64, No. 1, January 2011.
* {{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=2012 |title=Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen |location=Montgomery [[Alabama|AL]] |publisher=New South Books |isbn=978-1603061476 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPN5-Y7BMWMC
}}
* {{cite web |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=24 July 2013 |title=Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen |website=Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF) |url=http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf |df=dmy-all |archive-date=2013-10-29
}}
* {{cite web |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=26 February 2016 |title=Tuskegee Airmen Chronology |location=[[Maxwell Air Force Base]] AL |publisher=Air Force Historical Research Agency |access-date=26 January 2021 |url=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026024416/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-10-26 }}
* Hill, Ezra M. Sr. ''The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen''. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope, 2006.
* Holway, John B. ''Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force''. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997; {{ISBN|1881325210}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Homan |first1=Lynn M. |last2=Reilly |first2=Thomas |date=2001 |title=Black Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen |location=Gretna [[Louisiana|LA]] |publisher=Pelican Publishing |isbn=978-1565548282
}}
* Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. ''High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; {{ISBN|0874746507}}.
* {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=Craig |date=2000 |title=Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris |location=Athens [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0820321929
}}
* McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. ''Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II''. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996; {{ISBN|0802782922}}.
* {{cite book |last=Moye |first=J. Todd |date=2010 |title=Freedom Flyers: The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II |location=New York City |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195386554
}}
* Percy, William A. "Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II", ''The Journal of Military History'', 67, July 2003.
* Ross, Robert A. ''Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II''. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980; {{ISBN|0917612000}}.
* Sandler, Stanley. ''Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992; {{ISBN|1560981547}}.
* {{cite journal |last=Tillman |first=Barrett |date=2012 |title=Tales of the Red Tails; Inside the Tuskegee Legend: The men, the machines, the missions |journal=Flight Journal |issue=February 2012}}
* Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." ''Flypast No, 248'', March 2002.
* Tucker, Phillip Thomas. ''Father of the Tuskegee airmen, John C. Robinson''. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2012; {{ISBN|1597974870}}, e-book {{ISBN|1597976067}} {{OCLC|752678328}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=C. Vann |last2=McFeely |first2=William S. |date=2001 |title=The Strange Career of Jim Crow |location=New York City |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195146905}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131204121846/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen.aspx Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University]
* [http://www.tuskegeemuseum.org Tuskegee Airmen Museum]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FmlqfQmfqoC ''Double V: Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen'', an illustrated history book of the "Red Tails" by veteran Tuskegee Airmen (Lawrence P. Scott, William M. Womack) from Michigan, with photos from personal collections.]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716132207/http://www.starduststudios.com/tuskegee_airmen.htm Images of Tuskegee airmen, photos, paintings etc.]
* "Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. {{ISBN|0802782922}}
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/ The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)]
* [http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821070544/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml |date=21 August 2010 }}
* [http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112847/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html |date=13 November 2017 }}
* [http://www.bet.com/shows/bet-honors/2012/honorees/tuskegee-airmen.html The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards]
* [http://tuskegeeairmen.org/ Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. – Official Web Site]
* [http://www.redtail.org/ The Red Tail Project]
* [http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/ African Americans in the U.S. Army]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111230144220/http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/TA_HIS1.HTM The Negro Pilot Training Program]
* [http://southernspaces.org/2010/tuskegee-airmen-brett-gadsden-interviews-j-todd-moye "Tuskegee Airmen: Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye", ''Southern Spaces'' 30 September 2010.]
* [https://archive.today/20130130021056/http://newbooksinhistory.com/?p=2743 Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on "New Books in History"]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ZScRrewMk Contemporary newsreel about "Negro Pilots" – YouTube]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=HenryBro1942|name="Henry Browne, Farmer (1942)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=NegroPilots|name="Negro Pilots (1943)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=negrosoldier|name="The Negro Soldier (1943)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava19065vnb1|name="Tuskegee Airman Tribute (1990)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava20001vnb1|name="African Americans in World War II: Legacy of Patriotism and Valor (1997)"}}
* {{NYTtopic|organizations/t/tuskegee_airmen}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120126043803/http://www.valorstudios.com/Tuskegee-Airmen-P-51.htm Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2735 Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen] from [[World Digital Library]]
* [http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/ Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen: Robert Martin, Dr. Quentin P. Smith, and Shelby Westbrook] at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] in October 2008
* [http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/ Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen] recorded at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] on 12 September 2013
* [https://library.ucr.edu/collections/tuskegee-airmen-collections Tuskegee Airmen Collections] [[University of California, Riverside]]
* [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-xd0qr4q07h "Airmen and Adversity"] [[WTVI]], 1998-02-06, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, [[American Archive of Public Broadcasting]]
* U.S. Army Air Forces First Motion Picture Unit. ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWd5DdsEBqg Wings for This Man (1945)'' Tuskegee Airmen Documentary] Video via [[YouTube]]. See ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava08663vnb1|name="Wings for This Man (1945)"}}
{{Tuskegee Airmen}}
{{USAAF 15th Air Force World War II}}
{{USWWII}}
{{Tuskegee University}}
{{Eleanor Roosevelt}}
{{North American P-51 Mustang family}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Tuskegee Airmen| ]]
[[Category:African-American history of Alabama]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Black aviators]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Groups of World War II]]
[[Category:History of Alabama]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Tuskegee, Alabama]]
[[Category:North American P-51 Mustang]]
[[Category:Tuskegee University]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Army officers]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|African-American military pilots during World War II}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}<!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout, and guidelines. -->
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name= Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)
|image= [[File:Shield of the 332nd Fighter Group.svg|90px]]<br />
[[File:332d Air Expeditionary Wing.png|332nd Air Expeditionary Wing Insignia|90px]]
|caption= Emblems of wing
|dates= 1940–1948
|country= [[United States]]
|allegiance=
|branch= [[United States Army Air Corps]]<br />[[United States Army Air Forces]]<br />[[United States Air Force]]
|type=
|role= Trained for aerial combat
|size=
|command_structure= Graduates assigned to the [[332nd FG|332nd Fighter Group]] ([[99th Fighter Squadron]], [[100th Fighter Squadron]], [[301st Fighter Squadron]], [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302d Fighter Squadron]]), [[477th Fighter Group|477th Medium Bombardment Group]] ([[616th Bombardment Squadron]], [[617th Bombardment Squadron]], [[618th Bombardment Squadron]], [[619th Bombardment Squadron]])
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname= Red Tails<br /> Red-Tail Angels
|patron=
|motto= ''Spit Fire''
|battles= [[World War II]]
}}
The '''Tuskegee Airmen''' {{IPAc-en|t|ʌ|s|ˈ|k|iː|ɡ|iː}}<ref>See [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Tuskegee "Pronunciation of Tuskegee"], thefreedictionary.com; retrieved 3 October 2010.</ref> were a group of [[African American]] military pilots (fighter and bomber) and airmen who fought in [[World War II]]. They formed the [[332nd Fighter Group]] and the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group (Medium)]] of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF). The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks, and other support personnel. The Tuskegee airmen received praise for their excellent combat record earned while protecting white American bombers from enemy fighters. The group was awarded three [[Distinguished Unit Citation]]s.
All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Griel Field, Kennedy Field, [[Moton Field]], Shorter Field, and the Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=June 2014|title=The Tuskegee Airmen Airfields|journal=Air Force Magazine|page=63}}</ref> They were educated at the [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]] (now Tuskegee University), located near [[Tuskegee, Alabama]]. Of the 922 pilots, five were [[Haiti]]ans from the [[Armed Forces of Haiti|Haitian Air Force]] and one pilot was from [[Trinidad]].<ref>[http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx "Tuskegee Airmen Pilot Listing"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000349/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx |date=3 December 2013}}, tuskegee.edu; retrieved 13 May 2014.</ref> It also included a [[Hispanic–Latino naming dispute|Hispanic or Latino]] airman born in the [[Dominican Republic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/unknown-latino-tuskegee-airman-discovered/433479/|title=An Unknown Latino Tuskegee Airman Has Been Discovered|first=Juleyka Lantigua-Williams, National|last=Journal|date=5 November 2015|website=The Atlantic|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
The [[99th Pursuit Squadron]] (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) was the first black flying squadron, and the first to deploy overseas (to North Africa in April 1943, and later to Sicily and other parts of Italy). The [[332nd Fighter Group]], which originally included the 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons, was the first black flying group. It deployed to Italy in early 1944. Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with [[North American B-25 Mitchell]] bombers, they never served in combat. In June 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions and, in July 1944, with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron, it had four fighter squadrons.
The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]] fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s (March 1944), later with [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]]s (June–July 1944) and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the [[North American P-51 Mustang]] (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red [[empennage]]; the P-51B, C and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the [[Jim Crow laws]]{{#tag:ref|U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated ''de jure'' racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the "Jim Crow laws"; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans.{{sfn|Woodward|McFeely|2001|p=6}}|group=N}} and the American military was [[Racial segregation in the United States|racially segregated]], as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside of the army.
==History==
===Origins===
{{See also|Civilian Pilot Training Program}}
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War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the [[9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|9th Cavalry]], [[10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|10th Cavalry]], [[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th Infantry Regiment]] and [[25th Infantry Regiment (United States)|25th Infantry Regiment]]. When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets, their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=19}} In 1941, the War Department and the Army Air Corps, under pressure — [[1941 in aviation#June|three months]] before its transformation into the [[USAAF]] — constituted the first all-black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/tuskegee-airmen.cfm|title=The Tuskegee Airmen|website=www2.gwu.edu}}</ref>
Because of the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans, since in 1940 the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=25}} The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants had already participated in the [[Civilian Pilot Training Program]], unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). [[Tuskegee University]] had participated since 1939.{{sfn|Benton|1999|loc=p. 43 (Noel F. Parrish)}}
====Testing====
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2017}}
The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the [[List of psychological research methods|Psychological Research Unit 1]] at [[Maxwell Army Air Field]], [[Montgomery, Alabama]], and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, [[flight officer|navigators]] and [[bombardier (air force)|bombardiers]]. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first [[standardized tests]] to quantify [[IQ]]<!---{{dubious|first IQ tests were Binet-Simon, which led to [[Stanford-Binet]], which led to [[Army Alpha]], which was in use in World War One|date=September 2011}}--->, dexterity, and leadership qualities to select and train the best-suited personnel for the roles of bombardier, navigator, and pilot. The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the ablest and most intelligent African-American applicants were able to join.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
Airman [[Coleman Young]], later the first [[African-American]] [[List of mayors of Detroit|mayor of Detroit]], told journalist [[Studs Terkel]] about the process:
{{blockquote|They made the standards so high, we actually became an elite group. We were screened and super-screened. We were unquestionably the brightest and most physically fit young blacks in the country. We were super-better because of the irrational laws of Jim Crow. You can't bring that many intelligent young people together and train 'em as fighting men and expect them to supinely roll over when you try to fuck over 'em, right? (Laughs.)<ref>Terkel, Studs, American Dreams: Lost and Found, Patheon Books, 1080, pp. 359–360</ref>}}
====First Lady's flight====
The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] inspected it on 29 March 1941, and flew with African-American chief civilian instructor [[C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson]]. Anderson, who had been flying since 1929 and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots, took his prestigious passenger on a half-hour flight in a [[Piper J-3 Cub]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights|title=Mrs. Roosevelt Goes for a Ride - Red Tail Squadron|work=Red Tail Squadron|access-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324113003/http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights/|archive-date=24 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Eleanor Roosevelt and the Tuskegee Airmen |url=https://www.fdrlibrary.org/tuskegee |access-date=2022-05-11 |website=FDR Presidential Library & Museum |language=en-US}}</ref> After landing, she cheerfully announced, "Well, you can fly all right."{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=52–4}}
The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the [[Julius Rosenwald Fund]] to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site|Moton Field]].{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=52–4}}
===Formation===
[[File:First Tuskeegee Class.jpg|thumb|right|Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, as he reviews the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, with [[Vultee BT-13]] trainers in the background, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941]]
On 22 March 1941, the [[99th Fighter Squadron|99th Pursuit Squadron]]{{#tag:ref|"Pursuit" being the U.S. term for "fighter" to May 1942.|group=N}} was activated without pilots at [[Chanute Field]] in [[Rantoul, Illinois]].{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=15}}{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=26–37}}{{#tag:ref|It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate, that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants. [[Yancey Williams]], an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot's training, filed suit in the District Court in Washington, DC for admittance to training. He was backed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.|group=N}}<ref name=FraCas2008>{{cite book |last1=Francis |first1=Charles |last2=Caso |first2=Adolph |date=2008 |title=Tuskegee Airmen - 5th Commemorative Edition with Class Pictures |location=Wellesley, [[Massachusetts|MA]] |publisher=Branden Books |isbn=978-0828321891 |page=309}}</ref>
A cadre of 14 black non-commissioned officers from the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments were sent to Chanute Field to help in the administration and supervision of the trainees. A white officer, Army Captain Harold R. Maddux, was assigned as the first commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron.{{r|FraCas2008}}<ref name=Haulman2017>{{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel Lee |date=2017 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen chronology : a detailed timeline of the Red Tails and other black pilots of World War II |others=Foreword by McGee, Charles E. |location=Montgomery AL |publisher=NewSouth Books |isbn=978-1588383419 |pages=9, 11, 12 |oclc=1002126644}}</ref>
A group of 271 enlisted men began training in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute Field in March 1941 until they were transferred to bases in Alabama in July 1941.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Maurer |editor-first=M. |date=1992 |title=World War II combat squadrons of the United States Air Force: the official military record of every active squadron |location=New York |publisher=Smithmark |isbn=978-0831715014 |oclc=25200303}}</ref> The skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at [[Sharpe Field|Tuskegee]] Fields in Alabama.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=57}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Maurer |editor-first=M. |date=1983 |title=Air Force combat units of World War II |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Office of Air Force History |isbn=0912799021 |oclc=9644436}}</ref>
While the enlisted men were in training, five black youths were admitted to the Officers Training School (OTS) at Chanute Field as aviation cadets. Specifically, Elmer D. Jones, Dudley Stevenson, and James Johnson of Washington, DC; Nelson Brooks of Illinois, and William R. Thompson of Pittsburgh, PA successfully completed OTS and were commissioned as the first Black Army Air Corps Officers.{{r|FraCas2008}}
In June 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama, and remained the only black flying unit in the country, but did not yet have pilots.{{r|Haulman2017}} The famous airmen were actually trained at five airfields surrounding Tuskegee University (formerly Tuskegee Institute)--Griel, Kennedy, Moton, Shorter, and Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<ref name=":1" /> The flying unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469 "Fact sheet:Tuskegee Airmen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019085202/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469 |date=19 October 2010}}, National Museum of the United States Air Force; retrieved 22 October 2010.</ref> and was backed by an entire service arm. On 19 July 1941, thirteen individuals made up the first class of aviation cadets (42-C) when they entered preflight training at Tuskegee Institute.{{r|Haulman2017}} After primary training at [[Moton Field]], they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field, about {{convert|10|mi|km}} to the west for conversion training onto operational types. Consequently, Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training (basic, advanced, and transition) at a single location. Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=93–4}}
By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=68}}
[[File:Tuskegee airman poster.jpg|thumb|left|[[Series E bond|War Bonds]] poster featuring a Tuskegee Airman]]
Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only {{convert|40|mi|km}} distant.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=233}} African-American contractor [[McKissack & McKissack|McKissack and McKissack, Inc.]] was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama [[Works Progress Administration]], and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=31–2}} The airmen were placed under the command of [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]] [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], one of only two black line officers then serving.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/111740/tuskegee-airman-goes-on-to-become-first-air-force-african-american-general/|title=Tuskegee Airman goes on to become first Air Force African-American gen|website=U.S. Air Force|language=en-US|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>
During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and [[Military Police]] had police authority over local [[white American|white]] civilians.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=56}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Jakeman |first=Robert J. |date=2015 |title=The Divided Skies Establishing Segregated Flight Training at Tuskegee, Alabama, 1934–1942 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=978-0817392154 |oclc=1132255062}}</ref>
His successor, Colonel [[Frederick von Kimble]], then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield.<ref name=afhrastudy91pdf134>{{cite web |url=https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf |title=Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917–1952, Volume 1 – A thru L |year=1953 |last=Fogerty |first=Robert P. |pages=994–996 |publisher=[[Air Force Historical Research Agency]] |id= USAF historical studies: no. 91 |access-date=November 9, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831192543/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf |archive-date=August 31, 2021}}</ref> Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=233}} Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of training at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major [[Noel F. Parrish]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Gene |title=Colonel Parrish's Orders |journal=American Heritage |volume=46 |issue=3 - May/June 1995 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/content/colonel-parrish%E2%80%99s-orders?page=show}}</ref> Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=258}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tuskegee Army Flying School Summary|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency|via=Call Number 289.28-100}}</ref>
[[File:Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg|thumb|Instrument certificate for Tuskegee Airman Robert M. Glass, signed by Parrish]]
The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American [[flight surgeon]]s to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref name=FlightSurgeon>Jones, D.R., L.P. Gross and R. Marchbanks-Robinson. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20091130014406/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7973 "United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers, 1941–1949: The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons"]}}, ''SAM-FE-BR-TR-2007-0001: US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine'' (2007); retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.
Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses, until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at [[Randolph Field, Texas]]. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 to 1949. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily, and other parts of Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was [[Vance H. Marchbanks Jr.]], MD, a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis.<ref name=FlightSurgeon/>
The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=214}}
Trained officers were also left idle as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General [[Henry "Hap" Arnold]]: "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation."{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=93–5}}
===Combat assignment===
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen - Circa May 1942 to Aug 1943.jpg|thumb|left|Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a [[Curtiss P-40|P-40]] fighter aircraft]]
The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it joined the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel [[William Momyer|William W. Momyer]]. Given little guidance from battle-experienced pilots, the 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of [[Pantelleria]], code name [[Operation Corkscrew]], in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to clear the sea lanes for the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]] in July 1943. The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June.<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470 "Davis Leads the 99th into Combat"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005031011/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470 |date=5 October 2013}}, ''The National Museum of the United States Air Force''; retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans<ref>Wolk, Herman S. [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx "Pantelleria, 1943"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120161113/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx |date=20 November 2012}}, airforce-magazine.com, June 2002; retrieved 12 February 2012.</ref> due to air attack was the first of its kind.<ref>Molony, Brigadier C.J.C.; Captain F.C. Flynn (R.N.); Major-General H.L. Davies and Group Captain T.P. Gleave. "The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in mainland Italy 3 September 1943 to 31 March 1944", ''History of the Second World War'' (United Kingdom Military Series). Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2004, First edition, 1973 (HMSO); p. 49. {{ISBN|1845740696}}.</ref>
The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a [[Distinguished Unit Citation]] (DUC) for its performance in combat.<ref name=dist/>
[[File:Col Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr.jpg|thumb|upright|Col. [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] in Sicily]]
[[File:James DanielChappie.jpg|thumbnail|upright|Tuskegee airman Instructor Daniel "Chappie" James]]
[[File:Alix Pasquet.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Tuskegee airman Alix Pasquet, date unknown.]]
