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{{Infobox civilian attack
|image = Unit_731_-_Complex.jpg
|image_upright = 1.1
|alt =
|caption = The Unit 731 complex. Two prisons are hidden in the center of the main building.
|location = Japan occupied Pingfang, [[Harbin]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Manchukuo]] (now [[China]])
|target =
|coordinates = {{Coord|45|36|30|N|126|37|55|E|region:CN-HL_type:landmark|display=inline}}
|date = 1936–1945
|time =
|timezone =
|type = {{ubl|[[Human subject research|Human experimentation]]|[[Biological warfare]]|[[Chemical warfare]]}}
|fatalities = Estimated 3,000<ref name="Kristof">{{cite news |last = Kristof |first = Nicholas D. |date = 1995-03-17 |title = Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |newspaper = The New York Times |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190714031133/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |url-status = live }}</ref> to 300,000<ref>{{cite news |last = Watts |first = Jonathan |date = 2002-08-28 |title = Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |newspaper = The Guardian |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-08-06 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190806103833/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |url-status = live }}</ref>
* 400,000 or higher from biological warfare
* Over 3,000 from inside experiments from each unit (not including branches, 1940–1945 only)<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|20}}
* At least 10,000 prisoners died<ref name="histpersp" />
* No documented survivors
|perps = {{ubl|[[Surgeon General]] [[Shirō Ishii]]|[[Lieutenant General|Lt. Gen.]] [[Masaji Kitano]]|[[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]]}}
|weapons = {{ubl|Biological weapons|Chemical weapons|Explosives}}
}}
{{Shōwa Statism|Atrocities}}{{nihongo|'''Unit 731'''|{{ruby-ja|７|<big>なな</big>}}{{ruby-ja|３|<big>さん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|１|<big>いち</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|隊|<big>たい</big>}}|Nana-san-ichi Butai|lead=yes}},{{NoteTag|The Japanese word ''[[:wikt:butai|butai]]'' is variously translated with military terms such as "unit", "detachment", "regiment", or "company".}} short for '''Manshu Detachment 731''' and also known as the '''Kamo Detachment'''<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|198}} and the '''Ishii Unit''',<ref name="ciadoc">{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |title = CIA Special Collection ISHII, SHIRO_0005 |access-date = 2019-09-18 |archive-date = 2020-08-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200809175401/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> was a covert [[Biological warfare|biological]] and [[chemical warfare]] [[research and development]] unit of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] that engaged in [[unethical human experimentation|lethal human experimentation]] and [[Biological warfare|biological weapons]] manufacturing during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945) and [[World War II]]. It killed an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 people. It was based in the [[Pingfang]] district of [[Harbin]], the largest city in the Japanese [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]] (now [[Northeast China]], formerly named [[Manchuria]]) and had active branch offices throughout China and Southeast Asia.
Unit 731 was responsible for some of the most notorious [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes committed by the Japanese armed forces]]. It routinely conducted tests on people who were dehumanized and internally referred to as "logs." Experiments included disease injections, controlled dehydration, biological weapons testing, [[Decompression (altitude)|hypobaric]] [[pressure chamber]] testing, [[vivisection]], [[organ procurement|organ harvesting]], [[amputation]], and standard weapons testing. Victims included not only kidnapped men, women (including pregnant women) and children but also babies born from the systemic [[rape]] perpetrated by the staff inside the compound. The victims also came from different nationalities, with the majority being Chinese and a significant minority being [[Russians|Russian]]. Additionally, Unit 731 produced biological weapons that were used in areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces, which included Chinese cities and towns, water sources, and fields. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people, and none of the inmates survived. In the final moments of the Second World War, all prisoners were killed to conceal evidence.
It was officially known as the {{nihongo|'''Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army'''|{{ruby-ja|關|<big>くわん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|東|<big>とう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|軍|<big>ぐん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|防|<big>ぼう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|疫|<big>えき</big>}}{{ruby-ja|給|<big>きふ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|水|<big>すゐ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|本|<big>ほん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}|Kuwantōgun Bōeki Kyūsuwibu Honbu}}. Originally set up by the ''[[Kenpeitai]]'' [[military police]] of the [[Empire of Japan]], Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of the war]] by General [[Shirō Ishii]], a [[combat medic]] officer in the [[Kwantung Army]]. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement for the [[Zhongma Fortress]], and Ishii and his team used it to expand their capabilities. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and the other units of the [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]] operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities.
While Unit 731 researchers arrested by [[Red Army|Soviet forces]] were tried at the December 1949 [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]], those captured by the [[Military history of the United States during World War II|United States]] were secretly given [[Immunity from prosecution (international law)|immunity]] in exchange for the data gathered during their human experiments.<ref name="Gold 2003 p109">Hal Gold, ''Unit 731 Testimony'', 2003, p. 109.</ref> The United States helped cover up the human experimentations and handed stipends to the perpetrators.<ref name="Kristof"/> The Americans co-opted the researchers' [[Biological warfare|bioweapons]] information and experience for use in their own [[United States biological weapons program|biological warfare program]], much like what had been done with [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] researchers in [[Operation Paperclip]].<ref>Harris, S.H. (2002) ''Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up'', revised ed. Routledge, New York.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brody|first1=Howard|last2=Leonard|first2=Sarah E.|last3=Nie|first3=Jing-Bao|last4=Weindling|first4=Paul|title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency|journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics|year=2014|volume=23|issue=2|pages=220–230|doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753|issn=0963-1801|pmc=4487829|pmid=24534743}}</ref>
On 28 August 2002, [[Tokyo District Court]] ruled that Japan had committed biological warfare in China and consequently had slaughtered many residents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Ruling recognizes Unit 731 used germ warfare in China |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/08/28/national/ruling-recognizes-unit-731-used-germ-warfare-in-china/ |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Japan Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
== Formations ==
[[File:Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facility of Unit 731 関東軍防疫給水部本部731部隊（石井部隊）日軍第731部隊旧址 PB121201.JPG|thumb|Building of the Unit 731 bioweapon facility in [[Harbin]]]]
Japan started its biological weapons program in the 1930s, partly because the use of biological weapons were banned in interstate conflicts by the [[Geneva Protocol]] of 1925; they reasoned that the ban verified its effectiveness as a weapon.<ref name="Kristof"/> Japan's occupation of [[Manchuria]] began in 1931 after the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]].<ref name="montana1">{{cite web|url=https://www.montana.edu/historybug/yersiniaessays/shama.html |title=Japan – Insects, Disease, and History | Montana State University |publisher=Montana.edu |date= |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref> Japan decided to build Unit 731 in Manchuria because the occupation not only gave the Japanese an advantage of separating the research station from their island, but also gave them access to as many Chinese individuals as they wanted for use as test subjects.<ref name="montana1"/> They viewed the Chinese as no-cost assets, and hoped this would give them a competitive advantage in biological warfare.<ref name="montana1"/> Not all test subjects were Chinese, with many other nationalities being included too.<ref name="Kristof"/>
In 1932, [[Surgeon General]] {{nihongo|[[Shirō Ishii]]|{{ruby-ja|石|<big>いし</big>}}{{ruby-ja|井|<big>い</big>}}{{ruby-ja|四|<big>し</big>}}{{ruby-ja|郎|<big>ろう</big>}}|Ishii Shirō}}, chief medical officer of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] and [[protégé]] of [[Ministry of War of Japan|Army Minister]] [[Sadao Araki]], was placed in command of the '''Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory''' ('''AEPRL'''). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit," for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs.
One of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel [[Chikahiko Koizumi]], who later served as [[Minister of Health, Labour, and Welfare|Japan's Health Minister]] from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret [[poison gas]] research committee in 1915, during [[World War I]], when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the successful German use of [[chlorine gas]] at the [[Second Battle of Ypres]], in which the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] suffered 5,000 deaths and 15,000 wounded as a result of the chemical attack.<ref>Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). ''Unit 731''. Grafton Books, p. 44. {{ISBN|0586208224}}</ref><ref>Van der Kloot 2004, p. 152.</ref>
=== Zhongma Fortress ===
Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the [[Zhongma Fortress]], a prison and experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=us}} south of [[Harbin]] on the [[South Manchuria Railway]]. The prisoners brought to Zhongma included common [[criminal]]s, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, as well as [[political prisoner]]s and people rounded up on trumped up charges by the [[Kempeitai]]. Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of [[rice]] or [[wheat]], [[meat]], [[Fish (food)|fish]], and occasionally even [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also [[vivisected]]. Others were deliberately infected with [[Plague (disease)|plague]] [[bacteria]] and other [[microbes]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Id.</ref>
A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately {{convert|24|km|mi|sp=us}} south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=29|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Unit 731 ===
[[File:A close up photo of the Unit 731 square building taken by the aviation and photography class of Unit 731 in 1940.jpg|thumb|Close-up photo of the Unit 731 main "square building" taken by Unit 731's aviation and photography class in 1940]]
In 1936, Emperor [[Hirohito]] issued a [[decree]] authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the [[Kwantung Army]] as the Epidemic Prevention Department.<ref>Daniel Barenblat, ''A plague upon humanity'', 2004, p. 37.</ref> It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in [[Changchun|Hsinking]]. From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" ({{ruby-ja|關|<big>くわん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|東|<big>とう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|軍|<big>ぐん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|防|<big>ばう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|疫|<big>えき</big>}}{{ruby-ja|給|<big>きふ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|水|<big>すゐ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|本|<big>ほん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}) or "Unit 731" ({{ruby-ja|滿|<big>まん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|洲|<big>しゆう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|第|<big>だい</big>}}{{ruby-ja|７|<big>なな</big>}}{{ruby-ja|３|<big>さん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|１|<big>いち</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|隊|<big>たい</big>}}) for short.<ref>Yuki Tanaka, ''Hidden Horrors'', 1996, p. 136.</ref>
His younger brother, [[Takahito, Prince Mikasa|Prince Mikasa]], toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China, and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans."<ref name="Kristof"/>
[[Hideki Tojo]], who later became [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] in 1941, was also shown films of the experiments, which he described as "unpleasant."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vanderbrook |first=Alan |date=2013 |title=Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 |via=STARS}}</ref>
=== Other units ===
{{Main|Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department}}
In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria [[Unit 100]]), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria [[Unit 516]]). After the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of China]] in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included [[Unit 1855]] in [[Beijing]], [[Unit Ei 1644]] in [[Nanjing]], [[Unit 8604]] in [[Guangzhou]], and later [[Unit 9420]] in [[Singapore]]. All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html|title=Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program – The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus|website=apjjf.org|access-date=2017-10-27|archive-date=2018-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104190943/http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing.<ref name="NHK">The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments (2017). NHK Documentary</ref>
== Experiments ==
A special project, codenamed ''Maruta'', used human beings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from the surrounding population and sometimes euphemistically referred to as {{nihongo|"logs"|{{ruby-ja|丸|<big>まる</big>}}{{ruby-ja|太|<big>た</big>}}|maruta}}, used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?" This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official [[Cover-up|cover story]] for the facility given to local authorities was that it was a [[lumber mill]]. According to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz," German for log.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cook |first1 = Haruko Taya |last2=Cook |first2 = Theodore F. |title = Japan at war: an oral history |edition=1st |year=1992 |publisher = New Press |location = New York |isbn=1565840143 |page=162 }}</ref> In a further parallel, the corpses of "sacrificed" subjects were disposed of by [[Cremation|incineration]].<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all |title = Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |newspaper = The New York Times |date = 17 March 1995 |access-date = April 10, 2017 |archive-date = January 20, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180120034658/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all |url-status = live |last1 = Kristof |first1 = Nicholas D. }}</ref> Researchers in Unit 731 also published some of their results in [[peer-reviewed journal]]s, writing as though the research had been [[Nonhuman primate experimentation|conducted on nonhuman primates]] called "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys."<ref name="Harris 2002 p. 83">{{cite book|last=Harris|first=S.H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84|title=Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=978-0415932141|page=63|access-date=2017-07-08|archive-date=2022-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to American historian [[Sheldon H. Harris]]:
<blockquote>The Togo Unit employed gruesome tactics to secure specimens of select body organs. If Ishii or one of his co-workers wished to do research on the human brain, then they would order the guards to find them a useful sample. A prisoner would be taken from his cell. Guards would hold him while another guard would smash the victim's head open with an ax. His brain would be extracted off to the pathologist, and then to the [[crematorium]] for the usual disposal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=28|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>