By the end of February 1944, the all-black [[332nd Fighter Group]] had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The [[100th Fighter Squadron|100th]], [[301st Fighter Squadron|301st]] and [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302nd]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/195963/escort-excellence/|title=Escort Excellence|website=National Museum of the US Air Force|language=en-US|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref>
Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on 1 May 1944, joined them on 6 June at [[Ramitelli Airfield]], nine kilometers south-southeast of the small city of [[Campomarino]], on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic coast]]. From Ramitelli, the 332nd Fighter Group escorted [[Fifteenth Air Force]] heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany.<ref name="332d"/>
Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.<ref name="Rice">Rice, Markus. [http://logicalthinker2.tripod.com/Tuskegeeaircraft.html "The Men and Their Airplanes: The Fighters"], ''Tuskegee Airmen'' via logicalthinker2.tripod.com, 1 March 2000.</ref>
A B-25 bomb group, the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], was forming in the U.S. but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.<ref name="Rice"/>
====Active air units====
[[File:Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group.jpg|thumb|left|Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group at [[Ramitelli Airfield]], [[Italy]]; from left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelson Jr., Captain [[Andrew D. Turner]], and Lt. [[Clarence D. Lester|Clarence P. Lester]]]]
The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. were considered to be highly successful.<ref name=shsu>[http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html "Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225702/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html |date=7 June 2011}} ''Sam Houston State University''; retrieved 11 June 2011.</ref><ref name=sd>[http://www.sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/african_american_exhibit/military-inspirations.php "Celebrating African Americans in Aviation"], ''San Diego Air & Space Museum''; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref>
In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three [[Distinguished Unit Citation#Army and Air Force|Distinguished Unit Citations]] (DUC) during World War II. The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May – 11 June 1943, Monastery Hill near [[Battle of Monte Cassino|Cassino]] from 12 to 14 May 1944, and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945. The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war.<ref name=dist>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722181355/http://www.randolph.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5896 "99th Flying Training Squadron History."] ''United States Air Force''; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref><ref name=jet>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2 "Escort Excellence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141314/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2 |date=3 December 2013}}, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref> The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, [[Anzio]], Normandy, the [[Rhineland]], the [[Po Valley]] and Rome-Arno and others. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes.<ref name=shsu/>
The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day.<ref name=NMUSAF>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 "Escort Excellence"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 |date=9 March 2012}}, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> On 24 March 1945, 43 P-51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B-17 bombers over {{convert|1600|mi|km}} into Germany and back. The bombers' target, a massive Daimler-Benz tank factory in Berlin, was heavily defended by ''Luftwaffe'' aircraft, including propeller-driven [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190|Fw 190s]], [[Messerschmitt Me 163|Me 163 "Komet"]] rocket-powered fighters, and 25 of the much more formidable [[Messerschmitt Me 262|Me 262s]], history's first operational jet fighter. Pilots Charles Brantley, Earl Lane and [[Roscoe Brown]] all shot down German jets over Berlin that day.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} For the mission, the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.<ref name="332d">[http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm "332d Fighter Squadron"], everworld.com; retrieved 9 July 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025100903/http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm |date=25 October 2012 }}</ref>
Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy-occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]], [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]], [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt]] and [[North American P-51 Mustang]] fighter aircraft.<ref name=shsu/>
===Tuskegee Airmen bomber units===
====Formation====
With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the [[NAACP]] and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time,{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=123}} or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training,{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=219}} represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.{{#tag:ref|The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches, weight under 170 pounds, precluded many larger African-American men from eligibility.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=123}}|group=N}}
On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], an all-white group. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=214}}<ref name=Maurer1994>{{cite book |last=Maurer |first=M. |date=1994 |title=Air Force combat units of World War II |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=0785801944 |oclc=30111671}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal|title=477th Bombardment Group Lineage and Honors History|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite journal|title=477th Bombardment Group Histories for 1943 and 1944|journal=Air Force Historical Research Agency}}</ref> By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated—an all-Black group.{{r|Maurer1994}}<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=94, 124}}
The 477th eventually contained four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit operated 60 [[North American B-25 Mitchell]] bombers.{{#tag:ref|Each B-25 bomber cost $175,000. The overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=177}}|group=N}} The 477th went on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=457}} The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=186}}
The home field for the 477th was [[Selfridge Field]], located outside Detroit, with forays to [[Wurtsmith Air Force Base|Oscoda Army Air Field]] in [[Oscoda, Michigan]].{{#tag:ref|15 of these aviators died while training in Michigan. Among them was 2nd Lieutenant Frank Moody, whose [[P-39 Airacobra]] emitted black smoke and [[Cartwheel (gymnastics)|cartwheeled]] into [[Lake Huron]] on 11 April 1944. His body was recovered shortly thereafter in the [[Saint Clair River]]. His aircraft was discovered by divers 70 years to the day after the accident.<ref name="Alcona">{{cite news |title=Recovering Michigan's history of the Tuskegee airmen |page=16 |date=8 September 2021 |volume=150 |number=35|newspaper=Alcona County Review}}</ref> Per the ''Alcona County Review'':"The first African American pilots training by the United States Army Air Corps earned their wings at Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama during World War II. Beginning in the spring of1943, fighter pilots from Tuskegee received advanced training in Michigan. "The relative safety of Midwestern America, along with weather in geographical conditions that approximated what aviators could expect to encounter in Europe, encouraged the military to use airfields at Selfridge northeast of Detroit, and at Oscoda on the shores of Lake Huron."<ref name="Alcona"/>|group=N}} Other bases were used for various types of training courses. Twin-engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while the transition to multi-engine pilot training was at [[Mather Air Force Base|Mather Field, California]]. Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to [[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]]. Gunners learned to shoot at [[Eglin Air Force Base|Eglin Field, Florida]]. Bombers-navigators learned their trades at [[Hondo Army Air Field]] and [[Midland Air Field|Midland Air Field, Texas]] or at [[Roswell, New Mexico]]. Training of the new African-American crewmen also took place at [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]], [[Lincoln, Nebraska]], and [[Scott Air Force Base|Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois]]. Once trained, the air and ground crews were spliced into a working unit at Selfridge.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=207}}{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=180–2}}
====Command difficulties====
The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel [[Robert Selway]], who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haulman|first=Daniel L.|date=Summer 2018|title=A Tale of Two Commanders|journal=Air Power History|volume=65|pages=45{{en dash}}49}}</ref> Like his ranking officer, Major General [[Frank O'Driscoll Hunter]] from Georgia, Selway was a racial segregationist. Hunter was blunt about it, saying such things as "...racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together."{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=184, 187}} He backed Selway's violations of Army Regulation 210–10, which forbade segregation of airbase facilities. They segregated base facilities so thoroughly that they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by race. When the audience sat in random patterns as part of "Operation Checkerboard," the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating.{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=185–6}} African-American officers petitioned base [[Commanding Officer]] William Boyd for access to the only [[Military officers' club|officer's club]] on base.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B13CGJMiyOIC&pg=PA158|title=Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military|last=Nalty|first=Bernard C.|date=1989|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780029224113|page=158|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=126}} Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights; he was court-martialed for this.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8GSDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP163|title=Facing the Rising Sun: African Americans, Japan, and the Rise of Afro-Asian Solidarity|last=Horne|first=Gerald|date=16 January 2018|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=9781479854936|language=en}}</ref>
Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans, although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=126–7}} The 477th was transferred to [[Godman Field]], Kentucky before the club was built. They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge's size, with no air-to-ground gunnery range and deteriorating runways that were too short for B-25 landings. Colonel Selway took on the second role of the commanding officer of Godman Field. In that capacity, he ceded Godman Field's officers club to African-American airmen. White officers used the whites-only clubs at nearby Fort Knox, much to the displeasure of African-American officers.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=128–9}}
Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]], transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a [[Major (United States)|major]]. He was replaced by another white officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=131–2}}
On 15 March 1945,{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|p=187}} the 477th was transferred to [[Freeman Field]], near [[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]], Indiana. The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men. Superimposed on it were 400 African-American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units. Freeman Field had a firing range, usable runways, and other amenities useful for training. African-American airmen worked in proximity with white ones; both lived in a public housing project adjacent to the base.{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=132}}{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=184, 187}}
Colonel Selway turned the noncommissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers' club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers' club became the cadre's club. The old [[Non-Commissioned Officer]]s Club, promptly sarcastically dubbed "Uncle Tom's Cabin", became the trainees' officers club. At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots and had about four years in service. Four others had completed training as pilots, bombardiers and navigators and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps. Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time. Nevertheless, by Colonel Selway's fiat, they were trainees.{{r|FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187}}{{sfn|Moye|2010|pp=132–3}}
Off base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their clothes and yet willingly laundered those of [[German prisoners of war in the United States|captured German soldiers]].{{r|FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187}}
In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only officer's club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call and had the assistant [[provost marshal]] and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers' entry. The latter, a major, ordered them to leave and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused. It was the beginning of the [[Freeman Field Mutiny]].{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=133}}
In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was redesignated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]] A complete sweep of Selway's white staff followed, with all vacated jobs filled by African-American officers. The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action. The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on 8 October 1945. On 13 March 1946, the two-squadron group, supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron (later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron), the 118th Base Unit, and a band, moved to its final station, [[Lockbourne Field]]. The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on 1 July 1947, ending the 477th Composite Group. It was reorganized as the [[332nd Air Expeditionary Wing|332nd Fighter Wing]].{{sfn|Homan|Reilly|2001|pp=206–8}}{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=263}}
===War accomplishments===
[[File:"GOOD HUNTING, SON,- YOU'RE ON YOUR OWN NOW^^" - NARA - 535667.jpg|thumb|right|Office of War Information poster]]
In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives.<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 "Escort Excellence."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471 |date=9 March 2012}} ''National Museum of the United States Air Force''; retrieved 12 August 2013.</ref> The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions{{sfn|Tillman|2012|p=24}} and 32 captured as prisoners of war.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=394}}{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|loc= [https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C pp. 405–13] (Tuskegee Honor Roll)}}
The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments:
* 1578 combat missions,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/tuskegee-airmen/|title=The Tuskegee Airmen|website=National Archives Foundation|access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref> 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haulman |first=Daniel |date=2010 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat |journal=Air Power History |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=14–21 |jstor=26275921}}</ref>
* 179 bomber escort missions,<ref name=NMUSAF/> with a good record of protection,{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|p=394}} losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27, compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P-51 groups{{sfn|Haulman|2013|}}
* 112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air, another 150 on the ground<ref name=NMUSAF/> and 148 damaged. This included three [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] jet fighters shot down
* 950 rail cars, trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed (over 600 rail cars<ref name=NMUSAF/>)
* One torpedo boat put out of action. {{ship|German torpedo boat|TA22||2}} was an Italian World War I-era warship (''Giuseppe Missori''), that had been [[Torpedoboot Ausland#Ex-Italian ships|seized by the Germans and put into service]]. It was attacked on 25 June 1944, and [[Constructive total loss|damaged so severely]] she was never repaired. She was decommissioned on 8 November 1944, and finally [[Scuttling|scuttled]] on 5 February 1945.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=21 October 2011 |title=Nine Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen |publisher=tuskegee.edu |url=https://www.tuskegee.edu/Content/Uploads/Tuskegee/files/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf |df=dmy-all |access-date=2021-01-26}}</ref><ref name=mutiny>[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/97-0429.pdf "The Freeman Field Mutiny: A Study In Leadership"], ''Air University, Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base'', Montgomery, Alabama; retrieved 12 June 2011.</ref>
* 40 boats and barges destroyed<ref name= NMUSAF/>
Awards and decorations included:
* Three [[Distinguished Unit Citation]]s
** 99th Pursuit Squadron: 30 May – 11 June 1943, for actions over Sicily{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haulman |first=D.L. |date=2010 |title=The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat |journal=Air Power History |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=14–21}}</ref>
** 99th Fighter Squadron: 12–14 May 1944: for successful airstrikes against [[Monte Cassino]], Italy. The first two Distinguished Unit Citations received by the 99th Fighter Squadron were awarded to the groups to which the squadron was attached. At the time, when a group received the honor, it was shared with the squadrons the were assigned or attached to the group.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
** 332nd Fighter Group (and its 99th, 100th, and 301st Fighter Squadrons): 24 March 1945: for a bomber escort mission to Berlin, during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy Me 262 jets. The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on 6 March 1945.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* At least one [[Silver Star]]{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* 96 [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Crosses]] to 95 Airmen; Captain [[William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)|William A. Campbell]] was awarded two.{{sfn|Haulman|2012|p=52}}<ref>Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. [https://archive.org/details/ChronologicalTableOfTuskegeeAirmen "Chronological Table of Tuskegee Airmen Who Earned the Distinguished Flying Cross"]; retrieved 26 January 2021.</ref>
* 14 [[Bronze Star]]s{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* 744 [[Air Medal]]s{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}
* At least 60 [[Purple Heart]]s<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tuskegee Airmen awarded Purple Hearts |url=https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-purple-hearts/collection_0539a48c-6928-11df-8a06-00127992bc8b.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221112160555/https://www.stltoday.com/news/local/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-purple-hearts/collection_0539a48c-6928-11df-8a06-00127992bc8b.html |archive-date=2022-11-12 |access-date=2022-11-12 |website=St. Louis Post-Dispatch |language=en}}</ref>
====Controversy over escort record====
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group pilots ppmsca13245u.jpg|thumb|upright|Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in [[Italy]] 1945]]
For decades, the Tuskegee Airmen were popularly believed to have never lost a bomber under escort. This belief derived most directly to an article, "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss", published by the ''[[Chicago Defender]]'' on 24 March 1945. Citing information supplied by the 15th Air Force,<ref name="USAtoday_1">{{Cite web |date=1 April 2007 |title=Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-04-01-tuskegee-airmen_N.htm |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=USA Today}}</ref>{{sfn|Moye|2010|p=122}} the article said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire.<ref name=WApost_01042007>Johnson, Bob. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/16/AR2006121600849.html "Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen"], p. A18, WashingtonPost.com, 17 December 2006; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.{{r|WApost_01042007}} Alan Gropman, a professor at the [[National Defense University]], disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters.{{r|WApost_01042007}}
Daniel Haulman of the [[Air Force Historical Research Agency]] (AFHRA) reassessed the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. He documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen, citing after-mission reports filed by the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, records of missing air crew, and witness testimony.{{r|USAtoday_1}}
[[File:Tuskegee airmen 2.jpg|thumb|left|Several Tuskegee Airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945]]
Haulman wrote a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth," published in the ''[[Alabama Review]]'' and by [[NewSouth Books]] as an e-book, and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013. The article documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group. This total included 15 B-17s of the [[483rd Bombardment Group]] shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944, that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd.{{sfn|Haulman|2016|p=29}}
Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.{{sfn|Haulman|2013|}}
In 2022, Dr. Haulman published a comprehensive study that established that the record of the 322d differed substantially from that of the three other P-51 [[group (military aviation unit)|groups]] assigned to Fifteenth Air Force in terms of bombers lost. The group was noticeably better at protecting bombers they escorted, even if not perfect. While the 332nd only lost 27 escorted [[heavy bomber]]s while flying 179 escort missions,<ref group=N>Statistics for the 332nd Group include escort missions flown with P-47s.</ref> the [[31st Fighter Group]] lost 49 in 184 missions, the [[325th Operations Group|325th]] lost 68 in 192 escort missions, while the [[52nd Operations Group|52nd]] lost 88 in 193 missions. Moreover, the 332nd flew more missions than any of the other three groups on which they lost no escorted bombers. Combining these numbers with the numbers of enemy aircraft destroyed by each of these groups suggests that the 332nd stuck closer to protect the bombers they escorted, while the other groups were willing to pursue enemy fighters away from the bombers.<ref>{{cite journal|url= https://www.afhistory.org/air-space-power-history/ |last1=Haulman|first1=Daniel L.|title=Measuring Up: A Comparison of the Mustang Fighter Escort Groups of the Fifteenth Air Force June 1944 – April 1945|year=2022 |volume=69 |issue=4|periodical=Air & Space Power History|publisher=Air Force Historical Foundation|access-date=December 22, 2022}} (web access limited to members)</ref>
[[File:Tuskegee airmen (archive photo).jpg|thumb|Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations|Mediterranean theater]]]]
The historical record shows several examples of the fighter group's losses. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944, noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."<ref>Banerji, Shilpa. [http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml "Historians Question Record of Tuskegee Airmen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720031259/http://www.diverseeducation.com/artman/publish/article_6872.shtml |date=20 July 2008}}, Diverse education, 19 June 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
[[William H. Holloman]] was reported by the ''Times'' as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the [[University of Washington]] and chaired the Airmen's history committee.{{r|WApost_01042007}} According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the ''Chicago Defender'' article was published.{{r|USAtoday_1}} The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.{{sfn|Haulman|2016|p=55}}
===Postwar===
[[File:Alfonso Harris and Tuskegee Airmen - Flickr - San Diego Air ^ Space Museum Archives.jpg|thumb|right|Various Tuskegee Airmen by a P-51 Mustang at [[Luke Air Force Base|Luke Field]], around January or February 1946.]]
Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training.<!--measured how? see below--> Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight [[racism]]. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, but other units continued to harass these airmen.<ref name="Tuskegee Airmen Combat record">[http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html "Tuskegee Airmen History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130165710/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/Tuskegee_Airmen_History.html |date=30 November 2010}}, Tuskegee airmen; retrieved 11 October 2010.</ref>
In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial and ground targets and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long-range escort mission in the [[Pacific War|Pacific theatre of World War II]]), the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class. The pilots were Captain [[Alva Temple]], Lts. [[Harry Stewart, Jr.]], [[James H. Harvey]] III and [[Halbert Alexander]]. Staff Sergeant [[Buford A. Johnson]] (30 August 1927 – 15 April 2017) served as the pilots' aircraft crew chief.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-18|title=Buford Alvin Johnson|url=https://cafriseabove.org/buford-alvin-johnson/|access-date=2021-07-06|website=CAF RISE ABOVE|language=en-US}}</ref> Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good."<ref>''Aviation History Magazine'', March 2012.</ref><!--needs article title, author, page number---> They received congratulations from the governor of Ohio and Air Force commanders across the nation.{{sfn|Francis|Caso|1997|pp=402–4}}
After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President [[Harry S. Truman]] with [[Executive Order 9981]], the veteran Tuskegee Airmen found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed [[United States Air Force]]. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned [[Columbia Air Center]] in Maryland.<ref>Zieminski, Andy. [http://www.gazette.net/stories/020708/prinnew170059_32361.shtml "County's first black-owned airport becomes training ground."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108063412/http://www.gazette.net/stories/020708/prinnew170059_32361.shtml |date=8 January 2009}} ''Gazette.net: Maryland Community Newspapers Online'', 7 February 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> On 11 May 1949, ''Air Force Letter 35.3'' mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf|title=Study Guide for Testing to Technical Sergeant|page=32|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=7 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207111235/http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs, a civilian flight instructor who helped launch in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee,{{sfn|Gubert|Sawyer|Fannine|2002|p=130}} later became the founder of [[Negro Airmen International]], an association joined by many airmen. USAF General [[Daniel James Jr.|Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.]] (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of [[List of United States Air Force four-star generals|four-star general]].<ref>[http://www.af.mil/AboutUs/Biographies/Display/tabid/225/Article/106647/general-daniel-james-jr.aspx "General Daniel James Jr."] ''United States Air Force'' (1978); retrieved 20 November 2015.</ref> Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron [[Marion Rodgers]] went on to work in communications for [[NORAD]] and as a program developer for the [[Apollo 13]] project.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jeremy Bloom |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jeremy-bloom/wishes-for-our-warriors_b_7360732.html|title=Wishes for Our Warriors|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref>
In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including {{Anchor|Herbert Carter}}Lieutenant Colonel [[Herbert Carter (pilot)|Herbert Carter]], Colonel [[Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)|Charles McGee]], group historian Ted Johnson, and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer, flew to [[Balad, Iraq]], to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the [[332nd Air Expeditionary Wing]]. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the [[Ninth Air Force]] and [[United States Central Command Air Forces|U.S. Central Command Air Forces]].<ref name=Iraq2005>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2005-10-22-tuskegee-airmen_x.htm "Tuskegee Airmen suit up, head to Iraq."] ''USA Today'', 22 October 2005; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
{{asof|2008}}, no one knew how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel were still alive.<ref>Seelye, Katharine Q. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?ref=us "Inauguration Is a Culmination for Black Airmen."] ''The New York Times'' via nytimes.com, 12 October 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref> In August 2019, 14 documented original surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participated at the annual Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.<ref>[http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org "Latest Tuskegee Airmen News"], tuskegeeairmen.org; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref><ref>[http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/ President's Post Convention Letter to Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203191648/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/ |date=3 February 2020}}, tuskegeeairmen.org; 12 November 2019; retrieved 4 February 2020</ref>
Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving members of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in [[St. Petersburg, Florida]], following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers during a mission in Italy in January 1943.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.airforcetimes.com/articles/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke|title=Willie Rogers, Tuskegee Airman, dies at 101 after stroke |website=Air Force Times |date=21 November 2016 |access-date=27 November 2016}} (conflicting info in source) - This entry requires additional research--no record showing Willie Rogers was a Red Tail pilot. In addition, no record exists showing any Tuskegee Airmen ground support personnel assigned in Italy was shot by German soldiers. See also [http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/11/21/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-in-florida.html Fox News webpage] 21 November 2016. It is unclear if the veteran was vetted by the Harry A. Sheppard Research Committee of Tuskegee Airmen</ref> In 2007, President [[George W. Bush]] awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 300 surviving Tuskegee Airmen, but Rogers was not present. He was given a medal in 2013 after he revealed his previously undisclosed involvement. His pastor, Rev. Irby, said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian."
Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson, 24, had gone missing while flying a [[P-51 Mustang]] and escorting a reconnaissance flight to Prague from Italy on 23 December 1944. He was on his 68th mission and had previously been awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]. On 27 July 2018, his remains, which had been recovered in Austria a year earlier, were conclusively identified and confirmed to his daughter – included with them was a ring inscribed from her mother to her father and dated 1943. The day before to the announcement, his wingman, 2nd Lt. Robert L. Martin, had died at 99, in [[Olympia Fields, Illinois]]. The bodies of 26 other Tuskegee Airmen who disappeared in WWII remain unrecovered.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/07/27/pentagon-identifies-tuskegee-airman-missing-from-world-war-ii/ Pentagon identifies Tuskegee Airman missing from World War II], ''[[Washington Post]]'', 27 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/tuskegee-airmans-daughter-gets-a-golden-ring-found-at-his-wartime-crash-site/2018/08/11/e25386e6-99ab-11e8-843b-36e177f3081c_story.html |title=Tuskegee airman's daughter gets a golden ring found at his wartime crash site |last=Ruane |first=Michael E. |date=11 August 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=23 August 2018}}</ref>
In 2019, [[Robert Friend (pilot)|Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend]], one of 12 remaining Tuskegee Airmen at the time, died on 21 June in [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]] at the age of 99.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/national-international/Tuskegee-Airman-Who-Flew-142-WWII-Combat-Missions-Dies-at-99-511690001.html|title=Tuskegee Airman Who Flew 142 WWII Combat Missions Dies at 99 |publisher= [[NBC New York]]|date=21 June 2019|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He had flown 142 combat missions in World War II. A public viewing and memorial was held at the [[Palm Springs Air Museum]] on 6 July.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/ny-last-surviving-tuskegee-airmen-died-20190622-flyix6o22bd33pq3wlgmmxotxi-story.html |title=One of last surviving Tuskegee Airmen, Lt. Col. Robert Friend, has died|newspaper= [[New York Daily News]] |date=21 June 2019|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> He had spoken about his experiences in many different events before to his death, such as in [[Garden Grove Unified School District|John Murdy Elementary School's "The Gratitude Project"]] in [[Garden Grove, California|Garden Grove]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://ggusd.us/news/murdy-elementary-schools-gratitude-project-honors-real-life-heroes|title=Murdy Elementary School's Gratitude Project Honors Real Life Heroes|publisher=[[GGUSD]]|date=1 June 2018|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
On January 16, 2022, Brigadier General [[Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)|Charles McGee]] died in his sleep at the age of 102.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/tuskegee-airman-charles-mcgee-dies-at-102/2938419/ |title=Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee Dies at 102 |last=Cook |first=Gina |date=January 16, 2022 |work=[[WRC-TV]] |access-date=January 16, 2022}}</ref> His 30-year military career included 409 combat missions in [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]], and [[Vietnam War]].
<gallery widths="200px" heights="155px">
File:T-1A 3.jpg|''Red Tails'' continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at [[Randolph Air Force Base]] in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen
File:Tuskegee Airmen + US Congressional Gold Medals, 2007March29.jpg|The [[Congressional Gold Medal]] was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the [[United States Capitol rotunda|U.S. Capitol rotunda]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] by President [[George W. Bush]] on March 29, 2007.
File:State of the Union 2020 (49494263147).jpg|Brigadier General [[Charles McGee (pilot)|Charles McGee]] being honored by President [[Donald Trump]] at the [[2020 State of the Union Address]], with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady [[Karen Pence]] to the right
</gallery>
==Legacy and honors==
[[File:A P-51 tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen.jpg|thumb|upright|A tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen located at the [[Palm Springs Air Museum]], [[Palm Springs, California]].]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.JPG|thumb|The Hangar One Museum at the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]] at [[Moton Field Municipal Airport|Moton Field, Tuskegee, Alabama]].]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airman Tech. Sgt. (Ret.) George Watson Sr. is presented the Purple Heart medal by Congressman Christopher Smith and Col. Gina M. Grosso, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst commander.jpg|thumb|Congressman [[Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)|Christopher Smith]] presented the [[Purple Heart Medal]] to [[Tuskegee Airman]] Tech. Sgt. (Ret.) George Watson Sr. with then Col. [[Gina Grosso|Gina M. Grosso]], [[Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst]] commander in 2010]]
[[File:P-51C-18.jpg|thumb|The restored P-51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen, now flown by [[Red Tail Project]] as described in ''[[Red Tail Reborn]]'']]
[[File:F-16B Fighting Falcon.png.jpg|thumb|A [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon]] (an F-16B, specifically) on display at the [[Aviation Challenge]] campus of the [[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]; note its acknowledgement to the Tuskegee Airmen on its dorsal fin.]]
[[File:Tuskegee Airmen.png|thumb|The new redesigned Tuskegee Airmen Depot sticker.]]
On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a [[Congressional Gold Medal]]<ref name=THOMAS>{{USBill|110|S.Con.Res.|15|pipe=S.Con.Res.15: A concurrent resolution authorizing the Rotunda of the Capitol to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award the Congressional Gold Medal to the Tuskegee Airmen}}</ref> at a ceremony in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|U.S. Capitol rotunda]].<ref name="Evans 2007">{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Ben |title=Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal |website=The Times and Democrat |date=2007-03-30 |url=https://thetandd.com/news/tuskegee-airmen-awarded-congressional-gold-medal/article_44fb187a-7858-5e15-8698-ffe78617203e.html |access-date=2023-07-07 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The medal is currently on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]].{{r|USAtoday_1}} The airfield where the airmen trained is now the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]].<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/tuai "Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site"], nps.gov; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
[[Thurgood Marshall]], the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).<ref name="Facts">[http://www.history.com/news/the-tuskegee-airmen-5-fascinating-facts "History in the Headlines: The Tuskegee Airmen: 5 Fascinating Facts"], History.com, 20 January 2012; retrieved 9 July 2012.</ref>
Robert W. Williams Jr., a navigator/bombardier in the [[477th Fighter Group|477th Bombardment Group]], became a judge in the First Judicial District, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In 1979, he was elected to the Commonwealth Court, an appellate court, and the first African American to serve on that court. In 1985, he resigned from the court to run for the District Attorney of Philadelphia County. He was the first African American to successfully become a city-wide candidate for that office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pacchs.org/subsequent_bios.html|title=Subsequent Commissioned Judge Biographies - Pennsylvania Commonwealth Court Historical Society|website=pacchs.org |df=dmy-all|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref> On July 3, 2023, Williams reached the age of 100, making him one of the last Tuskegee Airmen alive.<ref name="Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. 2023">{{cite web | title=Judge Robert Wesley Williams, Jr., (1923- )Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. | website=Greater Philadelphia Chapter Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. | date=2023-05-02 | url=https://phillyredtails.org/flight-officer-robert-wesley-williams-jr-1923/ | access-date=2023-07-07}}</ref>
Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. [[Eugene Winslow]] founded Afro-Am Publishing in [[Chicago]], Illinois, which published ''Great Negroes Past and Present'' in 1963.<ref>[http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-07-11/news/0107110264_1_tuskegee-airman-mr-winslow-design "Eugene Winslow, 81: Tuskegee Airman, Pioneering Designer"], ''Chicago Tribune'', 11 July 2001.</ref>
Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of [[Wheelus Air Base]] outside of Tripoli.<ref name="Facts"/>
Four Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a [[brigadier general]] by President Nixon. He was not the only Tuskegee graduate to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members.<ref name="Facts"/> In 2019, at 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was promoted to honorary Brigadier General.<ref name=McGee/>
[[Coleman Young]] served in the 477th Medium-Bomber Group of the as a second lieutenant, bombardier, and navigator. As a lieutenant in the 477th, Young played a role in the Freeman Field Mutiny in 1945. Young later was elected mayor of Detroit, MI and served from 1974 to 1994. Young was the first African-American mayor of Detroit.