{{interlanguage link|Nakagawa Yonezo|ja|中川米造}}, [[professor emeritus]] at [[Osaka University]], studied at [[Kyoto University]] during the war. While he was there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the playfulness of the experimenters:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program |year=2019|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-0804852197|page=222|last2=Totani|first2=Yuma.}}</ref>
<blockquote>Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of [[Biological warfare|germ warfare]], or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: ‘What would happen if we did such and such?’ What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play."</blockquote>
Prisoners were injected with diseases, disguised as [[Vaccine|vaccinations]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/|title=Pure Evil: Wartime Japanese Doctor Had No Regard for Human Suffering|date=2014-05-28|website=Medical Bag|access-date=2017-03-28|language=en|archive-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329140410/http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/|url-status=live}}</ref> to study their effects. To study the effects of untreated [[venereal disease]]s, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with [[syphilis]] and [[gonorrhea]], then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to [[Prison rape|rape]] by guards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|title=Unit 731: Overview|work=mtholyoke.edu|access-date=2014-09-06|archive-date=2017-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Vivisection ===
Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to [[vivisection]], often performed without [[anesthesia]] and usually lethal.<ref>Nicholas D. Kristof ''New York Times'', March 17, 1995. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print "Unmasking Horror: A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317115032/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print |date=2011-03-17 }}</ref><ref name="dissect">{{cite news |title=Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed |author=Richard Lloyd Parry |newspaper=Times Online |date=February 25, 2007 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece |location=London |access-date=February 26, 2007 |archive-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523225449/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman.<ref name="vimeo1">{{cite web |title=(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage) |url=https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260 |website=(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage) |access-date=2021-10-07 |archive-date=2021-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074509/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed [[Minimally invasive procedure#Invasive procedures|invasive surgery]] on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/ |title=Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada |access-date=February 5, 2004 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/ |archive-date=November 19, 2006}}</ref>
[[File:Human Dissection Experiment Room at Harbin's 731 Museum.jpg|thumb|Human dissection experiment room]]
Prisoners had limbs [[amputated]] in order to study [[Blood Loss|blood loss]]. Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their [[esophagus]] reattached to the [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestines]]. Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others.<ref name="dissect"/> Imperial Japanese Army surgeon [[Ken Yuasa]] suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731,<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |title=Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |first=Nicholar D. |last=Kristof |date=17 March 1995 |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2 |access-date=20 February 2017 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107115922/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning/|title=Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning|first=Jun|last=Hongo|date=24 October 2007|via=Japan Times Online|access-date=16 May 2013|archive-date=1 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401172838/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning//|url-status=live}}</ref> Yuasa said that when he performed vivisections on captives, they were "all for practice rather than for research," and that such practises were "routine" among Japanese doctors stationed in China during the war.<ref name=":0" />
''[[The New York Times]]'' interviewed a former member of Unit 731. Insisting on anonymity, the former Japanese medical assistant recounted his first experience in vivisecting a live human being, who had been deliberately infected with the [[Plague (disease)|plague]], for the purpose of developing "plague bombs" for war. <blockquote>"The fellow knew that it was over for him, and so he didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down, but when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=1995-03-17 |title=Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref></blockquote>
Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Yanjun |title=Japan's Biological Warfare in China |date=2016 |publisher=Foreign Language Press |location=Beijing |page=13}}</ref>
=== Biological warfare ===
[[File:Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facility of Unit 731 関東軍防疫給水部本部731部隊（石井部隊）日軍第731部隊旧址 PB121178a ボイラー楝跡.JPG|thumb|Ruins of a boiler building at the Unit 731 [[bioweapon]]s facility]]
Unit 731 and its affiliated units ([[Unit 1644]] and [[Unit 100]], among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating [[biological weapon]]s in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. [[Plague (disease)|Plague]]-infected [[flea]]s, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal [[Ningbo]] and [[Changde]], [[Hunan|Hunan Province]], in 1940 and 1941.<ref name="ciadoc" /> These operations killed tens of thousands with [[bubonic plague]] epidemics. An expedition to [[Nanjing]] involved spreading [[typhoid]] and [[paratyphoid]] germs into the [[well]]s, [[marsh]]es, and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. [[Epidemic|Epidemics]] broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that [[paratyphoid fever]] was "the most effective" of the pathogens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|page=77|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Barenblatt2004">Barenblatt, Daniel. ''A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation'', HarperCollins, 2004. {{ISBN|0060186259}}.</ref>{{Rp|xii, 173}}
At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on [[Changde]] in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to [[cholera]].<ref name="histpersp" /> Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[smallpox]], [[botulism]], and other diseases.<ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ Biological Weapons Program-Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727172723/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ |date=2010-07-27 }} Federation of American Scientists</ref> This research led to the development of the [[defoliation bacilli bomb]] and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague.<ref>[http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm Review of the studies on Germ Warfare] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119074840/http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm |date=2012-11-19 }} Tien-wei Wu ''A Preliminary Review of Studies of Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States''</ref> Some of these bombs were designed with [[porcelain]] shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.
These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, [[reservoir]]s, wells, as well as other areas, with [[anthrax]]- and [[Bubonic plague|plague]]-carrier fleas, [[typhoid]], [[cholera]], or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims. [[Bubonic Plague|Plague]] fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting [[cholera]], [[anthrax]], and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barenblatt |first1=Daniel |title=A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation |date=2004 |publisher=Harper |location=New York|isbn=978-0060186258 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163 163–175] |edition=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163 }}</ref> [[Tularemia]] was also tested on Chinese civilians.<ref>[http://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv Video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921143738/https://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv |date=2017-09-21 }} adapted from "Biological Warfare & Terrorism: The Military and Public Health Response", [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. Retrieved October 21, 2007</ref>
Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up|page=5|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|website=[[University of Michigan–Flint]]|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Guillemin|first=Jeanne|title=One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences |chapter=The 1925 Geneva Protocol: China's CBW Charges Against Japan at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal |date=2017|editor-last=Friedrich|editor-first=Bretislav|editor2-last=Hoffmann|editor2-first=Dieter|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|editor4-last=Schmaltz|editor4-first=Florian|editor5-last=Wolf|editor5-first=Martin|language=en|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=273–286|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_15|isbn=978-3319516646|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In December 1944, the Japanese Navy explored the possibility of attacking cities in California with biological weapons, known as [[Operation PX]] or Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan for the attack involved [[Aichi M6A|''Seiran'']] aircraft launched by [[I-400-class submarine|submarine aircraft carriers]] upon the West Coast of the United States—specifically, the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The planes would spread weaponized [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[typhus]], [[dengue fever]], and other pathogens in a biological terror attack upon the population. The submarine crews would infect themselves and run ashore in a suicide mission.<ref>Garrett, Benjamin C. and John Hart. ''Historical Dictionary of Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare'', page 159.</ref><ref>Geoghegan, John. ''Operation Storm: Japan's Top Secret Submarines and Its Plan to Change the Course of World War II'', pages 189–191.</ref><ref>Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony: Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program, pages 89–92</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kristoff |first=Nicholas D. |date=March 17, 1995 |title=Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=August 6, 2015 }}</ref> Planning for Operation PX was finalized on March 26, 1945, but shelved shortly thereafter due to the strong opposition of Chief of General Staff [[Yoshijirō Umezu]]. Umezu later explained his decision as such: "If bacteriological warfare is conducted, it will grow from the dimension of war between Japan and America to an endless battle of humanity against bacteria. Japan will earn the derision of the world."<ref>Felton, Mark. ''The Devil's Doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War'', Chapter 10</ref>
=== Weapons testing ===
Human targets were used to test [[grenade]]s positioned at various distances and in various positions. [[Flamethrower]]s were tested on people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hickey |first1=Doug |last2=Li |first2=Scarllet Sijia |last3=Morrison |first3=Ceila |last4=Schulz |first4=Richard |last5=Thiry |first5=Michelle |last6=Sorensen |first6=Kelly |date=April 2017 |title=Unit 731 and Moral Repair |doi=10.1136/medethics-2015-103177 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=270–276|pmid=27003420 |s2cid=20475762 }}</ref> Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test [[Germ warfare|pathogen-releasing bombs]], [[chemical weapon]]s, shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as [[Bayonet|bayonets]] and knives.
{{Blockquote|To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks that were staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. It was surgery for most, autopsies for the rest.|Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria<ref>Monchinski, Tony (2008). ''Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom''. Volumen 3 de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. {{ISBN|1402084625}}</ref><ref>Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). ''Understanding Research''. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, p. 65. {{ISBN|0205471536}}</ref>}}
=== Other experiments ===
In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the amount of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their [[Low pressure hydrocephalus|eyes popped from the sockets]]; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; hung upside down until death; [[Crushed to death|crushed with heavy objects]]; [[Electrocution|electrocuted]]; [[Dehydration|dehydrated]] with hot fans;<ref>Dwight R. Rider, [http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf ''Japan's Biological and Chemical Weapons Programs; War Crimes and Atrocities: Who's Who, What's What and Where's Where – 1928–1945''], 14 November 2018 3rd Edition, p. 119, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101094710/http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf |date=2021-11-01 }}</ref> placed into [[centrifuge]]s and spun until death; injected with animal blood, notably with horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of [[X-ray]]s; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or [[Premature burial|buried alive]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Electrocuted, gassed, frozen, boiled alive|last=Silvester|first=Christopher|journal=Daily Telegraph|date=2006-04-29|access-date=2019-05-31|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="aiipowmia">{{cite web|url= http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html |title=The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731 |year=2001|publisher=Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-MIAs Archives |access-date=28 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017024440/http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html |archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to [[tetrodotoxin]] ([[Tetraodontidae|pufferfish]] or fugu venom), [[heroin]], [[Korean bindweed]], [[bactal]], and castor-oil seeds ([[ricin]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Croddy |first1=Eric |last2=Wirtz |first2=James |title=Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1851094905}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=X |first1=X |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow}}</ref> Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of [[Blood Loss|blood loss]] according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan}}</ref>
As stated above, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. The purpose of these tests was to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and to see how long one could survive with a very low to no water intake. It is known that victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at a periodic interval.
{{Blockquote|text="It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight."|source=Hal Gold, ''Japan's Infamous Unit 731'', (2019)}}
Unit 731 also performed [[Blood transfusion|transfusion]] experiments with different [[Blood type|blood types]]. Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote:
{{Blockquote|text=In my experience, when A type blood 100 cc was transfused to an O type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later the temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later the pulse was 106 per minute and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. Two hours later the temperature was 37.7 degrees, and three hours later the subject recovered. When AB type blood 120 cc was transfused to an O type subject, an hour later the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia in both legs. When AB type blood 100 cc was transfused to a B type subject, there seemed to be no side effect.|source=''Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century'' (2006) pp. 38–39}}
Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were [[mustard gas]], [[lewisite]], [[cyanic acid gas]], [[white phosphorus]], [[adamsite]], and [[Phosgene|phosgene gas]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=350}}</ref> A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a [[Emeritus|professor emeritus]] at a national university):
{{Blockquote|text=In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [{{convert|9<!--"3 metres square" is 3x3 = 9 square metres-->|m2|sqft|disp=out}}] and two meters [{{convert|2|m|ft|disp=out}}] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there.|source=Hal Gold, ''Japan's Infamous Unit 731'', p. 349 (2019)}}
Takeo Wano, a former medical worker in Unit 731, said that he saw a Western man, who was vertically cut into two pieces, pickled in a jar of [[formaldehyde]].<ref name="Kristor">{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html|title=Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity|first=Nicholas D. |last=Kristof|date=March 17, 1995|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref> Wano guessed that the man was Russian because there were many Russians living in the area at that time.<ref name="Kristor"/>
Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phone booth-like tanks were used as portable [[Gas chamber|gas chambers]] for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of [[Gas mask|gas masks]]; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all.
Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application." For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death.<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-11-24|title=Inside Japan's wartime factory of death|url=http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/|access-date=2019-05-31|website=[[Ben Hills]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063452/http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1994-12-17|title=Asia's Auschwitz|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html|access-date=2020-10-27|website=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|language=en|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030225648/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas ([[mustard gas]]) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, [[Respiratory system|respiratory organs]], and [[Gastrointestinal tract|digestive organs]] were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the [[Blister|blister fluid]] from one subject into another subject and analyses of [[Blood test|blood]] and [[Stool test|soil]] were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without [[decontamination]]. The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |last1=Emanuel |first1=Ezekiel |last2=Grady |first2=Christine |last3=Crouch |first3=Robert |last4=Lie |first4=Reidar |last5=Miller |first5=Franklin |title=The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US}}</ref> The following is an excerpt of one of these reports:
{{Blockquote|text=Number 376, dugout of the first area:
September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous, swollen. Epiphora. Hyperemic conjunctivae.
September 8, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen and scrotum weeping,
reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes.
September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucous nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria.
September 9, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities.
Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping.|source=''Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century'' (2006) p. 187}}
==== Frostbite testing ====
Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura<!--Yoshimura is the family name as per http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html, but this article should generally use Western order for Japanese people.--> conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the [[Frostbite|limb to freeze]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html|title=Self Determination by Imperial Japanese Doctors|website=www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063454/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck."<ref name="Kristor"/> Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc.
Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=LaFleur |first1=William |last2=Böhme |first2=Gernot |last3=Shimazono |first3=Susumu |title=Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research |date=2007 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=US}}</ref> Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Emanuel |first1=Ezekiel |last2=Grady |first2=Christine |last3=Crouch |first3=Robert |last4=Lie |first4=Reidar |last5=Miller |first5=Franklin |title=The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US|page=36}}</ref> Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the [[Journal Of Japanese Physiology]] in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yoshimura |first1=Hisato |last2=Iida |first2=Toshiyuki |title=Studies on the Reactivity of Skin Vessels to Extreme Cold |date=1950 |publisher=Japanese Journal Of Physiology |location=Japan}}</ref> Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the ''[[Mainichi Shimbun]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=(RARE) Yoshimura Hisato (excerpt of a telephone interview conducted by Mainichi Shimbun) |url=https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442 |website=Vimeo |access-date=2021-10-07 |archive-date=2021-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074506/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{user-generated inline|date=July 2022}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kei-ichi |first1=Tsuneishi |last2=Asano |first2=Tomizo |title=Kieta saikin-sen butai to jiketsu shita futari no igakusha |trans-title=The biological warfare unit and two physicians who committed suicide |language=ja |date=1982 |publisher=Shinchosha |location=Tokyo}}</ref> Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckart |first1=Wolfgang |title=Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century |date=2006 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=191}}</ref> This original data is seen in the attached figure.
[[File:Scan Of Yoshimura Hisato's Frostbite Research Data.png|thumb|Scan of {{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}'s [[frostbite]] research data]]
==== Syphilis ====
Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of [[syphilis]] between patients shows:
{{blockquote|Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Unit 731: Testimony|last=Gold|first=Hal|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=2004|page=157}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>}}
After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards.<ref name="gold-testimony"/>
Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a [[White émigré#In China|White Russian]] woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven."<ref name="gold-testimony"/> The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.
==== Rape and forced pregnancy ====
Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of [[vertical transmission]] (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or [[Abortion|aborted]].<ref name="gold-testimony"/>
While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of [[sex crimes]]. The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality:
{{blockquote|One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with [[gangrene]] set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with [[pus]] oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work.<ref name="gold-testimony"/>}}
== Prisoners and victims ==
In 2002, [[Changde]], China, site of the plague flea bombing, held an "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare," which estimated that the number of people slaughtered by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] germ warfare and other human experiments was around 580,000.<ref name="Barenblatt2004" />{{Rp|xii, 173}} The American historian [[Sheldon H. Harris]] states that over 200,000 died.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333|title=Routledge Handbook of War, Law and Technology|last1=Gow|first1=James|last2=Dijxhoorn|first2=Ernst|last3=Kerr|first3=Rachel|last4=Verdirame|first4=Guglielmo|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1351619974|language=en|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2021-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414162826/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">Sheldon Harris, ''Factories of Death'' (London, Routledge, 1994)</ref> In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese troops in [[Zhejiang]] during [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign]] were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, indicating serious issues with distribution.<ref name="dcr">David C. Rapoport. "Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse". In James M. Ludes, Henry Sokolski (eds.), ''Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are We Ready?'' Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29</ref> Harris also said plague-infected animals were released near the end of the war, and caused plague outbreaks that killed at least 30,000 people in the Harbin area from 1946 to 1948.<ref name="Kristof"/>