In 2006, California Congressman [[Adam Schiff]] and Missouri Congressman [[William Lacy Clay Jr.]], led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>Oblack, Sean. [http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm "Schiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070726004155/http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htm |date=26 July 2007}} , schiff.house.gov;, retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
The [[99th Flying Training Squadron]] flies [[T-1A Jayhawk]]s and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red. On 1 August 2008, Camp Creek Parkway, a portion of [[Georgia State Route 6|State Route 6]] in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point [[East Point, Georgia|near Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into [[Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/en-US/display/20072008/HR/1023|title=Georgia General Assembly (2008) House Resolution 1023 Act 745|date=14 May 2008|website=Georgia General Assembly Legislation|publisher=Georgia General Assembly|format=pdf|access-date=31 January 2017}}</ref>
The [[Heinz History Center]] in [[Pittsburgh]] presented an award to several [[Western Pennsylvania]] Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban [[Sewickley, Pennsylvania]] dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality.<ref>Majors, Dan. [http://www.postgazette.com/pg/12021/1205112-455-0.stm "Real Tuskegee airman approves of new film about their service in WW II: One good tale"]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 21 January 2012; retrieved 5 February 2012.</ref> An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.<ref>Ove, Torsten. [http://www.post-gazette.com/local/region/2013/09/13/Airport-exhibit-kicks-off-honors-for-Pittsburgh-s-Tuskegee-Airmen/stories/201309130161 "Tuskegee Airmen exhibit opens at airport"], post-gazette.com, 13 September 2013; accessed 5 January 2017.</ref>
On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the [[First inauguration of Barack Obama|inauguration of Barack Obama]], the first African-American elected as president. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of [[Upper Marlboro, Maryland]], a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on 4 Nov.. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."<ref>Seelye, Katharine Q. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?hp "Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration."] ''The New York Times'', 9 December 2008; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref><ref>''We've Completed Our Mission''. ''Washington Post'', 13 December 2008, p. B01.</ref> More than 180 airmen attended 20 January 2009 inauguration.<ref>Longoria, R. Michael (20 January 2009). [http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/121359/inauguration-brings-tuskegee-airmen-to-bolling.aspx "Inauguration Brings Tuskegee Airmen to Bolling"], U.S. Air Force website; retrieved 5 April 2016.</ref>
In July 2009, 15-year-old [[Kimberly Anyadike]] became the youngest female African-American pilot to complete a [[transcontinental flight]] across the United States. She cited the Tuskegee Airmen as one of her biggest inspirations, and was accompanied on her trip by 87-year-old former Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/15-yr-old-youngest-black-pilot-fly-cross-country-article-1.399825?barcprox=true|title=15-yr.-old becomes youngest black pilot to fly cross-country|work=NY Daily News|access-date=11 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>
The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at [[Lowcountry Regional Airport|Walterboro Army Airfield]], South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors, and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} In the 2010 [[Tournament of Roses Parade|Rose Parade]], the city of [[West Covina, California]] paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled ''"Tuskegee Airmen—A Cut Above"'', which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II ''"Redtail"'' fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served. The float won the mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry—national or international.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of [[Columbus Ohio]].{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
In 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the [[International Air & Space Hall of Fame]] at the [[San Diego Air & Space Museum]].<ref>Sprekelmeyer, Linda, editor. ''These We Honor: The International Aerospace Hall of Fame''. Donning Co. Publishers, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1578643974}}.</ref>
In January 2012, [[MTA Regional Bus Operations]] officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the [[Bus depots of MTA Regional Bus Operations#Tuskegee Airmen Depot|Tuskegee Airmen Depot]]. In 2012, [[George Lucas]] produced ''[[Red Tails]]'', a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>della Cava, Marco R. [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/story/2012-01-04/george-lucas-on-red-tails-tuskegee-airmen/52378382/1 "George Lucas' 'Red Tails' salutes Tuskegee Airmen"], ''USA Today'', 5 January 2012.</ref>
In 2012, [[Aldine Independent School District]] in [[Harris County, Texas]] named [[Benjamin O. Davis High School]] in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/First-day-comes-with-grade-school-glitches-3819578.php|title=First day comes with grade-school glitches|date=12 August 2012|newspaper=Houston Chronicle|access-date=16 February 2017}}</ref>
On 16 September 2019, the USAF officially named the winning [[T-X program]] aircraft the "[[Boeing T-7 Red Hawk|T-7A Red Hawk]]" as a tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen, who painted their airplanes' tails red, and to the [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]], one of the aircraft flown by the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1960964/air-force-announces-newest-red-tail-t-7a-red-hawk/ |title=Air Force announces newest Red Tail: 'T-7A Red Hawk' |website=AF.mil |publisher=Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs |date=16 September 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 |quote='The name Red Hawk honors the legacy of Tuskegee Airmen and pays homage to their signature red-tailed aircraft from World War II,' Donovan said. 'The name is also a tribute to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, an American fighter aircraft that first flew in 1938 and was flown by the 99th Fighter Squadron, the U.S. Army Air Forces' first African American fighter squadron.'}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/afa-air-space/2019/09/16/this-is-the-name-of-the-air-forces-new-training-jet/ |title=This is the name of the Air Force's new training jet |website=Defense News |date=16 September 2019 |access-date=17 September 2019}}</ref>
On 2 February 2020, McGee brought out the commemorative coin for the [[Super Bowl]] coin flip.<ref name=McGee>[https://baltimore.cbslocal.com/2020/02/02/tuskegee-airman-col-charles-mcgee-participates-in-super-bowl-liv-coin-toss/ Tuskegee Airman Col. Charles McGee Presents Coin In Super Bowl LIV Coin Toss],''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', 2 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.al.com/news/2020/02/tuskegee-airman-brings-out-coin-for-super-bowl-coin-flip.html |title=Tuskegee Airman brings out coin for Super Bowl coin flip |website=al.com |publisher=Advance Local |date=2 February 2020 |access-date=2 February 2020 |quote= 'Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee, 100, brought out the commemorative coin for the Super Bowl coin flip and handed it to NFL referee Bill Vinovich.'}}</ref>
In 2021, the [[United States Mint]] issued an [[America the Beautiful quarters|America the Beautiful quarter]] commemorating the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]]. The coin depicts a Tuskegee Airman suiting up with two [[North American P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustangs]] flying overhead and the motto "They fought two wars".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usmint.gov/coins/coin-medal-programs/america-the-beautiful-quarters/tuskegee-airmen-national-historic-site |title=Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site Quarter |website=U.S. Mint |access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>
On 25 April 2021, [[NASCAR]] Cup Series driver [[Erik Jones]] honored the Airmen with a paint scheme at [[Talladega Superspeedway]] similar to the design of the [[P-51 Mustang]] they flew in World War II. Jones led 7 laps in the race, but crashed while running fourth on the final lap, and had to settle for a 27th-place finish.<ref name="Joint Base San Antonio 2021">{{cite web |title=Air Force Recruiting unveils Tuskegee Airmen paint scheme for Indy 500 and NASCAR races |website=Joint Base San Antonio |date=2021-04-20 |url=https://www.jbsa.mil/News/News/Article/2578633/air-force-recruiting-unveils-tuskegee-airmen-paint-scheme-for-indy-500-and-nasc/ |access-date=2021-05-05}}</ref>
[[File:Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg|thumb|Tuskegee Airmen at the Aircraft Exchange ceremony July 26, 2023]]
A commemoration of the 75th anniversary of the official desegregation of the US military during which several Tuskegee Airmen were present was held on July 26, 2023 at [[Joint Base Andrews]] in Maryland.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Stecker, Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs |first=Staff Sgt Olivia B. |date=2023-07-27 |title=CSAF, Tuskegee Airmen recognize 75 years of trailblazing |url=https://www.jba.af.mil/News/Article/3474070/csaf-tuskegee-airmen-recognize-75-years-of-trailblazing/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=[[Joint Base Andrews]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Pérez-Moreno |first=Heidi |date=2023-07-27 |title=Tuskegee Airmen, including D.C. native, honored at Joint Base Andrews |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/07/26/tuskegee-airmen-andrews-aircraft/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-08-06 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> During the event, a [[Boeing-Stearman Model 75|PT-17 Stearman]] was officially inducted to the National Museum of the Air Force, located at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base|Wright-Patterson AFB]] in Ohio.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/image/7936162/air-force-gains-piece-tuskegee-airmen-history-75-years-after-military-segregation-ends |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=DVIDS |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends |url=https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Photos/igphoto/2003269918/ |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=www.defense.gov}}</ref> Most Tuskegee pilots were originally trained on the Stearman-class aircraft.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />
In 2023, the Pentagon identified the remains of 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr of the 100th Fighter Squadron, 332nd Fighter Group, whose P-51C Mustang crashed during a bomber escort mission over Regensburg Germany in October 1944. After Lt. Brewer's plane crashed he was declared missing in action. In July 2023, the Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA) exhumed a set of previously unidentified remains and positively identified them through lab tests as belonging to Brewer. He will be buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery.<ref>https://www.wral.com/story/pentagon-identifies-remains-of-north-carolina-tuskegee-airman-after-79-years/21031899/</ref><ref>https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/3513337/pilot-accounted-for-from-wwii-brewer-f/</ref>
==Artistic depictions==
* ''The Legend of the Red Tails,'' by artist Ray Simon<ref name="clammers 2021">{{cite web |author=clammers |title=Edward Pernotto Aviation Artwork Gallery |date=2021-02-08 |url=https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Self_guided_tour_book_GOOD_-_Art.pdf |website=Ohio State University Airport |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref><ref name="Certificate of Authenticity 2011">{{cite web |date=January 11, 2011 |url=https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/uploads/legend_of_the_red_tails.pdf |title=Legend of the Red Tails Certificate of Authenticity |access-date=2023-09-21}}</ref> is displayed in the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Museum.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}
* ''Red Tails Escorting the B17s'', a watercolor by [[Kay Smith (artist)|Kay Smith]] is in the collections of the [[Pritzker Military Library|Pritzker Military Museum & Library]].<ref>[http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm Pritzker Military Library Dedicates Oral History Room With Painting Unveiling and Program About the Tuskegee Airmen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094705/http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm |date=13 February 2023 }}, prweb.com; accessed 5 January 2017.</ref>
*There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/|title=Tuskegee Airmen: They Met the Challenge|website=Mural Arts Philadelphia|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>
* ''Tuskegee Airmen'', a watercolor mural by [[Andrew J. Woodstock (artist)|Andrew J. Woodstock]] has been displayed at the [[Air Zoo]] Aerospace and Aviation Museum in Portage, Michigan.<ref>[http://www.artprize.org/53463 ArtPrize Grand Rapids], artprize.org; accessed 10 January 2020.</ref>
* Richmond, Kentucky’s seven Tuskegee Airmen who served during World War II are honored with an artist's rendering of airman Frank D. Walker at the Madison County Public Library.<ref>[https://www.wkyt.com/2020/11/13/member-of-famed-tuskegee-airmen-honored-with-mural-at-madison-county-library/ WKYT], wkyt.com; accessed 8 Match 2023.</ref>
==In popular culture==
<!--===============({{NoMoreCruft}})===============-->
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[[File:Wings for this Man.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=02:00|Tuskegee Airmen were featured in ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' (1945)]]
* ''The Homestead Grays'' (1978), a wartime novel by James Wylie, loosely based on the combat exploits of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group.{{citation needed |date=September 2023}}
* ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' (1945), a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the [[First Motion Picture Unit]] of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by [[Ronald Reagan]].
* "Graveyard", an episode of ''[[Twelve O'Clock High (TV series)|Twelve O'Clock High]]'' (1966), starring [[Ossie Davis]], [[Jon Voight]], [[Lloyd Haynes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0734436/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl|title="12 O'Clock High" Graveyard (TV Episode 1966)|work=IMDb}}</ref>
* ''[[The Tuskegee Airmen]]'' (1995), a film starring [[Laurence Fishburne]], was produced and aired by [[HBO]].
* "The Tuskegee Airmen", an [[Dogfights (TV series)#Season two|season two]] episode of the documentary TV series ''[[Dogfights (TV series)|Dogfights]]'', was originally aired on the [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History Channel]] on 6 December 2007.
* The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the [[G.I. Joe]] action figure series.<ref>[http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html "1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617061250/http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html |date=17 June 2007}}, mastercollector.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
* ''The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany'' (2001), a book by [[Stephen Ambrose]], describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.{{sfn|Ambrose|2001|p=27}}
* ''[[Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly]]'' (2004) is a documentary that was the first film to feature information regarding the "[[Freeman Field Mutiny]]", the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.<ref>[http://www.fight2fly.com ''Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320001335/http://www.fight2fly.com/ |date=20 March 2005}}, fight2fly.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</ref>
* ''[[Red Tail Reborn]]'' is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them.
* ''[[Red Tails]]'' is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen produced by [[Lucasfilm]] and released in January 2012. The film was written by [[John Ridley]] and [[Aaron McGruder]], and directed by [[Anthony Hemingway]].
* ''[[Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian]]'' (2009) features the Tuskegee Airmen. One of the Airmen, played by [[Keith Powell]], narrates the group's activities in a stentorian voice ("The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again!"). Another one of the Airmen ([[Craig Robinson (actor)|Craig Robinson]]) says to [[Amelia Earhart]] ([[Amy Adams]]), "A lot of people didn't think we could fly, either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us."{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}
* ''[[Black Angels Over Tuskegee]]'' (2015), an [[Off-Broadway]] play about the Airmen written and directed by [[Layon Gray]], currently performs in [[New York City]].{{citation needed |date=September 2023}}
* The story of one such airman is retold in the radio drama "Last Letter Home" presented by ''[[Destination Freedom]]''.<ref>"[https://archive.org/details/DestinationFreedom/DF_50-08-13_ep103-Last_Letter_Home.mp3 Last Letter Home]", ''[[Destination Freedom]]''</ref>
==Squadron images==
<gallery class="center">
File:99th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|Patch of the [[99th Fighter Squadron]]
File:100th Fighter Squadron patch.jpg|Patch of the [[100th Fighter Squadron]]
File:301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png |Patch of the [[301st Fighter Squadron]]
File:302d Fighter Squadron.jpg|Patch of the [[302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)|302d Fighter Squadron]]
</gallery>
==See also==
* [[92nd Infantry Division (United States)|92nd Infantry Division]]
* [[93rd Infantry Division (United States)|93rd Infantry Division]]
* [[555th Parachute Infantry Battalion (United States)|555th Parachute Infantry Battalion "Triple Nickle"]]
* [[761st Tank Battalion (United States)|761st Tank Battalion]]
* [[Bessie Coleman]] – first African-American civil aviator
* ''[[Fly (play)|Fly]]'' (2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen)
* [[List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients]]
* [[List of Tuskegee Airmen]]
* [[List of Tuskegee Airmen Cadet Pilot Graduation Classes]], 1942–1946, listing graduating Cadet Pilots by Class, Year and Class Type
* [[Military history of African Americans|Military history of African-Americans]]
* [[Racial discrimination against African Americans in the U.S. Military|Racial discrimination against African-Americans in the U.S. Military]]
* [[Red Ball Express]]
* [[Strategic bombing during World War II]]
* [[Port Chicago disaster]]
* [[Lowcountry Regional Airport|Walterboro Army Airfield training site and memorial]]
* [[Willa Brown]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=N}}
== References ==
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
=== General and cited references ===
<!-- some entries require publishing, ISSN/ISBN, etc. -->
* {{cite book |last=Ambrose |first=Stephen E. |author-link=Stephen E. Ambrose |date=2001 |title=[[The Wild Blue|The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys Who Flew the B-24s Over Germany]] |location=New York City |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0743203399
}}
* {{cite book |last=Benton |first=Jeffrey C. |date=1999 |title=They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men |location=Maxwell AFB, Montgomery [[Alabama|AL]] |publisher=Air University Press |isbn=978-1585660742}}
* Berry, Ben. ''Tuskegee Airmen: To the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Secrets Revealed)''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011; {{ISBN|1460931076}} {{OCLC|827831542}}
* Broadnax, Samuel L. ''Blue Skies, Black Wings: African-American Pioneers of Aviation''. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007; {{ISBN|0275991954}}.
* Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. ''332nd Fighter Group – Tuskegee Airmen''. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007; {{ISBN|1846030447}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Caldwell |first1=Donald L. |last2=Muller |first2=Richard R. |author-link2=Richard R. Muller |date=2007 |title=The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich |location=London |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1853677120
}}
* Caver, Joseph, Jerome Ennels, and Daniel Haulman. ''The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History, 1939–1949''. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2011; {{ISBN|978-1588382443}}.
* Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project", ''Flypast No. 248'', March 2002.
* {{cite book |last1=Francis |first1=Charles E. |last2=Caso |date=1997 |first2=Adolph |title=The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation |location=Boston |publisher=Branden Books |isbn=0828320292 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C&pg=PA402
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gubert |first1=Betty Kaplan |last2=Sawyer |first2=Miriam |last3=Fannine |first3=Caroline M. |date=2002 |title=Distinguished African-Americans in Aviation and Space Science |location=Westport [[Connecticut|CT]] |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-1573562461
}}
* Haulman, Daniel L. "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", ''The Alabama Review'', Vol. 64, No. 1, January 2011.
* {{cite book |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=2012 |title=Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen |location=Montgomery [[Alabama|AL]] |publisher=New South Books |isbn=978-1603061476 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iPN5-Y7BMWMC
}}
* {{cite web |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=24 July 2013 |title=Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen |website=Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF) |url=http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf |df=dmy-all |archive-date=2013-10-29
}}
* {{cite web |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=26 February 2016 |title=Tuskegee Airmen Chronology |location=[[Maxwell Air Force Base]] AL |publisher=Air Force Historical Research Agency |access-date=26 January 2021 |url=https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026024416/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-10-26 }}
* Hill, Ezra M. Sr. ''The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen''. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope, 2006.
* Holway, John B. ''Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force''. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997; {{ISBN|1881325210}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Homan |first1=Lynn M. |last2=Reilly |first2=Thomas |date=2001 |title=Black Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen |location=Gretna [[Louisiana|LA]] |publisher=Pelican Publishing |isbn=978-1565548282
}}
* Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. ''High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; {{ISBN|0874746507}}.
* {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=Craig |date=2000 |title=Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris |location=Athens [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0820321929
}}
* McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. ''Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II''. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996; {{ISBN|0802782922}}.
* {{cite book |last=Moye |first=J. Todd |date=2010 |title=Freedom Flyers: The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II |location=New York City |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195386554
}}
* Percy, William A. "Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II", ''The Journal of Military History'', 67, July 2003.
* Ross, Robert A. ''Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II''. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980; {{ISBN|0917612000}}.
* Sandler, Stanley. ''Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992; {{ISBN|1560981547}}.
* {{cite journal |last=Tillman |first=Barrett |date=2012 |title=Tales of the Red Tails; Inside the Tuskegee Legend: The men, the machines, the missions |journal=Flight Journal |issue=February 2012}}
* Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." ''Flypast No, 248'', March 2002.
* Tucker, Phillip Thomas. ''Father of the Tuskegee airmen, John C. Robinson''. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2012; {{ISBN|1597974870}}, e-book {{ISBN|1597976067}} {{OCLC|752678328}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woodward |first1=C. Vann |last2=McFeely |first2=William S. |date=2001 |title=The Strange Career of Jim Crow |location=New York City |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195146905}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131204121846/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen.aspx Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University]
* [http://www.tuskegeemuseum.org Tuskegee Airmen Museum]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FmlqfQmfqoC ''Double V: Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen'', an illustrated history book of the "Red Tails" by veteran Tuskegee Airmen (Lawrence P. Scott, William M. Womack) from Michigan, with photos from personal collections.]{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716132207/http://www.starduststudios.com/tuskegee_airmen.htm Images of Tuskegee airmen, photos, paintings etc.]
* "Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. {{ISBN|0802782922}}
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/ The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)]
* [http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821070544/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml |date=21 August 2010 }}
* [http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112847/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html |date=13 November 2017 }}
* [http://www.bet.com/shows/bet-honors/2012/honorees/tuskegee-airmen.html The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards]
* [http://tuskegeeairmen.org/ Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. – Official Web Site]
* [http://www.redtail.org/ The Red Tail Project]
* [http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/ African Americans in the U.S. Army]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111230144220/http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/TA_HIS1.HTM The Negro Pilot Training Program]
* [http://southernspaces.org/2010/tuskegee-airmen-brett-gadsden-interviews-j-todd-moye "Tuskegee Airmen: Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye", ''Southern Spaces'' 30 September 2010.]
* [https://archive.today/20130130021056/http://newbooksinhistory.com/?p=2743 Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on "New Books in History"]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ZScRrewMk Contemporary newsreel about "Negro Pilots" – YouTube]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=HenryBro1942|name="Henry Browne, Farmer (1942)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=NegroPilots|name="Negro Pilots (1943)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=negrosoldier|name="The Negro Soldier (1943)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava19065vnb1|name="Tuskegee Airman Tribute (1990)"}}
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava20001vnb1|name="African Americans in World War II: Legacy of Patriotism and Valor (1997)"}}
* {{NYTtopic|organizations/t/tuskegee_airmen}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120126043803/http://www.valorstudios.com/Tuskegee-Airmen-P-51.htm Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2735 Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen] from [[World Digital Library]]
* [http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/ Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen: Robert Martin, Dr. Quentin P. Smith, and Shelby Westbrook] at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] in October 2008
* [http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/ Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen] recorded at the [[Pritzker Military Museum & Library]] on 12 September 2013
* [https://library.ucr.edu/collections/tuskegee-airmen-collections Tuskegee Airmen Collections] [[University of California, Riverside]]
* [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-xd0qr4q07h "Airmen and Adversity"] [[WTVI]], 1998-02-06, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, [[American Archive of Public Broadcasting]]
* U.S. Army Air Forces First Motion Picture Unit. ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWd5DdsEBqg Wings for This Man (1945)'' Tuskegee Airmen Documentary] Video via [[YouTube]]. See ''[[Wings for This Man]]'' {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.ntis.ava08663vnb1|name="Wings for This Man (1945)"}}
{{Tuskegee Airmen}}
{{USAAF 15th Air Force World War II}}
{{USWWII}}
{{Tuskegee University}}
{{Eleanor Roosevelt}}
{{North American P-51 Mustang family}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Tuskegee Airmen| ]]
[[Category:African-American history of Alabama]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Black aviators]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:Groups of World War II]]
[[Category:History of Alabama]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Tuskegee, Alabama]]
[[Category:North American P-51 Mustang]]
[[Category:Tuskegee University]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Army officers]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">African-American military pilots during World War II</div>
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<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066479718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/90px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/135px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/180px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="401" /></a></span><br />
<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png" class="mw-file-description" title="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing Insignia"><img alt="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing Insignia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/90px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/135px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png/180px-332d_Expeditionary_Operations_Wing_-_Emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="590" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Emblems of wing</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data">1940–1948</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Branch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps" title="United States Army Air Corps">United States Army Air Corps</a><br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a><br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Role</th><td class="infobox-data">Trained for aerial combat</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data">Graduates assigned to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_FG" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd FG">332nd Fighter Group</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/302nd_Fighter_Squadron_(United_States)" title="302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)">302d Fighter Squadron</a>), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Medium Bombardment Group</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/616th_Bombardment_Squadron" title="616th Bombardment Squadron">616th Bombardment Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/617th_Bombardment_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="617th Bombardment Squadron">617th Bombardment Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/618th_Bombardment_Squadron" title="618th Bombardment Squadron">618th Bombardment Squadron</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/619th_Bombardment_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="619th Bombardment Squadron">619th Bombardment Squadron</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Nickname(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Red Tails<br /> Red-Tail Angels</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Motto(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Spit Fire</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div>
<p>The <b>Tuskegee Airmen</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> were a group of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> military pilots (fighter and bomber) and airmen who fought in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. They formed the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</a> and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group (Medium)</a> of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">United States Army Air Forces</a> (USAAF). The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks, and other support personnel. The Tuskegee airmen received praise for their excellent combat record earned while protecting white American bombers from enemy fighters. The group was awarded three <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citations</a>.