Some test subjects were selected to gather a wide cross-section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese [[Partisan (military)|partisans]], [[Political prisoners in Imperial Japan|political prisoners]], [[homeless]] and [[mentally disabled]] people, which included infants, men, the elderly and pregnant women, as well as those rounded up by the ''[[Kenpeitai]]'' military police for alleged "suspicious activities." Unit 731 staff included approximately 300 researchers, including doctors and [[Bacteriologist (Professional)|bacteriologists]].<ref name="Harris 2002 p. 334">{{cite book | last=Harris | first=S.H. | title=Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up | publisher=Routledge | year=2002 | isbn=978-0415932141 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84 | access-date=2017-07-08 | page=334 | archive-date=2022-06-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC | url-status=live }}</ref>
At least 3,000 men, women, and children<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|117}}<ref name="dcr"/>—from which at least 600 every year were provided by the ''Kenpeitai''<ref>Yuki Tanaka, ''Hidden Horrors'', Westviewpress, 1996, p. 138</ref>—were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation conducted at the [[Pingfang District|Pingfang]] camp alone, not including victims from other medical experimentation sites such as [[Unit 100]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html|title=[IAB8] Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities|work=osaka-cu.ac.jp|access-date=2016-10-02|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043000/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although 3,000 internal victims is the widely accepted figure in the literature, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu claims that there were at least 10,000 victims of internal experiments at the Unit, he himself [[Vivisection|vivisecting]] thousands.<ref name="vimeo1"/>
According to A. S. Wells, the majority of victims were [[Chinese people|Chinese]],{{r|nyt}} with a lesser percentage being [[White émigré|Russian]], [[Mongols|Mongolian]], and [[Koreans|Korean]]. They may also have included a small number of European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref name="Wells 2009 p. 42">{{cite book | last=Wells | first=A. S. | title=The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=The A to Z Guide Series | year=2009 | isbn=978-0810870260 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&pg=PA42 | access-date=2017-07-08 | page=42 | archive-date=2022-06-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607180427/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071217155553/http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htm The devil unit, Unit 731. ７３１部隊について], accessed 17 Dec 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror|title=In North Korea: Wonder & Terror|last=Buruma|first=Ian|date=4 June 2015|work=www.chinafile.com|publisher=The New York Review of Books|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=16 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116002323/http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror|url-status=live}}</ref> A member of the [[Yokusan Sonendan]] [[paramilitary]] political youth branch, who worked for Unit 731, stated that not only were Chinese, Russians, and Koreans present, but also Americans, British, and French people.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program |year=2019|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|location=United States|isbn=978-0804852197|pages=169–170|last2=Totani|first2=Yuma.}}</ref> Sheldon H. Harris documented that the victims were generally [[Political dissent|political dissidents]], communist sympathizers, ordinary criminals, impoverished civilians, and the mentally disabled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm|title=Japanese Medical Atrocities in World War II|website=www.vcn.bc.ca|access-date=2019-05-10|archive-date=2019-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618203650/http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Author [[Seiichi Morimura]] estimates that almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese (both military and civilian),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm|title=旧日本軍の７３１部隊（細菌部隊）人体実験に朝鮮人|work=korea-np.co.jp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813034434/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm|archive-date=2015-08-13}}</ref> while close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm|title=Часть 36 из 150 – Моримура Сэйити. Кухня дьявола|website=www.x-libri.ru|access-date=2016-10-02|archive-date=2014-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906073729/http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:A sketch of the prison cells, done by a member of Unit 731. The octagonal sketch represents the pressure chamber.jpg|thumb|A sketch of the prison cells drawn by a Unit 731 staff member. The [[octagon]] represents the [[pressure chamber]].]]
No one who entered Unit 731 came out alive. Prisoners were usually received into Unit 731 at night in motor vehicles painted black with a [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation hole]] but no windows.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=112}}</ref> The vehicle would pull up at the main gates and one of the drivers would go to the guardroom and report to the guard. That guard would then telephone to the "Special Team" in the inner-prison ([[Shirō Ishii|Shiro Ishii's]] brother was head of this Special Team).<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=306}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=X |first1=X |title=Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=366}}</ref> Then, the prisoners would be transported through a secret tunnel dug under the facade of the central building to the inner-prisons.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=117}}</ref> One of the prisons housed women and children (Building 8), while the other prison housed men (Building 7). Once at the inner-prison, technicians would take samples of the prisoners' blood and stool, test their [[Assessment of kidney function|kidney function]], and collect other physical data.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=311}}</ref> Once deemed healthy and fit for experimentation, prisoners lost their names and were given a three-digit number, which they retained until their death. Whenever prisoners died after the experiments they had been subjected to, a clerk of the 1st Division struck their numbers off an index card and took the deceased prisoner's [[manacles]] to be put on new arrivals to the prison.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=427}}</ref>
There is at least one recorded instance of "friendly" social interaction between prisoners and Unit 731 staff. Technician Naokata Ishibashi interacted with two female prisoners, a 21-year-old Chinese woman and a 19-year-old [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] woman. The two prisoners told Ishibashi that they had not seen their faces in a mirror since being captured and begged him to get one. Ishibashi snuck a mirror to them through a hole in the cell door.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=317}}</ref> Prisoners were repeatedly reused for experiments as long as they were healthy enough. The average life expectancy of a prisoner once they had entered the Unit was two months. Some prisoners were alive in the Unit for over 12 months, and many female prisoners gave birth in the Unit.