</p><p>All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Griel Field, Kennedy Field, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moton_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Field">Moton Field</a>, Shorter Field, and the Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a></sup> They were educated at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> (now Tuskegee University), located near <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a>. Of the 922 pilots, five were <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haitians</a> from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Haiti" title="Armed Forces of Haiti">Haitian Air Force</a> and one pilot was from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> It also included a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic%E2%80%93Latino_naming_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanic–Latino naming dispute">Hispanic or Latino</a> airman born in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Pursuit_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Pursuit Squadron">99th Pursuit Squadron</a> (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) was the first black flying squadron, and the first to deploy overseas (to North Africa in April 1943, and later to Sicily and other parts of Italy). The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</a>, which originally included the 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons, was the first black flying group. It deployed to Italy in early 1944. Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">North American B-25 Mitchell</a> bombers, they never served in combat. In June 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions and, in July 1944, with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron, it had four fighter squadrons.
</p><p>The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</a> fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobras</a> (March 1944), later with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolts</a> (June–July 1944) and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</a> (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennage" title="Empennage">empennage</a>; the P-51B, C and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.
</p><p>The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[N 1]</a></sup> and the American military was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racially segregated</a>, as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside of the army.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Origins"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Origins</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Testing"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Testing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#First_Lady's_flight"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">First Lady's flight</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Formation"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Formation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Combat_assignment"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Combat assignment</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Active_air_units"><span class="tocnumber">1.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Active air units</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Tuskegee_Airmen_bomber_units"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Tuskegee Airmen bomber units</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Formation_2"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Formation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Command_difficulties"><span class="tocnumber">1.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Command difficulties</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#War_accomplishments"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">War accomplishments</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Controversy_over_escort_record"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Controversy over escort record</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Postwar"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Postwar</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Legacy_and_honors"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Legacy and honors</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Artistic_depictions"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Artistic depictions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#In_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">In popular culture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Squadron_images"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Squadron images</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Explanatory_notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Explanatory notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#General_and_cited_references"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">General and cited references</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Origins">Origins</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_Pilot_Training_Program" title="Civilian Pilot Training Program">Civilian Pilot Training Program</a></div>
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War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="9th Cavalry Regiment (United States)">9th Cavalry</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="10th Cavalry Regiment (United States)">10th Cavalry</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="24th Infantry Regiment (United States)">24th Infantry Regiment</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="25th Infantry Regiment (United States)">25th Infantry Regiment</a>. When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets, their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201019_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201019-7">[6]</a></sup> In 1941, the War Department and the Army Air Corps, under pressure — <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941_in_aviation#June" title="1941 in aviation">three months</a> before its transformation into the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAAF">USAAF</a> — constituted the first all-black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>Because of the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans, since in 1940 the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201025_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201025-9">[8]</a></sup> The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants had already participated in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_Pilot_Training_Program" title="Civilian Pilot Training Program">Civilian Pilot Training Program</a>, unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a> had participated since 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton1999p._43_(Noel_F._Parrish)_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton1999p._43_(Noel_F._Parrish)-10">[9]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Testing">Testing</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1097763485">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" title="List of psychological research methods">Psychological Research Unit 1</a> at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell Army Air Field">Maxwell Army Air Field</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery,_Alabama" title="Montgomery, Alabama">Montgomery, Alabama</a>, and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_officer" title="Flight officer">navigators</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_(air_force)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombardier (air force)">bombardiers</a>. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Standardized tests">standardized tests</a> to quantify <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a>, dexterity, and leadership qualities to select and train the best-suited personnel for the roles of bombardier, navigator, and pilot. The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the ablest and most intelligent African-American applicants were able to join.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Airman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a>, later the first <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Detroit" title="List of mayors of Detroit">mayor of Detroit</a>, told journalist <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studs_Terkel" title="Studs Terkel">Studs Terkel</a> about the process:
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They made the standards so high, we actually became an elite group. We were screened and super-screened. We were unquestionably the brightest and most physically fit young blacks in the country. We were super-better because of the irrational laws of Jim Crow. You can't bring that many intelligent young people together and train 'em as fighting men and expect them to supinely roll over when you try to fuck over 'em, right? (Laughs.)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h4><span id="First_Lady.27s_flight"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="First_Lady's_flight">First Lady's flight</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First Lady's flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Lady" class="mw-redirect" title="First Lady">First Lady</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> inspected it on 29 March 1941, and flew with African-American chief civilian instructor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Alfred_%22Chief%22_Anderson" title="C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson">C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson</a>. Anderson, who had been flying since 1929 and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots, took his prestigious passenger on a half-hour flight in a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_J-3_Cub" title="Piper J-3 Cub">Piper J-3 Cub</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup> After landing, she cheerfully announced, "Well, you can fly all right."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Rosenwald_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Rosenwald Fund">Julius Rosenwald Fund</a> to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Moton Field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4-14">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation">Formation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg/220px-First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg/330px-First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg/440px-First_Tuskeegee_Class.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="1420" /></a><figcaption>Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, as he reviews the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vultee_BT-13" class="mw-redirect" title="Vultee BT-13">Vultee BT-13</a> trainers in the background, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941</figcaption></figure>
<p>On 22 March 1941, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Pursuit Squadron</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[N 2]</a></sup> was activated without pilots at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanute_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanute Field">Chanute Field</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rantoul,_Illinois" title="Rantoul, Illinois">Rantoul, Illinois</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199715_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199715-16">[14]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201026–37_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201026–37-17">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[N 3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FraCas2008-19">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>A cadre of 14 black non-commissioned officers from the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments were sent to Chanute Field to help in the administration and supervision of the trainees. A white officer, Army Captain Harold R. Maddux, was assigned as the first commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron.<sup id="cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FraCas2008-19">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haulman2017-20">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>A group of 271 enlisted men began training in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute Field in March 1941 until they were transferred to bases in Alabama in July 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a></sup> The skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharpe_Field" title="Sharpe Field">Tuskegee</a> Fields in Alabama.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201057_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201057-22">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a></sup>
</p><p>While the enlisted men were in training, five black youths were admitted to the Officers Training School (OTS) at Chanute Field as aviation cadets. Specifically, Elmer D. Jones, Dudley Stevenson, and James Johnson of Washington, DC; Nelson Brooks of Illinois, and William R. Thompson of Pittsburgh, PA successfully completed OTS and were commissioned as the first Black Army Air Corps Officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FraCas2008-19">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>In June 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama, and remained the only black flying unit in the country, but did not yet have pilots.<sup id="cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haulman2017-20">[17]</a></sup> The famous airmen were actually trained at five airfields surrounding Tuskegee University (formerly Tuskegee Institute)--Griel, Kennedy, Moton, Shorter, and Tuskegee Army Air Fields.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a></sup> The flying unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a></sup> and was backed by an entire service arm. On 19 July 1941, thirteen individuals made up the first class of aviation cadets (42-C) when they entered preflight training at Tuskegee Institute.<sup id="cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haulman2017-20">[17]</a></sup> After primary training at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moton_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Field">Moton Field</a>, they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field, about 10 miles (16 km) to the west for conversion training onto operational types. Consequently, Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training (basic, advanced, and transition) at a single location. Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–4-25">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p>By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200168_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200168-26">[23]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_airman_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1286" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_E_bond" title="Series E bond">War Bonds</a> poster featuring a Tuskegee Airman</figcaption></figure>
<p>Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only 40 miles (64 km) distant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233-27">[24]</a></sup> African-American contractor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKissack_%26_McKissack" title="McKissack & McKissack">McKissack and McKissack, Inc.</a> was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a>, and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200131–2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200131–2-28">[25]</a></sup> The airmen were placed under the command of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">Captain</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</a>, one of only two black line officers then serving.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Police">Military Police</a> had police authority over local <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">white</a> civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199756_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199756-30">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a></sup>
</p><p>His successor, Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_von_Kimble&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick von Kimble (page does not exist)">Frederick von Kimble</a>, then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield.<sup id="cite_ref-afhrastudy91pdf134_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afhrastudy91pdf134-32">[29]</a></sup> Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233-27">[24]</a></sup> Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of training at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_F._Parrish" title="Noel F. Parrish">Noel F. Parrish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a></sup> Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997258_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997258-34">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg/220px-Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg/330px-Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Airglasspilotcert-NPS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Instrument certificate for Tuskegee Airman Robert M. Glass, signed by Parrish</figcaption></figure>
<p>The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_surgeon" title="Flight surgeon">flight surgeons</a> to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FlightSurgeon-36">[33]</a></sup> Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.
</p><p>Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses, until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph_Field,_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Randolph Field, Texas">Randolph Field, Texas</a>. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 to 1949. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily, and other parts of Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vance_H._Marchbanks_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vance H. Marchbanks Jr. (page does not exist)">Vance H. Marchbanks Jr.</a>, MD, a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis.<sup id="cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FlightSurgeon-36">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214-37">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Trained officers were also left idle as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_%22Hap%22_Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry "Hap" Arnold">Henry "Hap" Arnold</a>: "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–5_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–5-38">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Combat_assignment">Combat assignment</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Combat assignment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2692" data-file-height="2088" /></a><figcaption>Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtiss P-40">P-40</a> fighter aircraft</figcaption></figure>
<p>The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it joined the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Momyer" class="mw-redirect" title="William Momyer">William W. Momyer</a>. Given little guidance from battle-experienced pilots, the 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a>, code name <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Corkscrew" title="Operation Corkscrew">Operation Corkscrew</a>, in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to clear the sea lanes for the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a> in July 1943. The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a></sup> The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a></sup> due to air attack was the first of its kind.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citation</a> (DUC) for its performance in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-dist_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dist-42">[39]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis,_Jr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis%2C_Jr.jpg/170px-Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis%2C_Jr.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis%2C_Jr.jpg/255px-Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis%2C_Jr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Col_Benjamin_Oliver_Davis%2C_Jr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Col. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</a>, commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt" class="mw-redirect" title="P-47 Thunderbolt">P-47 Thunderbolt</a> in Sicily</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_DanielChappie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_DanielChappie.jpg/170px-James_DanielChappie.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_DanielChappie.jpg/255px-James_DanielChappie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_DanielChappie.jpg/340px-James_DanielChappie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Tuskegee airman Instructor Daniel "Chappie" James</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alix_Pasquet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Alix_Pasquet.jpg/170px-Alix_Pasquet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Alix_Pasquet.jpg/255px-Alix_Pasquet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Alix_Pasquet.jpg/340px-Alix_Pasquet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>Tuskegee airman Alix Pasquet, date unknown.</figcaption></figure>
<p>By the end of February 1944, the all-black <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332nd Fighter Group">332nd Fighter Group</a> had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/302nd_Fighter_Squadron_(United_States)" title="302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)">302nd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on 1 May 1944, joined them on 6 June at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramitelli_Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramitelli Airfield">Ramitelli Airfield</a>, nine kilometers south-southeast of the small city of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campomarino" title="Campomarino">Campomarino</a>, on the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic coast</a>. From Ramitelli, the 332nd Fighter Group escorted <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifteenth_Air_Force" title="Fifteenth Air Force">Fifteenth Air Force</a> heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-332d_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332d-44">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-45">[42]</a></sup>
</p><p>A B-25 bomb group, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</a>, was forming in the U.S. but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-45">[42]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Active_air_units">Active air units</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Active air units"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/220px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/330px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg/440px-Pilots_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3202" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramitelli_Airfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramitelli Airfield">Ramitelli Airfield</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>; from left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelson Jr., Captain <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_D._Turner" title="Andrew D. Turner">Andrew D. Turner</a>, and Lt. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_D._Lester" title="Clarence D. Lester">Clarence P. Lester</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. were considered to be highly successful.<sup id="cite_ref-shsu_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shsu-46">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sd_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sd-47">[44]</a></sup>
</p><p>In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation#Army_and_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citations</a> (DUC) during World War II. The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May – 11 June 1943, Monastery Hill near <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Cassino</a> from 12 to 14 May 1944, and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945. The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war.<sup id="cite_ref-dist_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dist-42">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jet_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jet-48">[45]</a></sup> The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzio" title="Anzio">Anzio</a>, Normandy, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> and Rome-Arno and others. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-shsu_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shsu-46">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day.<sup id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-49">[46]</a></sup> On 24 March 1945, 43 P-51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B-17 bombers over 1,600 miles (2,600 km) into Germany and back. The bombers' target, a massive Daimler-Benz tank factory in Berlin, was heavily defended by <i>Luftwaffe</i> aircraft, including propeller-driven <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190" title="Focke-Wulf Fw 190">Fw 190s</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163" class="mw-redirect" title="Messerschmitt Me 163">Me 163 "Komet"</a> rocket-powered fighters, and 25 of the much more formidable <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Me 262s</a>, history's first operational jet fighter. Pilots Charles Brantley, Earl Lane and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscoe_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Roscoe Brown">Roscoe Brown</a> all shot down German jets over Berlin that day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For the mission, the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.<sup id="cite_ref-332d_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-332d-44">[41]</a></sup>
</p><p>Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy-occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobra</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolt</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</a> fighter aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-shsu_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shsu-46">[43]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tuskegee_Airmen_bomber_units">Tuskegee Airmen bomber units</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tuskegee Airmen bomber units"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation_2">Formation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123-50">[47]</a></sup> or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997219_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997219-51">[48]</a></sup> represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[N 4]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</a>, an all-white group. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214-37">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maurer1994_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maurer1994-53">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-54">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-55">[51]</a></sup> By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated—an all-Black group.<sup id="cite_ref-Maurer1994_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maurer1994-53">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-54">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-55">[51]</a></sup> At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201094,_124_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201094,_124-56">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>The 477th eventually contained four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit operated 60 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">North American B-25 Mitchell</a> bombers.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[N 5]</a></sup> The 477th went on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997457_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997457-59">[54]</a></sup> The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001186_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001186-60">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>The home field for the 477th was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfridge_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfridge Field">Selfridge Field</a>, located outside Detroit, with forays to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurtsmith_Air_Force_Base" title="Wurtsmith Air Force Base">Oscoda Army Air Field</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscoda,_Michigan" title="Oscoda, Michigan">Oscoda, Michigan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[N 6]</a></sup> Other bases were used for various types of training courses. Twin-engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while the transition to multi-engine pilot training was at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mather_Air_Force_Base" title="Mather Air Force Base">Mather Field, California</a>. Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inglewood,_California" title="Inglewood, California">Inglewood</a>. Gunners learned to shoot at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eglin_Air_Force_Base" title="Eglin Air Force Base">Eglin Field, Florida</a>. Bombers-navigators learned their trades at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hondo_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Hondo Army Air Field">Hondo Army Air Field</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midland_Air_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midland Air Field (page does not exist)">Midland Air Field, Texas</a> or at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roswell,_New_Mexico" title="Roswell, New Mexico">Roswell, New Mexico</a>. Training of the new African-American crewmen also took place at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioux_Falls,_South_Dakota" title="Sioux Falls, South Dakota">Sioux Falls, South Dakota</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Air_Force_Base" title="Scott Air Force Base">Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois</a>. Once trained, the air and ground crews were spliced into a working unit at Selfridge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997207_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997207-63">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001180–2_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001180–2-64">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Command_difficulties">Command difficulties</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Command difficulties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Selway" title="Robert Selway">Robert Selway</a>, who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a></sup> Like his ranking officer, Major General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_O%27Driscoll_Hunter" title="Frank O'Driscoll Hunter">Frank O'Driscoll Hunter</a> from Georgia, Selway was a racial segregationist. Hunter was blunt about it, saying such things as "...racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187-66">[60]</a></sup> He backed Selway's violations of Army Regulation 210–10, which forbade segregation of airbase facilities. They segregated base facilities so thoroughly that they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by race. When the audience sat in random patterns as part of "Operation Checkerboard," the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001185–6_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001185–6-67">[61]</a></sup> African-American officers petitioned base <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanding_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Commanding Officer">Commanding Officer</a> William Boyd for access to the only <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_officers%27_club" title="Military officers' club">officer's club</a> on base.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126-69">[63]</a></sup> Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights; he was court-martialed for this.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans, although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126–7_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126–7-71">[65]</a></sup> The 477th was transferred to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godman_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Godman Field">Godman Field</a>, Kentucky before the club was built. They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge's size, with no air-to-ground gunnery range and deteriorating runways that were too short for B-25 landings. Colonel Selway took on the second role of the commanding officer of Godman Field. In that capacity, he ceded Godman Field's officers club to African-American airmen. White officers used the whites-only clubs at nearby Fort Knox, much to the displeasure of African-American officers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010128–9_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010128–9-72">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">captain</a>, transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">major</a>. He was replaced by another white officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010131–2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010131–2-73">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 15 March 1945,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187-74">[68]</a></sup> the 477th was transferred to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field">Freeman Field</a>, near <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour,_Indiana" title="Seymour, Indiana">Seymour</a>, Indiana. The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men. Superimposed on it were 400 African-American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units. Freeman Field had a firing range, usable runways, and other amenities useful for training. African-American airmen worked in proximity with white ones; both lived in a public housing project adjacent to the base.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132-75">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187-66">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>Colonel Selway turned the noncommissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers' club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers' club became the cadre's club. The old <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Commissioned_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Commissioned Officer">Non-Commissioned Officers</a> Club, promptly sarcastically dubbed "Uncle Tom's Cabin", became the trainees' officers club. At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots and had about four years in service. Four others had completed training as pilots, bombardiers and navigators and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps. Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time. Nevertheless, by Colonel Selway's fiat, they were trainees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187-74">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132–3_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132–3-76">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p>Off base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their clothes and yet willingly laundered those of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">captured German soldiers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187-74">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only officer's club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call and had the assistant <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provost_marshal" title="Provost marshal">provost marshal</a> and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers' entry. The latter, a major, ordered them to leave and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused. It was the beginning of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Field_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field Mutiny">Freeman Field Mutiny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010133_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010133-77">[71]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was redesignated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</a> A complete sweep of Selway's white staff followed, with all vacated jobs filled by African-American officers. The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action. The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on 8 October 1945. On 13 March 1946, the two-squadron group, supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron (later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron), the 118th Base Unit, and a band, moved to its final station, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockbourne_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockbourne Field">Lockbourne Field</a>. The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on 1 July 1947, ending the 477th Composite Group. It was reorganized as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing">332nd Fighter Wing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001206–8_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001206–8-78">[72]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997263_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997263-79">[73]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="War_accomplishments">War accomplishments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: War accomplishments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22GOOD_HUNTING,_SON,-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg/220px-%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg/330px-%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg/440px-%22GOOD_HUNTING%2C_SON%2C-_YOU%27RE_ON_YOUR_OWN_NOW%5E%5E%22_-_NARA_-_535667.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2972" /></a><figcaption>Office of War Information poster</figcaption></figure>
<p>In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[74]</a></sup> The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETillman201224_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETillman201224-81">[75]</a></sup> and 32 captured as prisoners of war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394-82">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVyuedRwZre8C_pp._405–13]_(Tuskegee_Honor_Roll)_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVyuedRwZre8C_pp._405–13]_(Tuskegee_Honor_Roll)-83">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments:
</p>
<ul><li>1578 combat missions,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a></sup> 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a></sup></li>
<li>179 bomber escort missions,<sup id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-49">[46]</a></sup> with a good record of protection,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394-82">[76]</a></sup> losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27, compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P-51 groups<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013-86">[80]</a></sup></li>
<li>112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air, another 150 on the ground<sup id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-49">[46]</a></sup> and 148 damaged. This included three <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262" title="Messerschmitt Me 262">Messerschmitt Me 262</a> jet fighters shot down</li>
<li>950 rail cars, trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed (over 600 rail cars<sup id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-49">[46]</a></sup>)</li>
<li>One torpedo boat put out of action. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_torpedo_boat_TA22" class="mw-redirect" title="German torpedo boat TA22"><i>TA22</i></a> was an Italian World War I-era warship (<i>Giuseppe Missori</i>), that had been <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedoboot_Ausland#Ex-Italian_ships" title="Torpedoboot Ausland">seized by the Germans and put into service</a>. It was attacked on 25 June 1944, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_total_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive total loss">damaged so severely</a> she was never repaired. She was decommissioned on 8 November 1944, and finally <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling" title="Scuttling">scuttled</a> on 5 February 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mutiny_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mutiny-88">[82]</a></sup></li>
<li>40 boats and barges destroyed<sup id="cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NMUSAF-49">[46]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>Awards and decorations included:
</p>
<ul><li>Three <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Unit_Citation" class="mw-redirect" title="Distinguished Unit Citation">Distinguished Unit Citations</a>
<ul><li>99th Pursuit Squadron: 30 May – 11 June 1943, for actions over Sicily<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[83]</a></sup></li>
<li>99th Fighter Squadron: 12–14 May 1944: for successful airstrikes against <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cassino" title="Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a>, Italy. The first two Distinguished Unit Citations received by the 99th Fighter Squadron were awarded to the groups to which the squadron was attached. At the time, when a group received the honor, it was shared with the squadrons the were assigned or attached to the group.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>332nd Fighter Group (and its 99th, 100th, and 301st Fighter Squadrons): 24 March 1945: for a bomber escort mission to Berlin, during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy Me 262 jets. The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on 6 March 1945.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li>
<li>At least one <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Star" title="Silver Star">Silver Star</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>96 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_(United_States)" title="Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)">Distinguished Flying Crosses</a> to 95 Airmen; Captain <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_A._Campbell_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)">William A. Campbell</a> was awarded two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman201252_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman201252-90">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[85]</a></sup></li>
<li>14 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Star" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Star">Bronze Stars</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>744 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Medal" title="Air Medal">Air Medals</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>At least 60 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Hearts</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[86]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Controversy_over_escort_record">Controversy over escort record</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Controversy over escort record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg/170px-Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg/255px-Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg/340px-Tuskegee_Airmen_332nd_Fighter_Group_pilots_ppmsca13245u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2381" data-file-height="2989" /></a><figcaption>Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> 1945</figcaption></figure>
<p>For decades, the Tuskegee Airmen were popularly believed to have never lost a bomber under escort. This belief derived most directly to an article, "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss", published by the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</a></i> on 24 March 1945. Citing information supplied by the 15th Air Force,<sup id="cite_ref-USAtoday_1_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_1-93">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010122_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010122-94">[88]</a></sup> the article said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire.<sup id="cite_ref-WApost_01042007_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WApost_01042007-95">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.<sup id="cite_ref-WApost_01042007_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WApost_01042007-95">[89]</a></sup> Alan Gropman, a professor at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_University" title="National Defense University">National Defense University</a>, disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters.<sup id="cite_ref-WApost_01042007_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WApost_01042007-95">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>Daniel Haulman of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency" title="Air Force Historical Research Agency">Air Force Historical Research Agency</a> (AFHRA) reassessed the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. He documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen, citing after-mission reports filed by the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, records of missing air crew, and witness testimony.<sup id="cite_ref-USAtoday_1_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_1-93">[87]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_airmen_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4599" data-file-height="4840" /></a><figcaption>Several Tuskegee Airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945</figcaption></figure>
<p>Haulman wrote a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth," published in the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Alabama Review">Alabama Review</a></i> and by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NewSouth_Books" title="NewSouth Books">NewSouth Books</a> as an e-book, and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013. The article documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group. This total included 15 B-17s of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/483rd_Bombardment_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="483rd Bombardment Group">483rd Bombardment Group</a> shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944, that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman201629_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman201629-96">[90]</a></sup>
</p><p>Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013-86">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2022, Dr. Haulman published a comprehensive study that established that the record of the 322d differed substantially from that of the three other P-51 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(military_aviation_unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (military aviation unit)">groups</a> assigned to Fifteenth Air Force in terms of bombers lost. The group was noticeably better at protecting bombers they escorted, even if not perfect. While the 332nd only lost 27 escorted <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_bomber" title="Heavy bomber">heavy bombers</a> while flying 179 escort missions,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[N 7]</a></sup> the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="31st Fighter Group">31st Fighter Group</a> lost 49 in 184 missions, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/325th_Operations_Group" title="325th Operations Group">325th</a> lost 68 in 192 escort missions, while the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/52nd_Operations_Group" title="52nd Operations Group">52nd</a> lost 88 in 193 missions. Moreover, the 332nd flew more missions than any of the other three groups on which they lost no escorted bombers. Combining these numbers with the numbers of enemy aircraft destroyed by each of these groups suggests that the 332nd stuck closer to protect the bombers they escorted, while the other groups were willing to pursue enemy fighters away from the bombers.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_airmen_(archive_photo).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_airmen_%28archive_photo%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1515" data-file-height="1013" /></a><figcaption>Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Theater_of_Operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Theater of Operations">Mediterranean theater</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>The historical record shows several examples of the fighter group's losses. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944, noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Holloman" title="William H. Holloman">William H. Holloman</a> was reported by the <i>Times</i> as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a> and chaired the Airmen's history committee.<sup id="cite_ref-WApost_01042007_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WApost_01042007-95">[89]</a></sup> According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the <i>Chicago Defender</i> article was published.<sup id="cite_ref-USAtoday_1_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_1-93">[87]</a></sup> The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman201655_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman201655-100">[93]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Postwar">Postwar</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Postwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg/220px-Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg/330px-Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg/440px-Alfonso_Harris_and_Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Flickr_-_San_Diego_Air_%5E_Space_Museum_Archives.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Various Tuskegee Airmen by a P-51 Mustang at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Air_Force_Base" title="Luke Air Force Base">Luke Field</a>, around January or February 1946.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, but other units continued to harass these airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tuskegee_Airmen_Combat_record-101">[94]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial and ground targets and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long-range escort mission in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific theatre of World War II</a>), the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class. The pilots were Captain <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alva_Temple" title="Alva Temple">Alva Temple</a>, Lts. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Stewart,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Stewart, Jr.">Harry Stewart, Jr.</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Harvey" title="James H. Harvey">James H. Harvey</a> III and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbert_Alexander" title="Halbert Alexander">Halbert Alexander</a>. Staff Sergeant <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buford_A._Johnson" title="Buford A. Johnson">Buford A. Johnson</a> (30 August 1927 – 15 April 2017) served as the pilots' aircraft crew chief.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[95]</a></sup> Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[96]</a></sup> They received congratulations from the governor of Ohio and Air Force commanders across the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997402–4_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997402–4-104">[97]</a></sup>
</p><p>After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a>, the veteran Tuskegee Airmen found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Air_Center" title="Columbia Air Center">Columbia Air Center</a> in Maryland.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[98]</a></sup> On 11 May 1949, <i>Air Force Letter 35.3</i> mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[99]</a></sup>
</p><p>Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs, a civilian flight instructor who helped launch in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGubertSawyerFannine2002130_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGubertSawyerFannine2002130-107">[100]</a></sup> later became the founder of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negro_Airmen_International&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Negro Airmen International (page does not exist)">Negro Airmen International</a>, an association joined by many airmen. USAF General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_James_Jr." title="Daniel James Jr.">Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.</a> (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Air_Force_four-star_generals" title="List of United States Air Force four-star generals">four-star general</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[101]</a></sup> Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_Rodgers" title="Marion Rodgers">Marion Rodgers</a> went on to work in communications for <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NORAD" title="NORAD">NORAD</a> and as a program developer for the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13" title="Apollo 13">Apollo 13</a> project.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including <span class="anchor" id="Herbert_Carter"></span>Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Carter_(pilot)" title="Herbert Carter (pilot)">Herbert Carter</a>, Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McGee_(Tuskegee_Airman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)">Charles McGee</a>, group historian Ted Johnson, and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer, flew to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balad,_Iraq" title="Balad, Iraq">Balad, Iraq</a>, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332nd_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="332nd Air Expeditionary Wing">332nd Air Expeditionary Wing</a>. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force" title="Ninth Air Force">Ninth Air Force</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Central_Command_Air_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Central Command Air Forces">U.S. Central Command Air Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iraq2005_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iraq2005-110">[103]</a></sup>
</p><p>As of 2008<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, no one knew how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel were still alive.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[104]</a></sup> In August 2019, 14 documented original surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participated at the annual Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[105]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving members of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Florida" title="St. Petersburg, Florida">St. Petersburg, Florida</a>, following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers during a mission in Italy in January 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[107]</a></sup> In 2007, President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 300 surviving Tuskegee Airmen, but Rogers was not present. He was given a medal in 2013 after he revealed his previously undisclosed involvement. His pastor, Rev. Irby, said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian."
</p><p>Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson, 24, had gone missing while flying a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang" class="mw-redirect" title="P-51 Mustang">P-51 Mustang</a> and escorting a reconnaissance flight to Prague from Italy on 23 December 1944. He was on his 68th mission and had previously been awarded the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_(United_States)" title="Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)">Distinguished Flying Cross</a>. On 27 July 2018, his remains, which had been recovered in Austria a year earlier, were conclusively identified and confirmed to his daughter – included with them was a ring inscribed from her mother to her father and dated 1943. The day before to the announcement, his wingman, 2nd Lt. Robert L. Martin, had died at 99, in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia_Fields,_Illinois" title="Olympia Fields, Illinois">Olympia Fields, Illinois</a>. The bodies of 26 other Tuskegee Airmen who disappeared in WWII remain unrecovered.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[108]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[109]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2019, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Friend_(pilot)" title="Robert Friend (pilot)">Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend</a>, one of 12 remaining Tuskegee Airmen at the time, died on 21 June in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_California" title="Long Beach, California">Long Beach</a> at the age of 99.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[110]</a></sup> He had flown 142 combat missions in World War II. A public viewing and memorial was held at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Springs_Air_Museum" title="Palm Springs Air Museum">Palm Springs Air Museum</a> on 6 July.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[111]</a></sup> He had spoken about his experiences in many different events before to his death, such as in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Grove_Unified_School_District" title="Garden Grove Unified School District">John Murdy Elementary School's "The Gratitude Project"</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Grove,_California" title="Garden Grove, California">Garden Grove</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>On January 16, 2022, Brigadier General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McGee_(Tuskegee_Airman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles McGee (Tuskegee Airman)">Charles McGee</a> died in his sleep at the age of 102.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a></sup> His 30-year military career included 409 combat missions in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T-1A_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Tails continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen"><img alt="Red Tails continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/T-1A_3.jpg/200px-T-1A_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/T-1A_3.jpg/300px-T-1A_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/T-1A_3.jpg/400px-T-1A_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3548" data-file-height="1106" /></a></span></div>
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<p><i>Red Tails</i> continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base" title="Randolph Air Force Base">Randolph Air Force Base</a> in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals,_2007March29.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Congressional Gold Medal was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the U.S. Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C. by President George W. Bush on March 29, 2007."><img alt="The Congressional Gold Medal was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the U.S. Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C. by President George W. Bush on March 29, 2007." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg/200px-Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg/300px-Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg/400px-Tuskegee_Airmen_%2B_US_Congressional_Gold_Medals%2C_2007March29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="384" /></a></span></div>
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<p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a> was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda" title="United States Capitol rotunda">U.S. Capitol rotunda</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> by President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> on March 29, 2007.
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 185px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:State_of_the_Union_2020_(49494263147).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brigadier General Charles McGee being honored by President Donald Trump at the 2020 State of the Union Address, with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady Karen Pence to the right"><img alt="Brigadier General Charles McGee being honored by President Donald Trump at the 2020 State of the Union Address, with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady Karen Pence to the right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg/200px-State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg/300px-State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg/400px-State_of_the_Union_2020_%2849494263147%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a></span></div>
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<p>Brigadier General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McGee_(pilot)" title="Charles McGee (pilot)">Charles McGee</a> being honored by President <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="2020 State of the Union Address">2020 State of the Union Address</a>, with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Pence" title="Karen Pence">Karen Pence</a> to the right
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</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_honors">Legacy and honors</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legacy and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg/170px-A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg/255px-A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg/340px-A_P-51_tail_signed_by_surviving_Tuskegee_Airmen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4912" /></a><figcaption>A tail signed by surviving Tuskegee Airmen located at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Springs_Air_Museum" title="Palm Springs Air Museum">Palm Springs Air Museum</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Springs,_California" title="Palm Springs, California">Palm Springs, California</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG/220px-Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG/330px-Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG/440px-Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3376" data-file-height="2287" /></a><figcaption>The Hangar One Museum at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</a> at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moton_Field_Municipal_Airport" title="Moton Field Municipal Airport">Moton Field, Tuskegee, Alabama</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airman_Tech._Sgt._(Ret.)_George_Watson_Sr._is_presented_the_Purple_Heart_medal_by_Congressman_Christopher_Smith_and_Col._Gina_M._Grosso,_Joint_Base_McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst_commander.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tuskegee_Airman_Tech._Sgt._%28Ret.%29_George_Watson_Sr._is_presented_the_Purple_Heart_medal_by_Congressman_Christopher_Smith_and_Col._Gina_M._Grosso%2C_Joint_Base_McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst_commander.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tuskegee_Airman_Tech._Sgt._%28Ret.%29_George_Watson_Sr._is_presented_the_Purple_Heart_medal_by_Congressman_Christopher_Smith_and_Col._Gina_M._Grosso%2C_Joint_Base_McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst_commander.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Tuskegee_Airman_Tech._Sgt._%28Ret.%29_George_Watson_Sr._is_presented_the_Purple_Heart_medal_by_Congressman_Christopher_Smith_and_Col._Gina_M._Grosso%2C_Joint_Base_McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst_commander.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Congressman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Smith_(New_Jersey_politician)" title="Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)">Christopher Smith</a> presented the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_Heart_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Purple Heart Medal">Purple Heart Medal</a> to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Airman">Tuskegee Airman</a> Tech. Sgt. (Ret.) George Watson Sr. with then Col. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gina_Grosso" title="Gina Grosso">Gina M. Grosso</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Base_McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst">Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst</a> commander in 2010</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P-51C-18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/P-51C-18.jpg/220px-P-51C-18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/P-51C-18.jpg/330px-P-51C-18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/P-51C-18.jpg/440px-P-51C-18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>The restored P-51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen, now flown by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tail_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Tail Project">Red Tail Project</a> as described in <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</a></i></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg/220px-F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg/330px-F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg/440px-F-16B_Fighting_Falcon.png.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon</a> (an F-16B, specifically) on display at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation Challenge">Aviation Challenge</a> campus of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Space_%26_Rocket_Center" title="U.S. Space & Rocket Center">U.S. Space & Rocket Center</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama" title="Huntsville, Alabama">Huntsville, Alabama</a>; note its acknowledgement to the Tuskegee Airmen on its dorsal fin.</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tuskegee_Airmen.png/220px-Tuskegee_Airmen.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Tuskegee_Airmen.png/330px-Tuskegee_Airmen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Tuskegee_Airmen.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>The new redesigned Tuskegee Airmen Depot sticker.</figcaption></figure>
<p>On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a><sup id="cite_ref-THOMAS_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-THOMAS-121">[114]</a></sup> at a ceremony in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_rotunda" title="United States Capitol rotunda">U.S. Capitol rotunda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_2007_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans_2007-122">[115]</a></sup> The medal is currently on display at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USAtoday_1_93-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAtoday_1-93">[87]</a></sup> The airfield where the airmen trained is now the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-124">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>Robert W. Williams Jr., a navigator/bombardier in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bombardment Group</a>, became a judge in the First Judicial District, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In 1979, he was elected to the Commonwealth Court, an appellate court, and the first African American to serve on that court. In 1985, he resigned from the court to run for the District Attorney of Philadelphia County. He was the first African American to successfully become a city-wide candidate for that office.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[118]</a></sup> On July 3, 2023, Williams reached the age of 100, making him one of the last Tuskegee Airmen alive.<sup id="cite_ref-Greater_Philadelphia_Chapter_Tuskegee_Airmen,_Inc._2023_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greater_Philadelphia_Chapter_Tuskegee_Airmen,_Inc._2023-126">[119]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Winslow" title="Eugene Winslow">Eugene Winslow</a> founded Afro-Am Publishing in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, Illinois, which published <i>Great Negroes Past and Present</i> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a></sup>
</p><p>Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelus_Air_Base" title="Wheelus Air Base">Wheelus Air Base</a> outside of Tripoli.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-124">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>Four Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general" title="Brigadier general">brigadier general</a> by President Nixon. He was not the only Tuskegee graduate to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</a>, the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members.<sup id="cite_ref-Facts_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Facts-124">[117]</a></sup> In 2019, at 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was promoted to honorary Brigadier General.<sup id="cite_ref-McGee_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGee-128">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a> served in the 477th Medium-Bomber Group of the as a second lieutenant, bombardier, and navigator. As a lieutenant in the 477th, Young played a role in the Freeman Field Mutiny in 1945. Young later was elected mayor of Detroit, MI and served from 1974 to 1994. Young was the first African-American mayor of Detroit.
</p><p>In 2006, California Congressman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Schiff" title="Adam Schiff">Adam Schiff</a> and Missouri Congressman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lacy_Clay_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William Lacy Clay Jr.">William Lacy Clay Jr.</a>, led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[122]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Flying_Training_Squadron" title="99th Flying Training Squadron">99th Flying Training Squadron</a> flies <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-1A_Jayhawk" class="mw-redirect" title="T-1A Jayhawk">T-1A Jayhawks</a> and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red. On 1 August 2008, Camp Creek Parkway, a portion of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_6" title="Georgia State Route 6">State Route 6</a> in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Point,_Georgia" title="East Point, Georgia">near Atlanta</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartsfield-Jackson_International_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport">Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_History_Center" title="Heinz History Center">Heinz History Center</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> presented an award to several <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania" title="Western Pennsylvania">Western Pennsylvania</a> Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewickley,_Pennsylvania" title="Sewickley, Pennsylvania">Sewickley, Pennsylvania</a> dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[124]</a></sup> An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[125]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">inauguration of Barack Obama</a>, the first African-American elected as president. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Marlboro,_Maryland" title="Upper Marlboro, Maryland">Upper Marlboro, Maryland</a>, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on 4 Nov.. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[126]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[127]</a></sup> More than 180 airmen attended 20 January 2009 inauguration.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>In July 2009, 15-year-old <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimberly_Anyadike" title="Kimberly Anyadike">Kimberly Anyadike</a> became the youngest female African-American pilot to complete a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_flight" title="Transcontinental flight">transcontinental flight</a> across the United States. She cited the Tuskegee Airmen as one of her biggest inspirations, and was accompanied on her trip by 87-year-old former Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[129]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowcountry_Regional_Airport" title="Lowcountry Regional Airport">Walterboro Army Airfield</a>, South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors, and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the 2010 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournament_of_Roses_Parade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tournament of Roses Parade">Rose Parade</a>, the city of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Covina,_California" title="West Covina, California">West Covina, California</a> paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled <i>"Tuskegee Airmen—A Cut Above"</i>, which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II <i>"Redtail"</i> fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served. The float won the mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry—national or international.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus Ohio">Columbus Ohio</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_%26_Space_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Air & Space Hall of Fame">International Air & Space Hall of Fame</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Air_%26_Space_Museum" title="San Diego Air & Space Museum">San Diego Air & Space Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>In January 2012, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTA_Regional_Bus_Operations" title="MTA Regional Bus Operations">MTA Regional Bus Operations</a> officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_depots_of_MTA_Regional_Bus_Operations#Tuskegee_Airmen_Depot" title="Bus depots of MTA Regional Bus Operations">Tuskegee Airmen Depot</a>. In 2012, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lucas" title="George Lucas">George Lucas</a> produced <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</a></i>, a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2012, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldine_Independent_School_District" title="Aldine Independent School District">Aldine Independent School District</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_County,_Texas" title="Harris County, Texas">Harris County, Texas</a> named <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_High_School" title="Benjamin O. Davis High School">Benjamin O. Davis High School</a> in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[132]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 16 September 2019, the USAF officially named the winning <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-X_program" title="T-X program">T-X program</a> aircraft the "<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_T-7_Red_Hawk" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing T-7 Red Hawk">T-7A Red Hawk</a>" as a tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen, who painted their airplanes' tails red, and to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</a>, one of the aircraft flown by the Tuskegee Airmen.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140">[133]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[134]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 2 February 2020, McGee brought out the commemorative coin for the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl" title="Super Bowl">Super Bowl</a> coin flip.<sup id="cite_ref-McGee_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGee-128">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2021, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Mint" title="United States Mint">United States Mint</a> issued an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_the_Beautiful_quarters" title="America the Beautiful quarters">America the Beautiful quarter</a> commemorating the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</a>. The coin depicts a Tuskegee Airman suiting up with two <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">P-51 Mustangs</a> flying overhead and the motto "They fought two wars".<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p>On 25 April 2021, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR" title="NASCAR">NASCAR</a> Cup Series driver <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Jones" title="Erik Jones">Erik Jones</a> honored the Airmen with a paint scheme at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talladega_Superspeedway" title="Talladega Superspeedway">Talladega Superspeedway</a> similar to the design of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-51_Mustang" class="mw-redirect" title="P-51 Mustang">P-51 Mustang</a> they flew in World War II. Jones led 7 laps in the race, but crashed while running fourth on the final lap, and had to settle for a 27th-place finish.<sup id="cite_ref-Joint_Base_San_Antonio_2021_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joint_Base_San_Antonio_2021-144">[137]</a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_Airmen_07-26-2023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1997" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption>Tuskegee Airmen at the Aircraft Exchange ceremony July 26, 2023</figcaption></figure>
<p>A commemoration of the 75th anniversary of the official desegregation of the US military during which several Tuskegee Airmen were present was held on July 26, 2023 at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Base_Andrews" title="Joint Base Andrews">Joint Base Andrews</a> in Maryland.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-145">[138]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-146">[139]</a></sup> During the event, a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing-Stearman_Model_75" title="Boeing-Stearman Model 75">PT-17 Stearman</a> was officially inducted to the National Museum of the Air Force, located at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright-Patterson_Air_Force_Base" title="Wright-Patterson Air Force Base">Wright-Patterson AFB</a> in Ohio.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[140]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[141]</a></sup> Most Tuskegee pilots were originally trained on the Stearman-class aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-145">[138]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-146">[139]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2023, the Pentagon identified the remains of 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr of the 100th Fighter Squadron, 332nd Fighter Group, whose P-51C Mustang crashed during a bomber escort mission over Regensburg Germany in October 1944. After Lt. Brewer's plane crashed he was declared missing in action. In July 2023, the Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA) exhumed a set of previously unidentified remains and positively identified them through lab tests as belonging to Brewer. He will be buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[142]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Artistic_depictions">Artistic depictions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Artistic depictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><i>The Legend of the Red Tails,</i> by artist Ray Simon<sup id="cite_ref-clammers_2021_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clammers_2021-151">[144]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Certificate_of_Authenticity_2011_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Certificate_of_Authenticity_2011-152">[145]</a></sup> is displayed in the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Museum.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><i>Red Tails Escorting the B17s</i>, a watercolor by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kay_Smith_(artist)" title="Kay Smith (artist)">Kay Smith</a> is in the collections of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Pritzker Military Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153">[146]</a></sup></li>
<li>There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia, Pennsylvania">Philadelphia, Pennsylvania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[147]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>Tuskegee Airmen</i>, a watercolor mural by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrew_J._Woodstock_(artist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrew J. Woodstock (artist) (page does not exist)">Andrew J. Woodstock</a> has been displayed at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Zoo" title="Air Zoo">Air Zoo</a> Aerospace and Aviation Museum in Portage, Michigan.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[148]</a></sup></li></ul>
<ul><li>Richmond, Kentucky’s seven Tuskegee Airmen who served during World War II are honored with an artist's rendering of airman Frank D. Walker at the Madison County Public Library.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[149]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/220px-seek%3D120-Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="581" data-mwtitle="Wings_for_this_Man.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Wings_for_this_Man.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="400" data-height="300" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/47/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv/Wings_for_this_Man.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>Tuskegee Airmen were featured in <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</a></i> (1945)</figcaption></figure>
<ul><li><i>The Homestead Grays</i> (1978), a wartime novel by James Wylie, loosely based on the combat exploits of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</a></i> (1945), a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Motion_Picture_Unit" title="First Motion Picture Unit">First Motion Picture Unit</a> of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>.</li>
<li>"Graveyard", an episode of <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_O%27Clock_High_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve O'Clock High (TV series)">Twelve O'Clock High</a></i> (1966), starring <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossie_Davis" title="Ossie Davis">Ossie Davis</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Voight" title="Jon Voight">Jon Voight</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Haynes" title="Lloyd Haynes">Lloyd Haynes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[150]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tuskegee_Airmen" title="The Tuskegee Airmen">The Tuskegee Airmen</a></i> (1995), a film starring <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Fishburne" title="Laurence Fishburne">Laurence Fishburne</a>, was produced and aired by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a>.</li>
<li>"The Tuskegee Airmen", an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfights_(TV_series)#Season_two" title="Dogfights (TV series)">season two</a> episode of the documentary TV series <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfights_(TV_series)" title="Dogfights (TV series)">Dogfights</a></i>, was originally aired on the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</a> on 6 December 2007.</li>
<li>The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Joe" title="G.I. Joe">G.I. Joe</a> action figure series.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[151]</a></sup></li>
<li><i>The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany</i> (2001), a book by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Ambrose">Stephen Ambrose</a>, describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmbrose200127_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose200127-159">[152]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silver_Wings_%26_Civil_Rights:_The_Fight_to_Fly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly (page does not exist)">Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly</a></i> (2004) is a documentary that was the first film to feature information regarding the "<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Field_Mutiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeman Field Mutiny">Freeman Field Mutiny</a>", the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160">[153]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</a></i> is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</a></i> is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen produced by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasfilm" title="Lucasfilm">Lucasfilm</a> and released in January 2012. The film was written by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ridley" title="John Ridley">John Ridley</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_McGruder" title="Aaron McGruder">Aaron McGruder</a>, and directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hemingway" title="Anthony Hemingway">Anthony Hemingway</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_at_the_Museum:_Battle_of_the_Smithsonian" title="Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian">Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian</a></i> (2009) features the Tuskegee Airmen. One of the Airmen, played by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Powell" title="Keith Powell">Keith Powell</a>, narrates the group's activities in a stentorian voice ("The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again!"). Another one of the Airmen (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Robinson_(actor)" title="Craig Robinson (actor)">Craig Robinson</a>) says to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia_Earhart" title="Amelia Earhart">Amelia Earhart</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Adams" title="Amy Adams">Amy Adams</a>), "A lot of people didn't think we could fly, either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Angels_Over_Tuskegee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Angels Over Tuskegee (page does not exist)">Black Angels Over Tuskegee</a></i> (2015), an <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-Broadway" title="Off-Broadway">Off-Broadway</a> play about the Airmen written and directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layon_Gray" title="Layon Gray">Layon Gray</a>, currently performs in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li>The story of one such airman is retold in the radio drama "Last Letter Home" presented by <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destination_Freedom" title="Destination Freedom">Destination Freedom</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161">[154]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Squadron_images">Squadron images</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Squadron images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Patch of the 99th Fighter Squadron"><img alt="Patch of the 99th Fighter Squadron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/120px-99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/180px-99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/240px-99th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Patch of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</a>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron"><img alt="Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/120px-100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/180px-100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg/240px-100th_Fighter_Squadron_patch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Patch of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</a>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Patch of the 301st Fighter Squadron"><img alt="Patch of the 301st Fighter Squadron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/107px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png" decoding="async" width="107" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/160px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png/214px-301st_Fighter_Squadron_-_AETC_-_Emblem.png 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1688" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Patch of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</a>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Patch of the 302d Fighter Squadron"><img alt="Patch of the 302d Fighter Squadron" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg/106px-302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg/160px-302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg/213px-302d_Fighter_Squadron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="338" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Patch of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/302nd_Fighter_Squadron_(United_States)" title="302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)">302d Fighter Squadron</a>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="92nd Infantry Division (United States)">92nd Infantry Division</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/93rd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="93rd Infantry Division (United States)">93rd Infantry Division</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555th_Parachute_Infantry_Battalion_(United_States)" title="555th Parachute Infantry Battalion (United States)">555th Parachute Infantry Battalion "Triple Nickle"</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/761st_Tank_Battalion_(United_States)" title="761st Tank Battalion (United States)">761st Tank Battalion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Coleman" title="Bessie Coleman">Bessie Coleman</a> – first African-American civil aviator</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_(play)" title="Fly (play)">Fly</a></i> (2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients">List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tuskegee_Airmen" title="List of Tuskegee Airmen">List of Tuskegee Airmen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tuskegee_Airmen_Cadet_Pilot_Graduation_Classes" title="List of Tuskegee Airmen Cadet Pilot Graduation Classes">List of Tuskegee Airmen Cadet Pilot Graduation Classes</a>, 1942–1946, listing graduating Cadet Pilots by Class, Year and Class Type</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African-Americans</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discrimination_against_African_Americans_in_the_U.S._Military" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial discrimination against African Americans in the U.S. Military">Racial discrimination against African-Americans in the U.S. Military</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Ball_Express" title="Red Ball Express">Red Ball Express</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Chicago_disaster" title="Port Chicago disaster">Port Chicago disaster</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowcountry_Regional_Airport" title="Lowcountry Regional Airport">Walterboro Army Airfield training site and memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willa_Brown" title="Willa Brown">Willa Brown</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated <i>de jure</i> racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the "Jim Crow laws"; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodwardMcFeely20016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodwardMcFeely20016-5">[5]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Pursuit" being the U.S. term for "fighter" to May 1942.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate, that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yancey_Williams" title="Yancey Williams">Yancey Williams</a>, an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot's training, filed suit in the District Court in Washington, DC for admittance to training. He was backed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches, weight under 170 pounds, precluded many larger African-American men from eligibility.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123-50">[47]</a></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Each B-25 bomber cost $175,000. The overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001177_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001177-57">[53]</a></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">15 of these aviators died while training in Michigan. Among them was 2nd Lieutenant Frank Moody, whose <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-39_Airacobra" class="mw-redirect" title="P-39 Airacobra">P-39 Airacobra</a> emitted black smoke and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_(gymnastics)" title="Cartwheel (gymnastics)">cartwheeled</a> into <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Huron" title="Lake Huron">Lake Huron</a> on 11 April 1944. His body was recovered shortly thereafter in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Clair_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Clair River">Saint Clair River</a>. His aircraft was discovered by divers 70 years to the day after the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-Alcona_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alcona-61">[56]</a></sup> Per the <i>Alcona County Review</i>:"The first African American pilots training by the United States Army Air Corps earned their wings at Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama during World War II. Beginning in the spring of1943, fighter pilots from Tuskegee received advanced training in Michigan. "The relative safety of Midwestern America, along with weather in geographical conditions that approximated what aviators could expect to encounter in Europe, encouraged the military to use airfields at Selfridge northeast of Detroit, and at Oscoda on the shores of Lake Huron."<sup id="cite_ref-Alcona_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alcona-61">[56]</a></sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Statistics for the 332nd Group include escort missions flown with P-47s.</span>