The prison cells had wooden floors and a [[squat toilet]] in each. There was space between the outer walls of the cells and the outer walls of the prison, enabling the guards to walk behind the cells. Each cell door had a small window in it. Chief of the Personnel Division of the [[Kwantung Army Headquarters]] Tamura Tadashi testified that, when he was shown the inner-prison, he looked into the cells and saw living people in chains, some moved around, others were lying on the bare floor and were in a very sick and helpless condition.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |pages=349, 450}}</ref> Former Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that the windows in these prison doors were so small that it was difficult to see in.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Yoshio Shinozuka – UNIT 731 |url=https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/ |website=Unit 731 Museum |access-date=2021-09-11 |archive-date=2021-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009092912/https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The inner-prison was a highly secured building complete with cast iron doors.<ref name="auto2"/> No one could enter without special permits and an ID pass with a photograph, and the entry/exit times were recorded.<ref name="auto1"/> The "special team" worked in these two inner-prison buildings. This team wore white overall suits, army hats, rubber boots, and pistols strapped to their sides.<ref name="auto2"/>
=== Escape attempt ===
Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. [[Corporal]] Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot."<ref>{{cite book |last1=X |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=374}}</ref>
[[Seiichi Morimura]] in his book ''The Devil's Feast'' went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Morimura |first1=Seiichi |title=Zu Binghe translation of Ogre's Cave: terrible inside story of the bacteriological warfare unit from Japan's Kwantung Army |date=1984 |publisher=Qunzhong Chubanshe |location=Beijing |pages=108–109}}</ref> One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side."<ref name="auto" />
Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a {{convert|3|m|ft|sp=us|spell=in|adj=mid|-high}} brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with [[Electric fence|electrified wire]] running around the perimeter of the complex.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Sheldon |title=Japanese Biomedical Experimentation During The World-War-II |journal=Military Medical Ethics |date=2002 |volume=2 |pages=463–506}}</ref>
=== Experiments on staff members ===
Members of Unit 731 were not immune from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with [[bubonic plague]] as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled:
{{Blockquote|text=Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many [[buboes|purple spots]] over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word.|source=''Criminal History of Unit 731 of the Japanese Military'', pp. 118–119 (1991)}}
Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>
== Known unit members ==
There are unit members who were known to be interned at the [[Fushun War Criminals Management Centre]] and [[Taiyuan War Criminals Management Centre]] after the war, who then went on to be repatriated to Japan and founded the [[Association of Returnees from China]] and testified about Unit 731 and the crimes perpetrated there.
Some members included:
* [[Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda]]
* [[Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni]]
* [[Yoshio Shinozuka]]
* [[Yasuji Kaneko]]
* {{interlanguage link|Tadayuki Furumi|ja|古海忠之}}
* [[Shigeru Fujita]]
* [[Ken Yuasa]]
In April 2018, the [[National Archives of Japan]] disclosed a nearly complete list of 3,607 members of Unit 731 to [[Katsuo Nishiyama]], a professor at [[Shiga University of Medical Science]]. Nishiyama reportedly intended to publish the list online to encourage further study into the unit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|title=Japan publishes list of members of Unit 731 imperial army branch|last=McCurry|first=Justin|date=2018-04-17|website=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2018-04-17|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417111333/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|url-status=live}}</ref>
Previously disclosed members included:
[[File:Shiro-ishii.jpg|thumb|[[Shirō Ishii]], commander of Unit 731]]
[[File:Ryōichi Naitō.png|thumb|{{interlanguage link|Ryōichi Naitō|ja|内藤良一}}]]
[[File:Yoshimura Hisato.jpg|thumb|{{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}]]
* [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant General]] [[Shirō Ishii]]
* [[Lieutenant colonel|Lieutenant Colonel]] {{interlanguage link|Ryoichi Naito|ja|内藤良一}}, founder of the [[pharmaceutical company]] [[Green Cross (Japan)|Green Cross]]
* Professor, [[Major general|Major General]] [[Masaji Kitano]], commander, 1942–1945<ref name="histpersp">{{cite journal|doi=10.1001/jama.1997.03550050074036|last1=Christopher W.|first1=George|last2=Cieslak|first2=Theodore J.|last3=Pavlin|first3=Julie A.|last4=Eitzen|first4=Edward M.|journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association|date=August 1997|volume=278|pages=412–417|title=Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective|issue=5|pmid=9244333}}</ref><ref name="shokan">{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=Richard |date=1992 |title=Shōkan: Hirohito's Samurai |publisher=Arms and Armour |isbn=978-1854091512 |url=https://archive.org/details/shokanhirohitoss00full }}</ref>{{rp|137}}
* [[Yoshio Shinozuka]]
* [[Yasuji Kaneko]]
* [[Kazuhisa Kanazawa]]<!--Western order-->, chief of the 1st Division of Branch 673 of Unit 731
* [[Ryoichiro Hotta]], member of the [[Hailar District|Hailar Branch]] of Unit 731
* [[Shigeo Ozeki]], civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* [[Kioyashi Mineoi]], civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* [[Masateru Saito]]<!--Western order-->, civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* Major General [[Hitoshi Kikuchi]], head of Research Division, 1942–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|133}}
* Lieutenant General [unknown first name] Yasazaka, doctor<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|241}}
* [[Yoshio Furuichi]], student at [[Sunyu|Sunyu Branch]] of Unit 731<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
Twelve members were formally tried and sentenced in the [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Name !! scope="col" | Military position !! scope="col" | Unit position<ref name="trialmaterials">{{cite book |publisher = Foreign Languages Publishing House |year = 1950 |title = Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons }}</ref>{{rp|5}} !! scope="col" | Unit !! scope="col" | Sentenced years in labor camp<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|534–535}}
|-
! scope="row" |Kiyoshi Shimizu
| [[Lieutenant colonel]]||Chief of General Division, 1939–1941, Head of Production Division, 1941–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|131}} || 731 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | [[Otozō Yamada]]
| [[General officer|General]]|| Direct controller, 1944–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|232}} || 731, 100 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Ryuji Kajitsuka
| [[Lieutenant general]] of the Medical Service ||Chief of the Medical Administration<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|131}} || 731 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Takaatsu Takahashi
| Lieutenant general of the Veterinary Service || Chief of the [[Veterinary medicine|Veterinary]] Service || 731 || 25 (died in prison in 1952)
|-
! scope="row" | Tomio Karasawa
| Major of the Medical Service || Chief of a section || 731 || 20 (committed suicide in prison in 1956)
|-
! scope="row" | Toshihide Nishi
| Lieutenant colonel of the Medical Service || Chief of a division || 731 || 18 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Masao Onoue
| [[Major]] of the Medical Service || Chief of a branch || 731 || 12 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Zensaku Hirazakura
| [[Lieutenant]]|| Officer || 100 || 10 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Kazuo Mitomo
| [[Senior sergeant]]|| Member || 731|| 15 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Norimitsu Kikuchi
| [[Corporal]]|| Probationer medical [[orderly]]|| Branch 643 || 2 (served full term)
|-
! scope="row" | Yuji Kurushima
| [none] || Laboratory orderly || Branch 162 || 3 (served full term)
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shunji Sato]]
| Major general of the Medical Service || Chief of the Medical Service<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|192}} || 731, 1644 || 20 (served 7)
|}
== Divisions ==
Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:
* Division 1: research on [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[anthrax]], [[typhoid]], and [[tuberculosis]] using live human subjects; for this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to four hundred people
* Division 2: research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of devices to spread germs and [[Parasitism|parasites]]
* Division 3: production of [[Shell (weapon)|shells]] containing biological agents; stationed in [[Harbin]]
* Division 4: bacteria mass-production and storage<ref>{{cite web|title=Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|access-date=November 8, 2015|archive-date=March 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Division 5: training of personnel
* Divisions 6–8: equipment, medical, and administrative units
== Facilities ==
{{Main|Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department}}
[[File:Main entrance of Harbin's Unit 731 Museum.jpg|thumb|The Harbin bioweapon facility is open to visitors]]
[[File:Harbin Gedenkplakette Einheit731.JPG|thumb|Information sign at the site today]]
Unit 731 had other units underneath it in the [[Chain of Command|chain of command]]; there were several other units under the auspice of [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department|Japan's biological weapons programs]]. Most or all Units had branch offices, which were also often referred to as "Units." The term Unit 731 can refer to the Harbin complex, or it can refer to the organization and its branches, sub-Units and their branches.