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</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Tuskegee">"Pronunciation of Tuskegee"</a>, thefreedictionary.com; retrieved 3 October 2010.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2014" class="citation journal cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (June 2014). "The Tuskegee Airmen Airfields". <i>Air Force Magazine</i>: 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen+Airfields&rft.pages=63&rft.date=2014-06&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx">"Tuskegee Airmen Pilot Listing"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000349/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen/tuskegee_airmen_pilot_listing.aspx">Archived</a> 3 December 2013 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, tuskegee.edu; retrieved 13 May 2014.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJournal2015" class="citation web cs1">Journal, Juleyka Lantigua-Williams, National (5 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/unknown-latino-tuskegee-airman-discovered/433479/">"An Unknown Latino Tuskegee Airman Has Been Discovered"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=An+Unknown+Latino+Tuskegee+Airman+Has+Been+Discovered&rft.date=2015-11-05&rft.aulast=Journal&rft.aufirst=Juleyka+Lantigua-Williams%2C+National&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fpolitics%2Farchive%2F2015%2F11%2Funknown-latino-tuskegee-airman-discovered%2F433479%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodwardMcFeely20016-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodwardMcFeely20016_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodwardMcFeely2001">Woodward & McFeely 2001</a>, p. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201019-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201019_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 19.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/tuskegee-airmen.cfm">"The Tuskegee Airmen"</a>. <i>www2.gwu.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www2.gwu.edu&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww2.gwu.edu%2F~erpapers%2Fteachinger%2Fglossary%2Ftuskegee-airmen.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201025-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201025_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 25.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton1999p._43_(Noel_F._Parrish)-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton1999p._43_(Noel_F._Parrish)_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenton1999">Benton 1999</a>, p. 43 (Noel F. Parrish).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Terkel, Studs, American Dreams: Lost and Found, Patheon Books, 1080, pp. 359–360</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324113003/http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights/">"Mrs. Roosevelt Goes for a Ride - Red Tail Squadron"</a>. <i>Red Tail Squadron</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redtail.org/the-tuskegee-airmen/silver-wings-civil-rights">the original</a> on 24 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Red+Tail+Squadron&rft.atitle=Mrs.+Roosevelt+Goes+for+a+Ride+-+Red+Tail+Squadron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.redtail.org%2Fthe-tuskegee-airmen%2Fsilver-wings-civil-rights&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fdrlibrary.org/tuskegee">"Eleanor Roosevelt and the Tuskegee Airmen"</a>. <i>FDR Presidential Library & Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FDR+Presidential+Library+%26+Museum&rft.atitle=Eleanor+Roosevelt+and+the+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.fdrlibrary.org%2Ftuskegee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201052–4_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 52–4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199715-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199715_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201026–37-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201026–37_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 26–37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FraCas2008-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FraCas2008_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisCaso2008" class="citation book cs1">Francis, Charles; Caso, Adolph (2008). <i>Tuskegee Airmen - 5th Commemorative Edition with Class Pictures</i>. Wellesley, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: Branden Books. p. 309. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0828321891" title="Special:BookSources/978-0828321891"><bdi>978-0828321891</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tuskegee+Airmen+-+5th+Commemorative+Edition+with+Class+Pictures&rft.place=Wellesley%2C+MA&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Branden+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0828321891&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Caso%2C+Adolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Haulman2017-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haulman2017_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2017" class="citation book cs1">Haulman, Daniel Lee (2017). <i>The Tuskegee Airmen chronology : a detailed timeline of the Red Tails and other black pilots of World War II</i>. Foreword by McGee, Charles E. Montgomery AL: NewSouth Books. pp. 9, 11, 12. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1588383419" title="Special:BookSources/978-1588383419"><bdi>978-1588383419</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1002126644">1002126644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen+chronology+%3A+a+detailed+timeline+of+the+Red+Tails+and+other+black+pilots+of+World+War+II&rft.place=Montgomery+AL&rft.pages=9%2C+11%2C+12&rft.pub=NewSouth+Books&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1002126644&rft.isbn=978-1588383419&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMaurer1992" class="citation book cs1">Maurer, M., ed. (1992). <i>World War II combat squadrons of the United States Air Force: the official military record of every active squadron</i>. New York: Smithmark. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0831715014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0831715014"><bdi>978-0831715014</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25200303">25200303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+II+combat+squadrons+of+the+United+States+Air+Force%3A+the+official+military+record+of+every+active+squadron&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Smithmark&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25200303&rft.isbn=978-0831715014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201057-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201057_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMaurer1983" class="citation book cs1">Maurer, M., ed. (1983). <i>Air Force combat units of World War II</i>. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0912799021" title="Special:BookSources/0912799021"><bdi>0912799021</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9644436">9644436</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Air+Force+combat+units+of+World+War+II&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Office+of+Air+Force+History&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9644436&rft.isbn=0912799021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469">"Fact sheet:Tuskegee Airmen"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101019085202/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15469">Archived</a> 19 October 2010 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, National Museum of the United States Air Force; retrieved 22 October 2010.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–4-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–4_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 93–4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200168-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200168_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, p. 68.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997233_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 233.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200131–2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly200131–2_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, pp. 31–2.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/111740/tuskegee-airman-goes-on-to-become-first-air-force-african-american-general/">"Tuskegee Airman goes on to become first Air Force African-American gen"</a>. <i>U.S. Air Force</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Air+Force&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airman+goes+on+to+become+first+Air+Force+African-American+gen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.af.mil%2FNews%2FArticle-Display%2FArticle%2F111740%2Ftuskegee-airman-goes-on-to-become-first-air-force-african-american-general%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199756-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso199756_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 56.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJakeman2015" class="citation book cs1">Jakeman, Robert J. (2015). <i>The Divided Skies Establishing Segregated Flight Training at Tuskegee, Alabama, 1934–1942</i>. University of Alabama Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0817392154" title="Special:BookSources/978-0817392154"><bdi>978-0817392154</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1132255062">1132255062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Divided+Skies+Establishing+Segregated+Flight+Training+at+Tuskegee%2C+Alabama%2C+1934%E2%80%931942&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1132255062&rft.isbn=978-0817392154&rft.aulast=Jakeman&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-afhrastudy91pdf134-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-afhrastudy91pdf134_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFogerty1953" class="citation web cs1">Fogerty, Robert P. (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf">"Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers, 1917–1952, Volume 1 – A thru L"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Historical_Research_Agency" title="Air Force Historical Research Agency">Air Force Historical Research Agency</a>. pp. 994–996. USAF historical studies: no. 91. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210831192543/https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/51-100/AFD-090601-134.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biographical+Data+on+Air+Force+General+Officers%2C+1917%E2%80%931952%2C+Volume+1+%E2%80%93+A+thru+L&rft.pages=994-996&rft.pub=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Fogerty&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.afhra.af.mil%2FPortals%2F16%2Fdocuments%2FStudies%2F51-100%2FAFD-090601-134.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, Gene. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/colonel-parrish%E2%80%99s-orders?page=show">"Colonel Parrish's Orders"</a>. <i>American Heritage</i>. <b>46</b> (3 - May/June 1995).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage&rft.atitle=Colonel+Parrish%27s+Orders&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3+-+May%2FJune+1995&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.americanheritage.com%2Fcontent%2Fcolonel-parrish%25E2%2580%2599s-orders%3Fpage%3Dshow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997258-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997258_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 258.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Tuskegee Army Flying School Summary". <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency</i> – via Call Number 289.28-100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Army+Flying+School+Summary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FlightSurgeon-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FlightSurgeon_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, D.R., L.P. Gross and R. Marchbanks-Robinson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130014406/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7973">"United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers, 1941–1949: The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons"</a><sup><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[Usurped!]</a></sup>, <i>SAM-FE-BR-TR-2007-0001: US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine</i> (2007); retrieved 20 March 2010.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997214_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 214.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–5-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201093–5_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 93–5.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470">"Davis Leads the 99th into Combat"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005031011/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15470">Archived</a> 5 October 2013 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The National Museum of the United States Air Force</i>; retrieved 27 July 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolk, Herman S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx">"Pantelleria, 1943"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121120161113/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2002/June%202002/0602pantelleria.aspx">Archived</a> 20 November 2012 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, airforce-magazine.com, June 2002; retrieved 12 February 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Molony, Brigadier C.J.C.; Captain F.C. Flynn (R.N.); Major-General H.L. Davies and Group Captain T.P. Gleave. "The Mediterranean and Middle East, Volume V: The Campaign in Sicily 1943 and The Campaign in mainland Italy 3 September 1943 to 31 March 1944", <i>History of the Second World War</i> (United Kingdom Military Series). Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2004, First edition, 1973 (HMSO); p. 49. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1845740696" title="Special:BookSources/1845740696">1845740696</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dist-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dist_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dist_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722181355/http://www.randolph.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=5896">"99th Flying Training Squadron History."</a> <i>United States Air Force</i>; retrieved 12 June 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/195963/escort-excellence/">"Escort Excellence"</a>. <i>National Museum of the US Air Force</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+the+US+Air+Force&rft.atitle=Escort+Excellence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.nationalmuseum.af.mil%2FVisit%2FMuseum-Exhibits%2FFact-Sheets%2FDisplay%2FArticle%2F195963%2Fescort-excellence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-332d-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-332d_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-332d_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm">"332d Fighter Squadron"</a>, everworld.com; retrieved 9 July 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025100903/http://www.everworld.com/tuskegee/332d_fighter_squadron.htm">Archived</a> 25 October 2012 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Rice-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rice_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rice_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rice, Markus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://logicalthinker2.tripod.com/Tuskegeeaircraft.html">"The Men and Their Airplanes: The Fighters"</a>, <i>Tuskegee Airmen</i> via logicalthinker2.tripod.com, 1 March 2000.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-shsu-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shsu_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shsu_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shsu_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html">"Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607225702/http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/AfrAmer.html">Archived</a> 7 June 2011 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Sam Houston State University</i>; retrieved 11 June 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-sd-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sd_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/african_american_exhibit/military-inspirations.php">"Celebrating African Americans in Aviation"</a>, <i>San Diego Air & Space Museum</i>; retrieved 12 June 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-jet-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jet_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2">"Escort Excellence"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203141314/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=15471&page=2">Archived</a> 3 December 2013 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 12 June 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-NMUSAF-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NMUSAF_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">"Escort Excellence"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">Archived</a> 9 March 2012 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, nationalmuseum.af.mil; retrieved 27 July 2012.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010123_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 123.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997219-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997219_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 219.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Maurer1994-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maurer1994_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maurer1994_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMaurer1994" class="citation book cs1">Maurer, M. (1994). <i>Air Force combat units of World War II</i>. Chartwell Books. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0785801944" title="Special:BookSources/0785801944"><bdi>0785801944</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30111671">30111671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Air+Force+combat+units+of+World+War+II&rft.pub=Chartwell+Books&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30111671&rft.isbn=0785801944&rft.aulast=Maurer&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:5-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"477th Bombardment Group Lineage and Honors History". <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.atitle=477th+Bombardment+Group+Lineage+and+Honors+History&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:6-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"477th Bombardment Group Histories for 1943 and 1944". <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.atitle=477th+Bombardment+Group+Histories+for+1943+and+1944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye201094,_124-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye201094,_124_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 94, 124.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001177-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001177_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, p. 177.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997457-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997457_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 457.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001186-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001186_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, p. 186.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Alcona-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alcona_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alcona_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Recovering Michigan's history of the Tuskegee airmen". <i>Alcona County Review</i>. Vol. 150, no. 35. 8 September 2021. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alcona+County+Review&rft.atitle=Recovering+Michigan%27s+history+of+the+Tuskegee+airmen&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2021-09-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997207-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997207_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 207.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001180–2-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001180–2_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, pp. 180–2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2018" class="citation journal cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (Summer 2018). "A Tale of Two Commanders". <i>Air Power History</i>. <b>65</b>: 45–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Power+History&rft.atitle=A+Tale+of+Two+Commanders&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=45-49&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001184,_187_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, pp. 184, 187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001185–6-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001185–6_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, pp. 185–6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFNalty1989" class="citation book cs1">Nalty, Bernard C. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B13CGJMiyOIC&pg=PA158"><i>Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 158. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780029224113" title="Special:BookSources/9780029224113"><bdi>9780029224113</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strength+for+the+Fight%3A+A+History+of+Black+Americans+in+the+Military&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780029224113&rft.aulast=Nalty&rft.aufirst=Bernard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB13CGJMiyOIC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 126.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHorne2018" class="citation book cs1">Horne, Gerald (16 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x8GSDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP163"><i>Facing the Rising Sun: African Americans, Japan, and the Rise of Afro-Asian Solidarity</i></a>. NYU Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781479854936" title="Special:BookSources/9781479854936"><bdi>9781479854936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facing+the+Rising+Sun%3A+African+Americans%2C+Japan%2C+and+the+Rise+of+Afro-Asian+Solidarity&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2018-01-16&rft.isbn=9781479854936&rft.aulast=Horne&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx8GSDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126–7-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010126–7_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 126–7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010128–9-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010128–9_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 128–9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010131–2-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010131–2_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 131–2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001187_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, p. 187.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 132.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132–3-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010132–3_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, pp. 132–3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoye2010133-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoye2010133_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoye2010">Moye 2010</a>, p. 133.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001206–8-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHomanReilly2001206–8_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHomanReilly2001">Homan & Reilly 2001</a>, pp. 206–8.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997263-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997263_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 263.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">"Escort Excellence."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309081737/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=15471">Archived</a> 9 March 2012 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>National Museum of the United States Air Force</i>; retrieved 12 August 2013.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETillman201224-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETillman201224_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTillman2012">Tillman 2012</a>, p. 24.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997394_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, p. 394.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVyuedRwZre8C_pp._405–13]_(Tuskegee_Honor_Roll)-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrancisCaso1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidVyuedRwZre8C_pp._405–13]_(Tuskegee_Honor_Roll)_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrancisCaso1997">Francis & Caso 1997</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C">pp. 405–13</a> (Tuskegee Honor Roll).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archivesfoundation.org/documents/tuskegee-airmen/">"The Tuskegee Airmen"</a>. <i>National Archives Foundation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives+Foundation&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.archivesfoundation.org%2Fdocuments%2Ftuskegee-airmen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Haulman, Daniel (2010). "The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat". <i>Air Power History</i>. <b>57</b> (3): 14–21. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26275921">26275921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Power+History&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen+in+Combat&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=14-21&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26275921%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman2013_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaulman2013">Haulman 2013</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2011" class="citation book cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (21 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tuskegee.edu/Content/Uploads/Tuskegee/files/Nine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf"><i>Nine Myths about the Tuskegee Airmen</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. tuskegee.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nine+Myths+about+the+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft.pub=tuskegee.edu&rft.date=2011-10-21&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.tuskegee.edu%2FContent%2FUploads%2FTuskegee%2Ffiles%2FNine_Myths_About_the_Tuskegee_Airmen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-mutiny-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mutiny_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/97-0429.pdf">"The Freeman Field Mutiny: A Study In Leadership"</a>, <i>Air University, Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base</i>, Montgomery, Alabama; retrieved 12 June 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Haulman, D.L. (2010). "The Tuskegee Airmen in Combat". <i>Air Power History</i>. <b>57</b> (3): 14–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Air+Power+History&rft.atitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen+in+Combat&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=14-21&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=D.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaulman201252-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaulman201252_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaulman2012">Haulman 2012</a>, p. 52.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ChronologicalTableOfTuskegeeAirmen">"Chronological Table of Tuskegee Airmen Who Earned the Distinguished Flying Cross"</a>; retrieved 26 January 2021.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221207111235/http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf">"Study Guide for Testing to Technical Sergeant"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 32. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freepdg.com/2017/docs/testing-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Study+Guide+for+Testing+to+Technical+Sergeant&rft.pages=32&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.freepdg.com%2F2017%2Fdocs%2Ftesting-to-TSgt-study-guide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/">President's Post Convention Letter to Members</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200203191648/http://tuskegeeairmen.org/presidents-post-convention-letter-to-members/">Archived</a> 3 February 2020 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, tuskegeeairmen.org; 12 November 2019; retrieved 4 February 2020</span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airforcetimes.com/articles/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke">"Willie Rogers, Tuskegee Airman, dies at 101 after stroke"</a>. <i>Air Force Times</i>. 21 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Times&rft.atitle=Willie+Rogers%2C+Tuskegee+Airman%2C+dies+at+101+after+stroke&rft.date=2016-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.airforcetimes.com%2Farticles%2Fwillie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-after-stroke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span> (conflicting info in source) - This entry requires additional research--no record showing Willie Rogers was a Red Tail pilot. In addition, no record exists showing any Tuskegee Airmen ground support personnel assigned in Italy was shot by German soldiers. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/us/2016/11/21/willie-rogers-tuskegee-airman-dies-at-101-in-florida.html">Fox News webpage</a> 21 November 2016. It is unclear if the veteran was vetted by the Harry A. Sheppard Research Committee of Tuskegee Airmen</span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/07/27/pentagon-identifies-tuskegee-airman-missing-from-world-war-ii/">Pentagon identifies Tuskegee Airman missing from World War II</a>, <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i>, 27 July 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2018.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/afa-air-space/2019/09/16/this-is-the-name-of-the-air-forces-new-training-jet/">"This is the name of the Air Force's new training jet"</a>. <i>Defense News</i>. 16 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Defense+News&rft.atitle=This+is+the+name+of+the+Air+Force%27s+new+training+jet&rft.date=2019-09-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.defensenews.com%2Fdigital-show-dailies%2Fafa-air-space%2F2019%2F09%2F16%2Fthis-is-the-name-of-the-air-forces-new-training-jet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al.com/news/2020/02/tuskegee-airman-brings-out-coin-for-super-bowl-coin-flip.html">"Tuskegee Airman brings out coin for Super Bowl coin flip"</a>. <i>al.com</i>. Advance Local. 2 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2020</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee, 100, brought out the commemorative coin for the Super Bowl coin flip and handed it to NFL referee Bill Vinovich.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=al.com&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airman+brings+out+coin+for+Super+Bowl+coin+flip&rft.date=2020-02-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.al.com%2Fnews%2F2020%2F02%2Ftuskegee-airman-brings-out-coin-for-super-bowl-coin-flip.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usmint.gov/coins/coin-medal-programs/america-the-beautiful-quarters/tuskegee-airmen-national-historic-site">"Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site Quarter"</a>. <i>U.S. Mint</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Mint&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airmen+National+Historic+Site+Quarter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.usmint.gov%2Fcoins%2Fcoin-medal-programs%2Famerica-the-beautiful-quarters%2Ftuskegee-airmen-national-historic-site&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Joint_Base_San_Antonio_2021-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joint_Base_San_Antonio_2021_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jbsa.mil/News/News/Article/2578633/air-force-recruiting-unveils-tuskegee-airmen-paint-scheme-for-indy-500-and-nasc/">"Air Force Recruiting unveils Tuskegee Airmen paint scheme for Indy 500 and NASCAR races"</a>. <i>Joint Base San Antonio</i>. 20 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Joint+Base+San+Antonio&rft.atitle=Air+Force+Recruiting+unveils+Tuskegee+Airmen+paint+scheme+for+Indy+500+and+NASCAR+races&rft.date=2021-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.jbsa.mil%2FNews%2FNews%2FArticle%2F2578633%2Fair-force-recruiting-unveils-tuskegee-airmen-paint-scheme-for-indy-500-and-nasc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStecker,_Secretary_of_the_Air_Force_Public_Affairs2023" class="citation web cs1">Stecker, Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs, Staff Sgt Olivia B. (27 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jba.af.mil/News/Article/3474070/csaf-tuskegee-airmen-recognize-75-years-of-trailblazing/">"CSAF, Tuskegee Airmen recognize 75 years of trailblazing"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Base_Andrews" title="Joint Base Andrews">Joint Base Andrews</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Joint+Base+Andrews&rft.atitle=CSAF%2C+Tuskegee+Airmen+recognize+75+years+of+trailblazing&rft.date=2023-07-27&rft.aulast=Stecker%2C+Secretary+of+the+Air+Force+Public+Affairs&rft.aufirst=Staff+Sgt+Olivia+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.jba.af.mil%2FNews%2FArticle%2F3474070%2Fcsaf-tuskegee-airmen-recognize-75-years-of-trailblazing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:2-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPérez-Moreno2023" class="citation news cs1">Pérez-Moreno, Heidi (27 July 2023). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2023/07/26/tuskegee-airmen-andrews-aircraft/">"Tuskegee Airmen, including D.C. native, honored at Joint Base Andrews"</a></span>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airmen%2C+including+D.C.+native%2C+honored+at+Joint+Base+Andrews&rft.date=2023-07-27&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=P%C3%A9rez-Moreno&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Ftransportation%2F2023%2F07%2F26%2Ftuskegee-airmen-andrews-aircraft%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dvidshub.net/image/7936162/air-force-gains-piece-tuskegee-airmen-history-75-years-after-military-segregation-ends">"Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends"</a>. <i>DVIDS</i>. 26 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DVIDS&rft.atitle=Air+Force+gains+a+piece+of+Tuskegee+Airmen+history+75+years+after+military+segregation+ends&rft.date=2023-07-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.dvidshub.net%2Fimage%2F7936162%2Fair-force-gains-piece-tuskegee-airmen-history-75-years-after-military-segregation-ends&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.defense.gov/Multimedia/Photos/igphoto/2003269918/">"Air Force gains a piece of Tuskegee Airmen history 75 years after military segregation ends"</a>. <i>www.defense.gov</i>. 26 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.defense.gov&rft.atitle=Air+Force+gains+a+piece+of+Tuskegee+Airmen+history+75+years+after+military+segregation+ends&rft.date=2023-07-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.defense.gov%2FMultimedia%2FPhotos%2Figphoto%2F2003269918%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.wral.com/story/pentagon-identifies-remains-of-north-carolina-tuskegee-airman-after-79-years/21031899/">https://www.wral.com/story/pentagon-identifies-remains-of-north-carolina-tuskegee-airman-after-79-years/21031899/</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/3513337/pilot-accounted-for-from-wwii-brewer-f/">https://www.dpaa.mil/News-Stories/News-Releases/PressReleaseArticleView/Article/3513337/pilot-accounted-for-from-wwii-brewer-f/</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-clammers_2021-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-clammers_2021_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFclammers2021" class="citation web cs1">clammers (8 February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/Self_guided_tour_book_GOOD_-_Art.pdf">"Edward Pernotto Aviation Artwork Gallery"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ohio State University Airport</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ohio+State+University+Airport&rft.atitle=Edward+Pernotto+Aviation+Artwork+Gallery&rft.date=2021-02-08&rft.au=clammers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fosuairport.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2021-02%2FSelf_guided_tour_book_GOOD_-_Art.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Certificate_of_Authenticity_2011-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Certificate_of_Authenticity_2011_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osuairport.org/sites/default/files/uploads/legend_of_the_red_tails.pdf">"Legend of the Red Tails Certificate of Authenticity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 11 January 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legend+of+the+Red+Tails+Certificate+of+Authenticity&rft.date=2011-01-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fosuairport.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fuploads%2Flegend_of_the_red_tails.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm">Pritzker Military Library Dedicates Oral History Room With Painting Unveiling and Program About the Tuskegee Airmen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213094705/http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/9/prweb11112657.htm">Archived</a> 13 February 2023 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, prweb.com; accessed 5 January 2017.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.muralarts.org/artworks/tuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge/">"Tuskegee Airmen: They Met the Challenge"</a>. <i>Mural Arts Philadelphia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mural+Arts+Philadelphia&rft.atitle=Tuskegee+Airmen%3A+They+Met+the+Challenge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.muralarts.org%2Fartworks%2Ftuskegee-airmen-they-met-the-challenge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0734436/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"12 O'Clock High" Graveyard (TV Episode 1966)"</a>. <i>IMDb</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMDb&rft.atitle=%2212+O%27Clock+High%22+Graveyard+%28TV+Episode+1966%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt0734436%2Fplotsummary%3Fref_%3Dtt_ov_pl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html">"1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070617061250/http://www.mastercollector.com/neat/gijoe/hasbro/1997joes.html">Archived</a> 17 June 2007 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, mastercollector.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fight2fly.com"><i>Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050320001335/http://www.fight2fly.com/">Archived</a> 20 March 2005 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, fight2fly.com; retrieved 20 March 2010.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/DestinationFreedom/DF_50-08-13_ep103-Last_Letter_Home.mp3">Last Letter Home</a>", <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destination_Freedom" title="Destination Freedom">Destination Freedom</a></i></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_E._Ambrose" title="Stephen E. Ambrose">Ambrose, Stephen E.</a> (2001). <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wild_Blue" title="The Wild Blue">The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys Who Flew the B-24s Over Germany</a></i>. New York City: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0743203399" title="Special:BookSources/0743203399"><bdi>0743203399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wild+Blue%3A+The+Men+and+Boys+Who+Flew+the+B-24s+Over+Germany&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0743203399&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=Stephen+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBenton1999" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Jeffrey C. (1999). <i>They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men</i>. Maxwell AFB, Montgomery <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">AL</a>: Air University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1585660742" title="Special:BookSources/978-1585660742"><bdi>978-1585660742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=They+Served+Here%3A+Thirty-Three+Maxwell+Men&rft.place=Maxwell+AFB%2C+Montgomery+AL&rft.pub=Air+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1585660742&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Berry, Ben. <i>Tuskegee Airmen: To the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Secrets Revealed)</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1460931076" title="Special:BookSources/1460931076">1460931076</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/827831542">827831542</a></li>
<li>Broadnax, Samuel L. <i>Blue Skies, Black Wings: African-American Pioneers of Aviation</i>. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275991954" title="Special:BookSources/0275991954">0275991954</a>.</li>
<li>Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. <i>332nd Fighter Group – Tuskegee Airmen</i>. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1846030447" title="Special:BookSources/1846030447">1846030447</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwellMuller2007" class="citation book cs1">Caldwell, Donald L.; <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_R._Muller" title="Richard R. Muller">Muller, Richard R.</a> (2007). <i>The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich</i>. London: Greenhill Books. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1853677120" title="Special:BookSources/978-1853677120"><bdi>978-1853677120</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Luftwaffe+over+Germany%3A+Defense+of+the+Reich&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1853677120&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Donald+L.&rft.au=Muller%2C+Richard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Caver, Joseph, Jerome Ennels, and Daniel Haulman. <i>The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History, 1939–1949</i>. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2011; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1588382443" title="Special:BookSources/978-1588382443">978-1588382443</a>.</li>
<li>Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project", <i>Flypast No. 248</i>, March 2002.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisCaso1997" class="citation book cs1">Francis, Charles E.; Caso, Adolph (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VyuedRwZre8C&pg=PA402"><i>The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation</i></a>. Boston: Branden Books. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0828320292" title="Special:BookSources/0828320292"><bdi>0828320292</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tuskegee+Airmen%3A+The+Men+Who+Changed+a+Nation&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Branden+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0828320292&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft.au=Caso%2C+Adolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVyuedRwZre8C%26pg%3DPA402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGubertSawyerFannine2002" class="citation book cs1">Gubert, Betty Kaplan; Sawyer, Miriam; Fannine, Caroline M. (2002). <i>Distinguished African-Americans in Aviation and Space Science</i>. Westport <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">CT</a>: Greenwood. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573562461" title="Special:BookSources/978-1573562461"><bdi>978-1573562461</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distinguished+African-Americans+in+Aviation+and+Space+Science&rft.place=Westport+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1573562461&rft.aulast=Gubert&rft.aufirst=Betty+Kaplan&rft.au=Sawyer%2C+Miriam&rft.au=Fannine%2C+Caroline+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Haulman, Daniel L. "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", <i>The Alabama Review</i>, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 2011.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2012" class="citation book cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iPN5-Y7BMWMC"><i>Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen</i></a>. Montgomery <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">AL</a>: New South Books. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1603061476" title="Special:BookSources/978-1603061476"><bdi>978-1603061476</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eleven+Myths+About+the+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft.place=Montgomery+AL&rft.pub=New+South+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1603061476&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiPN5-Y7BMWMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2013" class="citation web cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (24 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192052/http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">"Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF)</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-130905-006.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency+%28USAF%29&rft.atitle=Misconceptions+About+the+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft.date=2013-07-24&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.afhra.af.mil%2Fshared%2Fmedia%2Fdocument%2FAFD-130905-006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaulman2016" class="citation web cs1">Haulman, Daniel L. (26 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191026024416/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf">"Tuskegee Airmen Chronology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Air_Force_Base" title="Maxwell Air Force Base">Maxwell Air Force Base</a> AL: Air Force Historical Research Agency. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/22/2001330157/-1/-1/0/AFD-101222-041.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tuskegee+Airmen+Chronology&rft.place=Maxwell+Air+Force+Base+AL&rft.pub=Air+Force+Historical+Research+Agency&rft.date=2016-02-26&rft.aulast=Haulman&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fmedia.defense.gov%2F2010%2FDec%2F22%2F2001330157%2F-1%2F-1%2F0%2FAFD-101222-041.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Hill, Ezra M. Sr. <i>The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen</i>. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope, 2006.</li>
<li>Holway, John B. <i>Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force</i>. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1881325210" title="Special:BookSources/1881325210">1881325210</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHomanReilly2001" class="citation book cs1">Homan, Lynn M.; Reilly, Thomas (2001). <i>Black Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen</i>. Gretna <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">LA</a>: Pelican Publishing. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1565548282" title="Special:BookSources/978-1565548282"><bdi>978-1565548282</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Knights%3A+The+Story+of+the+Tuskegee+Airmen&rft.place=Gretna+LA&rft.pub=Pelican+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1565548282&rft.aulast=Homan&rft.aufirst=Lynn+M.&rft.au=Reilly%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. <i>High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0874746507" title="Special:BookSources/0874746507">0874746507</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2000" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Craig (2000). <i>Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris</i>. Athens <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a>: University of Georgia Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0820321929" title="Special:BookSources/978-0820321929"><bdi>978-0820321929</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eugene+Bullard%2C+Black+Expatriate+in+Jazz-Age+Paris&rft.place=Athens+GA&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0820321929&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. <i>Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II</i>. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802782922" title="Special:BookSources/0802782922">0802782922</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMoye2010" class="citation book cs1">Moye, J. Todd (2010). <i>Freedom Flyers: The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II</i>. New York City: Oxford University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195386554" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195386554"><bdi>978-0195386554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+Flyers%3A+The+Tuskeegee+Airmen+of+World+War+II&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0195386554&rft.aulast=Moye&rft.aufirst=J.+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Percy, William A. "Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II", <i>The Journal of Military History</i>, 67, July 2003.</li>
<li>Ross, Robert A. <i>Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II</i>. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0917612000" title="Special:BookSources/0917612000">0917612000</a>.</li>
<li>Sandler, Stanley. <i>Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1560981547" title="Special:BookSources/1560981547">1560981547</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTillman2012" class="citation journal cs1">Tillman, Barrett (2012). "Tales of the Red Tails; Inside the Tuskegee Legend: The men, the machines, the missions". <i>Flight Journal</i> (February 2012).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Flight+Journal&rft.atitle=Tales+of+the+Red+Tails%3B+Inside+the+Tuskegee+Legend%3A+The+men%2C+the+machines%2C+the+missions&rft.issue=February+2012&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Tillman&rft.aufirst=Barrett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." <i>Flypast No, 248</i>, March 2002.</li>
<li>Tucker, Phillip Thomas. <i>Father of the Tuskegee airmen, John C. Robinson</i>. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2012; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1597974870" title="Special:BookSources/1597974870">1597974870</a>, e-book <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1597976067" title="Special:BookSources/1597976067">1597976067</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/752678328">752678328</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWoodwardMcFeely2001" class="citation book cs1">Woodward, C. Vann; McFeely, William S. (2001). <i>The Strange Career of Jim Crow</i>. New York City: Oxford University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195146905" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195146905"><bdi>978-0195146905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+Career+of+Jim+Crow&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0195146905&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=C.+Vann&rft.au=McFeely%2C+William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATuskegee+Airmen" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_Airmen&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tuskegee_Airmen" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a></span>.</div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204121846/http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_fame/tuskegee_airmen.aspx">Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tuskegeemuseum.org">Tuskegee Airmen Museum</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7FmlqfQmfqoC"><i>Double V: Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen</i>, an illustrated history book of the "Red Tails" by veteran Tuskegee Airmen (Lawrence P. Scott, William M. Womack) from Michigan, with photos from personal collections.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716132207/http://www.starduststudios.com/tuskegee_airmen.htm">Images of Tuskegee airmen, photos, paintings etc.</a></li>
<li>"Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0802782922" title="Special:BookSources/0802782922">0802782922</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114745/">The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml">Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821070544/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/view?docId=funeral/harris20080504-001.xml">Archived</a> 21 August 2010 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html">African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113112847/http://funeral.galileo.usg.edu/funeral/index.html">Archived</a> 13 November 2017 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bet.com/shows/bet-honors/2012/honorees/tuskegee-airmen.html">The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tuskegeeairmen.org/">Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. – Official Web Site</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.redtail.org/">The Red Tail Project</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.army.mil/africanamericans/">African Americans in the U.S. Army</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111230144220/http://www.coax.net/people/lwf/TA_HIS1.HTM">The Negro Pilot Training Program</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://southernspaces.org/2010/tuskegee-airmen-brett-gadsden-interviews-j-todd-moye">"Tuskegee Airmen: Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye", <i>Southern Spaces</i> 30 September 2010.</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130130021056/http://newbooksinhistory.com/?p=2743">Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on "New Books in History"</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ZScRrewMk">Contemporary newsreel about "Negro Pilots" – YouTube</a></li>
<li>The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/HenryBro1942">"Henry Browne, Farmer (1942)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/NegroPilots">"Negro Pilots (1943)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negrosoldier">"The Negro Soldier (1943)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava19065vnb1">"Tuskegee Airman Tribute (1990)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li>The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava20001vnb1">"African Americans in World War II: Legacy of Patriotism and Valor (1997)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/t/tuskegee_airmen/index.html">Tuskegee Airmen</a> collected news and commentary at <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126043803/http://www.valorstudios.com/Tuskegee-Airmen-P-51.htm">Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2735">Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen</a> from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/">Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen: Robert Martin, Dr. Quentin P. Smith, and Shelby Westbrook</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Museum_%26_Library" title="Pritzker Military Museum & Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</a> in October 2008</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pritzkermilitary.org/whats_on/citizen-soldier/tuskegee-airmen/">Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen</a> recorded at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritzker_Military_Museum_%26_Library" title="Pritzker Military Museum & Library">Pritzker Military Museum & Library</a> on 12 September 2013</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.ucr.edu/collections/tuskegee-airmen-collections">Tuskegee Airmen Collections</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside" title="University of California, Riverside">University of California, Riverside</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-xd0qr4q07h">"Airmen and Adversity"</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTVI" title="WTVI">WTVI</a>, 1998-02-06, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Archive_of_Public_Broadcasting" title="American Archive of Public Broadcasting">American Archive of Public Broadcasting</a></li>
<li>U.S. Army Air Forces First Motion Picture Unit. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWd5DdsEBqg">Wings for This Man (1945)</a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWd5DdsEBqg"> Tuskegee Airmen Documentary</a> Video via <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. See <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</a></i> The short film <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava08663vnb1">"Wings for This Man (1945)"</a></i> is available for free viewing and download at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</li></ul>
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style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Template talk:Tuskegee Airmen"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee Airmen"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tuskegee_Airmen" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Fighter_Squadron" class="mw-redirect" title="99th Fighter Squadron">99th Fighter Squadron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Fighter_Squadron" title="100th Fighter Squadron">100th Fighter Squadron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301st_Fighter_Squadron" title="301st Fighter Squadron">301st Fighter Squadron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/302nd_Fighter_Squadron_(United_States)" title="302nd Fighter Squadron (United States)">302nd Fighter Squadron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332d_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332d Fighter Group">332d Fighter Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477th_Fighter_Group" title="477th Fighter Group">477th Bomber Group</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shield of the 332nd Fighter Group"><img alt="An insignia with a dark four-legged feline breathing fire on a yellow background. There is a blue artistic border at the top and bottom. Below a banner reads "Spit fire"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/100px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/150px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg/200px-Shield_of_the_332nd_Fighter_Group.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="401" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Air fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanute_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanute Field">Chanute Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mather_Air_Force_Base" title="Mather Air Force Base">Mather Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moton_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Army Air Field">Moton Army Air Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurtsmith_Air_Force_Base" title="Wurtsmith Air Force Base">Oscoda Army Air Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfridge_Air_National_Guard_Base" title="Selfridge Air National Guard Base">Selfridge Air Field</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Army_Air_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Army Air Field">Tuskegee Army Air Field</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Pilots<br />and crew</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Adams_(pilot)" title="Paul Adams (pilot)">Paul Adams</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_H._Adkins" title="Rutherford H. Adkins">Rutherford H. Adkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halbert_Alexander" title="Halbert Alexander">Halbert Alexander</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_N._Alsbrook" title="William N. Alsbrook">William N. Alsbrooka</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Armstrong_(Tuskegee_Airman)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Armstrong (Tuskegee Airman)">William Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Archer_(pilot)" title="Lee Archer (pilot)">Lee Archer</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ashby_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="Robert Ashby (Tuskegee Airman)">Robert Ashby</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Ashley" title="Willie Ashley">Willie Ashley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_P._Bailey_(pilot)" title="Charles P. Bailey (pilot)">Charles P. Bailey</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bartley_(pilot)" title="William Bartley (pilot)">William Bartley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Baugh" title="Howard Baugh">Howard Baugh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Bohler" title="Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler">Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_R._Bolling" title="George R. Bolling">George R. Bolling</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_V._Clark" title="Herbert V. Clark">Herbert V. Clark</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville_C._Coggs" title="Granville C. Coggs">Granville C. Coggs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Crockett" title="Woodrow Crockett">Woodrow Crockett</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Brown_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="Harold Brown (Tuskegee Airman)">Harold Brown</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_L._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="George L. Brown">George L. Brown</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscoe_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Roscoe Brown">Roscoe Brown</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_A._Campbell_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="William A. Campbell (Tuskegee Airman)">William A. Campbell</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Carter_(pilot)" title="Herbert Carter (pilot)">Herbert Carter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Calvin_Cheatham_Jr." title="Eugene Calvin Cheatham Jr.">Eugene Calvin Cheatham Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton_Crenchaw" title="Milton Crenchaw">Milton Crenchaw</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemuel_R._Custis" title="Lemuel R. Custis">Lemuel R. Custis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Dart" title="Clarence Dart">Clarence Dart</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonza_W._Davis" title="Alfonza W. Davis">Alfonza W. Davis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_O._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin O. Davis Jr.">Benjamin O. Davis Jr.</a> (C/O)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_DeBow" title="Charles DeBow">Charles DeBow</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_W._Deiz" title="Robert W. Deiz">Robert W. Deiz</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Derricotte" title="Gene Derricotte">Gene Derricotte</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Dickson" title="Lawrence Dickson">Lawrence Dickson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwood_T._Driver" title="Elwood T. Driver">Elwood T. Driver</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_W._Dryden" title="Charles W. Dryden">Charles W. Dryden</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson_V._Eagleson" title="Wilson V. Eagleson">Wilson V. Eagleson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ellis_Edwards" title="John Ellis Edwards">John Ellis Edwards</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Elsberry" title="Joseph Elsberry">Joseph Elsberry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Cassagnol" title="Raymond Cassagnol">Raymond Cassagnol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clayton_Flowers" title="James Clayton Flowers">James Clayton Flowers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Freeman" title="Julius Freeman">Julius Freeman</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Friend_(pilot)" title="Robert Friend (pilot)">Robert Friend</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_H._Fuller" title="Willie H. Fuller">Willie H. Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Gleed" title="Edward C. Gleed">Edward C. Gleed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Gomer_(pilot)" title="Joseph Gomer (pilot)">Joseph Gomer</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Gorham" title="Alfred Gorham">Alfred Gorham</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Goodall" title="Oliver Goodall">Oliver Goodall</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_B._Hall" title="Charles B. Hall">Charles B. Hall</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_V._Haywood" title="Vernon V. Haywood">Vernon V. Haywood</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Hardy_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="George Hardy (Tuskegee Airman)">George Hardy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_V._Haysbert" title="Raymond V. Haysbert">Raymond V. Haysbert</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Heath" title="Percy Heath">Percy Heath</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Higginbotham" title="Mitchell Higginbotham">Mitchell Higginbotham</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_James_Jr." title="Daniel James Jr.">Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_C._Jamison" title="Clarence C. Jamison">Clarence C. Jamison</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Jefferson" title="Alexander Jefferson">Alexander Jefferson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_C._Johnson" title="Carl C. Johnson">Carl C. Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Harvey" title="James H. Harvey">James H. Harvey</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lee_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lee Hill">William Lee Hill</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Hudson" title="Lincoln Hudson">Lincoln Hudson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Holloman" title="William H. Holloman">William H. Holloman</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_J._Iles" title="George J. Iles">George J. Iles</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Johnson_Kelly" title="James Johnson Kelly">James Johnson Kelly</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_B._Knighten" title="James B. Knighten">James B. Knighten</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_L._Knox_II" title="George L. Knox II">George L. Knox II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_A._Lawson" title="Herman A. Lawson">Herman A. Lawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_I._Lawson" title="Walter I. Lawson">Walter I. Lawson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_D._Lester" title="Clarence D. Lester">Clarence D. Lester</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmore_B._Leonard" title="Wilmore B. Leonard">Wilmore B. Leonard</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lyle_(pilot)" title="John Lyle (pilot)">John Lyle</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiram_Mann" title="Hiram Mann">Hiram Mann</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Manning" title="Walter Manning">Walter Manning</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Martin_(aviator)" title="Robert Martin (aviator)">Robert Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour_G._McDaniel" title="Armour G. McDaniel">Armour G. McDaniel</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_McGee_(pilot)" title="Charles McGee (pilot)">Charles McGee</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_L._McCreary" title="Walter L. McCreary">Walter L. McCreary</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mosley" title="John Mosley">John Mosley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzroy_Newsum" title="Fitzroy Newsum">Fitzroy Newsum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_O._Plinton_Jr." title="James O. Plinton Jr.">James O. Plinton Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell_O._Pruitt" title="Wendell O. Pruitt">Wendell O. Pruitt</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Purnell" title="Louis Purnell">Louis R. Purnell Sr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_D._Rice" title="Price D. Rice">Price D. Rice</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_E._Roberts" title="Lawrence E. Roberts">Lawrence E. Roberts</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Roberts" title="George S. Roberts">George S. Roberts</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_C._Robinson" title="Curtis C. Robinson">Curtis C. Robinson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaiah_Edward_Robinson_Jr." title="Isaiah Edward Robinson Jr.">Isaiah Edward Robinson Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Rogers_Sr." title="John W. Rogers Sr.">John W. Rogers Sr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Ross" title="Mac Ross">Mac Ross</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Searcy" title="Robert Searcy">Robert Searcy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Showell" title="David Showell">David Showell</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmeth_Sidat-Singh" title="Wilmeth Sidat-Singh">Wilmeth Sidat-Singh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Smith_(pilot)" title="Graham Smith (pilot)">Graham Smith (pilot)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Smith_(aviator)" title="Eugene Smith (aviator)">Eugene Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin_J._Spann" title="Calvin J. Spann">Calvin J. Spann</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_Sport" title="Vernon Sport">Vernon Sport</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell_Steward" title="Lowell Steward">Lowell Steward</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Stewart,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Stewart, Jr.">Harry Stewart, Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Stone" title="Chuck Stone">Charles "Chuck" Stone Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Sutton" title="Percy Sutton">Percy Sutton</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alva_Temple" title="Alva Temple">Alva Temple</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Terry" title="Roger Terry">Roger Terry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Theus" title="Lucius Theus">Lucius Theus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Toppins" title="Edward L. Toppins">Edward L. Toppins</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Tresville" title="Robert B. Tresville">Robert B. Tresville</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_D._Turner" title="Andrew D. Turner">Andrew D. Turner</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Alonzo_Walker" title="James Alonzo Walker">James A. Walker</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spann_Watson" title="Spann Watson">Spann Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_J._Weathers" title="Luke J. Weathers">Luke J. Weathers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_W._White" title="Sherman W. White">Sherman W. White</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_T._Wiley" title="James T. Wiley">James T. Wiley</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal_Whitfield" title="Mal Whitfield">Malvin "Mal" Whitfield</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Lawton_Wilkerson" title="Oscar Lawton Wilkerson">Oscar Lawton Wilkerson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yancey_Williams" title="Yancey Williams">Yancey Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_M._Williams" title="Romeo M. Williams">Romeo M. Williams</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Wise_Jr." title="Henry Wise Jr.">Henry Wise Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Field_mutiny" title="Freeman Field mutiny">Freeman Field mutiny</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Aircraft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_P-39_Airacobra" title="Bell P-39 Airacobra">Bell P-39 Airacobra</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk" title="Curtiss P-40 Warhawk">Curtiss P-40 Warhawk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell" title="North American B-25 Mitchell">North American B-25 Mitchell</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">North American P-51 Mustang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt" title="Republic P-47 Thunderbolt">Republic P-47 Thunderbolt</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Fictional films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tuskegee_Airmen" title="The Tuskegee Airmen">The Tuskegee Airmen</a></i> (1995)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart%27s_War" title="Hart's War">Hart's War</a></i> (2002)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tails" title="Red Tails">Red Tails</a></i> (2012)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_of_the_Red_Tail" title="Flight of the Red Tail">Flight of the Red Tail</a></i> (2009)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tail_Reborn" title="Red Tail Reborn">Red Tail Reborn</a></i> (2007)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_for_This_Man" title="Wings for This Man">Wings for This Man</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_(play)" title="Fly (play)">Fly</a></i> (play)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Browne,_Farmer" title="Henry Browne, Farmer">Henry Browne, Farmer</a></i></li>
<li>"<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingmen_(The_Boondocks)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wingmen (The Boondocks)">Wingmen</a>"</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%E2%80%93Saab_T-7_Red_Hawk" title="Boeing–Saab T-7 Red Hawk">Boeing–Saab T-7 Red Hawk</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Tail_Squadron" title="Red Tail Squadron">Red Tail Squadron</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen_National_Historic_Site" title="Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site">Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Edwards_Jr." title="Leslie Edwards Jr.">Leslie Edwards Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfred_DeFour" title="Wilfred DeFour">Wilfred DeFour</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maycie_Herrington" title="Maycie Herrington">Maycie Herrington</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buford_A._Johnson" title="Buford A. Johnson">Buford A. Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Ellis_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="Thomas Ellis (Tuskegee Airman)">Thomas Ellis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Johnson_(Tuskegee_Airman)" title="Theodore Johnson (Tuskegee Airman)">Theodore Johnson</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_F._Parrish" title="Noel F. Parrish">Noel F. Parrish</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_P._Reed" title="Wallace P. Reed">Wallace P. Reed</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Rogers_(Tuskegee)" title="Willie Rogers (Tuskegee)">Willie Rogers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Franklin_Vaughns" title="Thomas Franklin Vaughns">Thomas Franklin Vaughns</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">African American military history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier" title="Buffalo Soldier">Buffalo Soldier</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Thirteen" title="Golden Thirteen">Golden Thirteen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/366th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="366th Infantry Regiment (United States)">366th Infantry Regiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/761st_Tank_Battalion_(United_States)" title="761st Tank Battalion (United States)">U.S. Army Black Panthers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Category:Tuskegee Airmen">Category</a></b></li>
<li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/16px-Aviacionavion.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/24px-Aviacionavion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aviacionavion.png/32px-Aviacionavion.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></span></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Aviation" title="Portal:Aviation">aviation portal</a></b></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20px_USAAF_Fifteenth_Air_Force_in_World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:USAAF_15th_Air_Force_World_War_II" title="Template:USAAF 15th Air Force World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:USAAF_15th_Air_Force_World_War_II" title="Template talk:USAAF 15th Air Force World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USAAF_15th_Air_Force_World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USAAF 15th Air Force World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="20px_USAAF_Fifteenth_Air_Force_in_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/20px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/30px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg/40px-US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="320" /></a></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">USAAF</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_Expeditionary_Mobility_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force">Fifteenth Air Force</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Stations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Tunisia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizerte-Sidi_Ahmed_Air_Base" title="Bizerte-Sidi Ahmed Air Base">Bizerte</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depienne_Airfield" title="Depienne Airfield">Depienne</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enfidaville_Airfield" title="Enfidaville Airfield">Enfidaville</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_El_Amri_Airport" title="Borj El Amri Airport">Massicault</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudna_Airfield" title="Oudna Airfield">Oudna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont_du_Fahs_Airfield" title="Pont du Fahs Airfield">Pont du Fahs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainte_Marie_du_Zit_Airfield" title="Sainte Marie du Zit Airfield">Sainte Marie du Zit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soliman_Airfield" title="Soliman Airfield">Soliman</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Amendola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Bari</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Castelltuccio</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattolica_Airfield" title="Cattolica Airfield">Cattolica</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Celone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Cerignola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fano_Airport" title="Fano Airport">Fano</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Foggia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gioia_del_Colle_Air_Base" title="Gioia del Colle Air Base">Gioia del Colle</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto-Grottaglie_Airport" title="Taranto-Grottaglie Airport">Grottaglie</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Giulia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Lesina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Lucera</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Madna</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manduria_Airfield" title="Manduria Airfield">Manduria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcianise_Airfield" title="Marcianise Airfield">Marcianise</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mondolfo_Airfield" title="Mondolfo Airfield">Mondolfo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Pantanella</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piagiolino_Airfield" title="Piagiolino Airfield">Piagiolino</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa_International_Airport" title="Pisa International Airport">Pisa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Fellini_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Federico Fellini Airport">Rimini</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Salsosa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">San Giovanni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pancrazio_Airfield" title="San Pancrazio Airfield">San Pancrazio</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">San Severo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Spinazzola</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterparone_Airfield" title="Sterparone Airfield">Sterparone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortorella_Airfield" title="Tortorella Airfield">Tortorella</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Torremaggiore</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Torretto</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Triolo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Venosa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foggia_Airfield_Complex" title="Foggia Airfield Complex">Vincenzo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_(World_War_II).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/80px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/120px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg/160px-Fifteenth_Air_Force_-_Emblem_%28World_War_II%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="271" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Wings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Air_Division" title="5th Air Division">5th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47th_Air_Division" title="47th Air Division">47th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/49th_Air_Division" title="49th Air Division">49th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55th_Bombardment_Wing_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="55th Bombardment Wing (World War II)">55th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/304th_Air_Division" title="304th Air Division">304th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/305th_Air_Division" title="305th Air Division">305th Fighter (P)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/306th_Fighter_Wing_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="306th Fighter Wing (World War II)">306th Fighter</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Bombardment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2d_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="2d Operations Group">2d Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/97th_Operations_Group" title="97th Operations Group">97th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/98th_Operations_Group" title="98th Operations Group">98th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99th_Air_Base_Wing" title="99th Air Base Wing">99th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/301st_Operations_Group" title="301st Operations Group">301st Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/376th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="376th Air Expeditionary Wing">376th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/449th_Air_Expeditionary_Group" title="449th Air Expeditionary Group">449th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/450th_Bombardment_Wing" title="450th Bombardment Wing">450th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/451st_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="451st Air Expeditionary Wing">451st Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/454th_Bombardment_Wing" title="454th Bombardment Wing">454th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/455th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="455th Air Expeditionary Wing">455th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/456th_Bombardment_Group" title="456th Bombardment Group">456th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/459th_Air_Refueling_Wing" title="459th Air Refueling Wing">459th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/460th_Space_Wing" title="460th Space Wing">460th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/461st_Bombardment_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="461st Bombardment Wing">461st Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/463d_Airlift_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="463d Airlift Group">463d Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/464th_Tactical_Airlift_Wing" title="464th Tactical Airlift Wing">464th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/465th_Bombardment_Wing" title="465th Bombardment Wing">465th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/483d_Tactical_Airlift_Wing" class="mw-redirect" title="483d Tactical Airlift Wing">483d Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/484th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="484th Air Expeditionary Wing">484th Bombardment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/485th_Air_Expeditionary_Wing" title="485th Air Expeditionary Wing">485th Bombardment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;text-align:center;">Fighter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Operations_Group" title="1st Operations Group">1st Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Operations_Group" title="14th Operations Group">14th Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_Operations_Group" title="31st Operations Group">31st Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/52d_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="52d Operations Group">52d Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82d_Operations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="82d Operations Group">82d Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/325th_Operations_Group" title="325th Operations Group">325th Fighter</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/332d_Fighter_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="332d Fighter Group">332d Fighter</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><b>United States Army Air Forces</b></li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Air_Force" title="First Air Force">First</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Air_Force" title="Second Air Force">Second</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Air_Force" title="Third Air Force">Third</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Air_Force" title="Fourth Air Force">Fourth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force" title="Fifth Air Force">Fifth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_Southern_Command" title="United States Air Forces Southern Command">Sixth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Air_Force" title="Seventh Air Force">Seventh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force" title="Eighth Air Force">Eighth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninth Air Force (World War II)">Ninth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenth_Air_Force" title="Tenth Air Force">Tenth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleventh_Air_Force" title="Eleventh Air Force">Eleventh</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Air_Force" title="Twelfth Air Force">Twelfth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth Air Force">Thirteenth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Air_Force" title="Fourteenth Air Force">Fourteenth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_Expeditionary_Mobility_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force">Fifteenth</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_Air_Force" title="Twentieth Air Force">Twentieth</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_in_World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:USWWII" title="Template:USWWII"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:USWWII" title="Template talk:USWWII"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:USWWII" title="Special:EditPage/Template:USWWII"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_in_World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States in World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">Home front</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_music_during_World_War_II" title="American music during World War II">American music during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_aircraft_production_during_World_War_II" title="United States aircraft production during World War II">United States aircraft production during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_during_World_War_II" title="Arizona during World War II">Arizona during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_during_World_War_II" title="Nevada during World War II">Nevada during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="New Mexico during World War II">New Mexico during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Generation" class="mw-redirect" title="G.I. Generation">G.I. Generation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schools_at_War" title="Schools at War">Schools at War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Internment of Japanese Americans</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">American women</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots" title="Women Airforce Service Pilots">Women Airforce Service Pilots</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Army_Corps" title="Women's Army Corps">Women's Army Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman%27s_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_the_US_armed_forces_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minorities in the US armed forces during World War II"> Minorities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_Americans_in_World_War_II" title="Hispanic Americans in World War II">Hispanic Americans in World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Ricans in World War II</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/120px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/US_Navy_081110-N-5549O-080_The_U.S._national_flag_waves_graciously_from_the_Iwo_Jima_memorial_during_a_wreath_laying_ceremony_in_honor_of_the_233rd_Marine_Corps_birthday_at_the_Marine_Corps_War_Memorial.jpg/240px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2704" data-file-height="4100" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II"> Military participation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army#World_War_II" title="History of the United States Army"> Army</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_uniforms_in_World_War_II" title="United States Army uniforms in World War II">Uniforms</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">Army Air Force</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps#World_War_II" title="History of the United States Marine Corps"> Marine Corps</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy#World_War_II_(1941–1945)" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_service_medals_of_the_World_Wars" title="United States service medals of the World Wars"> Service medals</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Medal_of_Honor_recipients_for_World_War_II" title="List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II">Medal of Honor recipients</a>)</li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles_involving_the_United_States" title="List of World War II battles involving the United States">List of battles</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Minorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of African Americans">African Americans</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Asian_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese-American_service_in_World_War_II" title="Chinese-American service in World War II">Chinese Americans</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese-American_service_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese-American service in World War II">Japanese Americans</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Jewish_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of Jewish Americans">Jewish Americans</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy#World_War_II_.281941.E2.80.931945.29" title="History of United States foreign policy">Diplomatic participation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyers-for-bases_deal" title="Destroyers-for-bases deal">Destroyers-for-bases deal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tuskegee_University" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Tuskegee_University" title="Template:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="View this template" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Tuskegee_University" title="Template talk:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee_University" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tuskegee University"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tuskegee_University" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University"><span style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Tuskegee University</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div><b>Located in</b>: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee,_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama"><span style="color:white">Tuskegee, Alabama</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences</li>
<li>Arts and Sciences</li>
<li>Business and Information Science</li>
<li>Engineering</li>
<li>Veterinary Medicine, Nursing and Allied Health</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Athletics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers">Tuskegee Golden Tigers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers_football" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers football">Football</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbott_Memorial_Alumni_Stadium" title="Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium">Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_George_Washington_Carver_Museum" title="The George Washington Carver Museum">The George Washington Carver Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_Cooperative_Extension_System" title="Alabama Cooperative Extension System">Alabama Cooperative Extension System</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Alabama_Cooperative_Extension_System" title="History of the Alabama Cooperative Extension System">History</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Adams" title="Lewis Adams">Lewis Adams</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Institute_Silver_Anniversary_Lecture" title="Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture">Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study" title="Tuskegee Syphilis Study">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div>
<ul><li><b>Founded</b>: 1881</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eleanor_Roosevelt" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Template:Eleanor Roosevelt"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Template talk:Eleanor Roosevelt"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eleanor Roosevelt"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eleanor_Roosevelt" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Chairwoman, Presidential Commission on the Status of Women</a> (1961–1962)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States" title="List of first ladies of the United States">34th</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States" title="First Lady of the United States">First Lady of the United States</a> (1933–1945)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United States delegate, United Nations General Assembly (1946–1952)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights (1947–1953, Chairperson 1946–1951)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Creation_and_drafting" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drafting_of_the_Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Drafting committee</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Day" title="Human Rights Day">Human Rights Day</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">First Lady of<br />the United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Day" title="My Day">"My Day" daily newspaper column, 1935–1962</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Civilian_Defense" title="Office of Civilian Defense">Co-Chair, Office of Civilian Defense</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Anderson#1939_Lincoln_Memorial_Concert" title="Marian Anderson">Marian Anderson Lincoln Memorial Concert</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#The_First_Lady's_flight">Tuskegee Airmen flight</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthurdale,_West_Virginia" title="Arthurdale, West Virginia">Arthurdale</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor,_West_Virginia" title="Eleanor, West Virginia">Eleanor, West Virginia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Youth_Congress" title="American Youth Congress">American Youth Congress</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Cabinet" title="Black Cabinet">Black Cabinet</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention#Vice-presidential_selection" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 Democratic National Convention speech</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Defense" title="Women in Defense">Women in Defense</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_terms_as_Governor_of_New_York#Economic_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's terms as Governor of New York">First Lady of New York</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" title="Presidential Commission on the Status of Women">Presidential Commission on the Status of Women</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Organization_for_Women#PCSW_influences_the_creation_of_the_National_Organization_for_Women" title="National Organization for Women">National Organization for Women</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encampment_for_Citizenship" title="Encampment for Citizenship">Encampment for Citizenship</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site">Val-Kill National Historic Site</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val-Kill_Industries" title="Val-Kill Industries">Val-Kill Industries</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Campobello_International_Park" title="Roosevelt Campobello International Park">Campobello home</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_paralytic_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness">Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Hyde Park home and gravesite</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute" title="Roosevelt Institute">Roosevelt Institute</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_Campus_Network" title="Roosevelt Institute Campus Network">Roosevelt Institute Campus Network</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_for_American_Studies" title="Roosevelt Institute for American Studies">Roosevelt Study Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Monument" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Monument">Eleanor Roosevelt Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Award_for_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights">Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Statue at the Franklin Roosevelt Memorial</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_College" title="Eleanor Roosevelt College">Eleanor Roosevelt College</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Roosevelt_(DDG-80)" title="USS Roosevelt (DDG-80)">USS <i>Roosevelt</i></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Anderson:_the_Lincoln_Memorial_Concert" class="mw-redirect" title="Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert"><i>Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert</i> (1939 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello_(play)" title="Sunrise at Campobello (play)"><i>Sunrise at Campobello</i> (1958 play,</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello" title="Sunrise at Campobello">1960 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eleanor_Roosevelt_Story" title="The Eleanor Roosevelt Story"><i>The Eleanor Roosevelt Story</i> (1965 film)</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin_(book)" title="Eleanor and Franklin (book)">Eleanor and Franklin</a></i> (1971 biography)</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor:_The_Years_Alone" title="Eleanor: The Years Alone">Eleanor: The Years Alone</a></i> (1972 biography)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Eleanor and Franklin (miniseries)"><i>Eleanor and Franklin</i> (1976 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin:_The_White_House_Years" title="Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years"><i>Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years</i> (1977 film)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House"><i>Backstairs at the White House</i> (1979 miniseries)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Roosevelts_(miniseries)" title="The Roosevelts (miniseries)"><i>The Roosevelts</i> (2014 documentary)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_First_Lady_(American_TV_series)" title="The First Lady (American TV series)"><i>The First Lady</i> (2022 TV series)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDR_(miniseries)" title="FDR (miniseries)"><i>FDR</i> (2023 miniseries)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Prize_in_the_Field_of_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights">United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Bill_of_Human_Rights" title="International Bill of Human Rights">International Bill of Human Rights</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan#Documents" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorena_Hickok" title="Lorena Hickok">Lorena Hickok</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Roosevelt family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (husband</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">presidency 1933–1941</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms">presidency 1941–1945</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Halsted" title="Anna Roosevelt Halsted">Anna Eleanor Roosevelt</a> (daughter)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt">James Roosevelt II</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(general)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (general)">Elliott Roosevelt</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.">Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Aspinwall_Roosevelt" title="John Aspinwall Roosevelt">John Roosevelt II</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Seagraves" title="Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves">Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves</a> (granddaughter)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Roosevelt" title="Curtis Roosevelt">Curtis Roosevelt</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Wilford" title="Sara Wilford">Sara Delano Roosevelt</a> (granddaughter)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt III">Franklin Delano Roosevelt III</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roosevelt_Boettiger" title="John Roosevelt Boettiger">John Roosevelt Boettiger</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt_(lawyer)" title="James Roosevelt (lawyer)">James Roosevelt III</a> (grandson)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(socialite)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (socialite)">Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt</a> (father)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Hall_Roosevelt" title="Anna Hall Roosevelt">Anna Hall Roosevelt</a> (mother)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_Roosevelt" title="Hall Roosevelt">Hall Roosevelt</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_Sr." title="Theodore Roosevelt Sr.">Theodore Roosevelt Sr.</a> (grandfather)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Bulloch_Roosevelt" title="Martha Bulloch Roosevelt">Martha Stewart Bulloch</a> (grandmother)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (uncle</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">presidency</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamie_Roosevelt" title="Bamie Roosevelt">Bamie Roosevelt</a> (aunt)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fala_(dog)" title="Fala (dog)">Fala</a> (family dog)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="North_American_P-51_Mustang_family" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:P-51_Mustang_family" title="Template:P-51 Mustang family"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:P-51_Mustang_family" title="Template talk:P-51 Mustang family"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:P-51_Mustang_family" title="Special:EditPage/Template:P-51 Mustang family"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="North_American_P-51_Mustang_family" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Aviation" title="North American Aviation">North American</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">P-51 Mustang</a> family</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="North American P-51 Mustang">P-51/F-51 Mustang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_A-36" title="North American A-36">A-36</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Mustang_Mk.X" title="Rolls-Royce Mustang Mk.X">Mustang Mk.X</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAC_Mustang" title="CAC Mustang">CA-17/CA-18/CA-21</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_PA-48_Enforcer" title="Piper PA-48 Enforcer">PA-48 Enforcer</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier_Mustang" title="Cavalier Mustang">Cavalier Mustang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Ashley_II" title="Miss Ashley II">P-51R</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precious_Metal_(aircraft)" title="Precious Metal (aircraft)">P-51XR</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable aircraft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dago_Red" title="Dago Red">Dago Red</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Ashley_II" title="Miss Ashley II">Miss Ashley II</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precious_Metal_(aircraft)" title="Precious Metal (aircraft)">Precious Metal</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Baron_(aircraft)" title="Red Baron (aircraft)">Red Baron</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Galloping_Ghost_(aircraft)" title="The Galloping Ghost (aircraft)">The Galloping Ghost</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_(aircraft)" title="Voodoo (aircraft)">Voodoo</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worry_Bird" title="Worry Bird">Worry Bird</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_F-82_Twin_Mustang" title="North American F-82 Twin Mustang">P-82/F-82</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_FJ-1_Fury" title="North American FJ-1 Fury">FJ-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_T-28_Trojan" title="North American T-28 Trojan">T-28</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Replicas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonsall_DB-1_Mustang" title="Bonsall DB-1 Mustang">Bonsall DB-1</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_P-51G" title="Cameron P-51G">Cameron P-51G</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScaleWings_SW51_Mustang" title="ScaleWings SW51 Mustang">FK-Lightplanes FK51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_P-51_Mustang" title="Historical P-51 Mustang">Historical P-51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurca_Gnatsum" title="Jurca Gnatsum">Jurca Gnatsum</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linn_Mini_Mustang" title="Linn Mini Mustang">Linn Mini Mustang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loehle_5151_Mustang" title="Loehle 5151 Mustang">Loehle 5151</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScaleWings_SW51_Mustang" title="ScaleWings SW51 Mustang">ScaleWings SW51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_S-51D_Mustang" title="Stewart S-51D Mustang">Stewart S-51D</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papa_51_Thunder_Mustang" title="Papa 51 Thunder Mustang">Thunder Mustang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_T-51_Mustang" title="Titan T-51 Mustang">Titan T-51</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.A.R._P-51_Mustang" title="W.A.R. P-51 Mustang">W.A.R. P-51</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidents_and_incidents_involving_the_North_American_P-51_Mustang" title="Accidents and incidents involving the North American P-51 Mustang">Accidents and incidents</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorman_dogfight" title="Gorman dogfight">Gorman dogfight</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantell_UFO_incident" title="Mantell UFO incident">Mantell UFO incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Reno_Air_Races_crash" title="2011 Reno Air Races crash">2011 Reno Air Races crash</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_surviving_North_American_P-51_Mustangs" title="List of surviving North American P-51 Mustangs">Survivors</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang_variants" title="North American P-51 Mustang variants">Variants</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable people/groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Schmued" title="Edgar Schmued">Edgar Schmued</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tuskegee Airmen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6gx90pv">SNAC</a></span></li></ul>
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