The Unit 731 complex covered {{convert|6|km2|sqmi|spell=in|sp=us}} and consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise [[flea]]s, six [[Cauldron|cauldrons]] to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately {{convert|30|kg|lb}} of [[Plague (disease)|bubonic plague bacteria]] could be produced in a few days.
Some of Unit 731's satellite (branch) facilities are still in use by various Chinese industrial companies. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a [https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/ museum].<ref>{{cite web|title=Harbin museum – Unit 731|url=https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/|access-date=2020-08-10|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023024127/https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Branches ===
Unit 731 had branches in [[Linkou County|Linkou]] (Branch 162), [[Mudanjiang]], [[Hailin]] (Branch 643), [[Sunwu County|Sunwu]] (Branch 673), [[Toan]], and [[Hailar District|Hailar]] (Branch 543).<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|60, 84, 124, 310}}
=== Tokyo ===
A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the [[Shinjuku, Tokyo|Shinjuku]] District of [[Tokyo]] during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after [[Surrender of Japan|Japan's surrender]] in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the [[Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)|Ministry of Health]] began to excavate the site.<ref>[[Associated Press]], "[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/ Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224023705/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/ |date=2018-12-24 }}", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 22 February 2011, p. 1.</ref>
While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 has been involved in biological warfare research, {{as of|2011|lc=y}} the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for [[Genetic testing|DNA samples]] to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081|title=Deafening silence|date=24 February 2011|page=48|access-date=16 March 2011|archive-date=3 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303063531/http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081|url-status=live}}</ref>
At Tokyo's [[Kyushu Imperial University]] in 1945, US [[Prisoner of war|POWs]] from a shot down [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] were subjected to fatal [[Medical experimentation on prisoners|medical experimentation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm |title=Mansell POW |access-date=2021-10-03 |archive-date=2021-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003225411/http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Surrender and immunity ==
Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the [[Pacific War]] since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly snubbed.
=== Destruction of evidence ===
[[File:A photograph of the Unit 731 square building taken during its destruction in 1945.jpg|thumb|The Unit 731 square building during its demolition in 1945]]
As the Second World War started to come to an end, all prisoners within the compound were killed to conceal evidence, and there were no documented survivors.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=4487829 | year=2014 | last1=Brody | first1=H. | last2=Leonard | first2=S. E. | last3=Nie | first3=J. B. | last4=Weindling | first4=P. | title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency | journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=220–230 | doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 | pmid=24534743 }}</ref> With the coming of the [[Red Army]] in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in [[Pingfang District|Pingfang]]. Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up|page=5|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Potassium cyanide]] vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured.
[[Skeleton crew|Skeleton crews]] of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.
=== American grant of immunity ===
Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel [[Murray Sanders]], who arrived in [[Yokohama]] via the American ship ''Sturgess'' in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded [[microbiologist]] and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was.<ref name="gold-testimony">{{cite book|title=Unit 731 Testimony|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|isbn=978-1462900824|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=157–158}}</ref> Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the [[Law of the Soviet Union|Soviet legal system]], so, the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Unit 731 Testimony|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-1462900824|page=96|edition=1st}}</ref> Sanders took this information to General [[Douglas MacArthur]], who was the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers|Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers]] and responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese [[Informant|informants]]:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Unit 731 Testimony|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-1462900824|page=97|edition=1st}}</ref> he secretly granted [[Immunity from prosecution|immunity]] to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America solely, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation.<ref name="Gold 2003 p109" /> American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail.<ref>[[Kyodo News]], "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html Occupation censored Unit 731 ex-members' mail: secret paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805092306/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html |date=2010-08-05 }}", ''[[Japan Times]]'', February 10, 2010, p. 3.</ref> The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons.<ref>BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm – Unit 731: Japan's biological force.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229164025/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm |date=2017-12-29 }}</ref>
The [[Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal]] heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir [[William Webb (judge)|William Webb]], for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental. Later in 1981, one of the last surviving members of the Tokyo Tribunal, Judge Röling, had expressed bitterness in not being made aware of the suppression of evidence of Unit 731 and wrote, "It is a bitter experience for me to be informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the court by the U.S. government."<ref>{{Cite web |title=The United States and the Japanese Mengele: Payoffs and Amnesty for Unit 731 |url=https://apjjf.org/-Christopher-Reed/2177/article.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus}}</ref>
While [[Nuremberg trials|German physicians were brought to trial]] and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the perpetrators.<ref name="experimentation220">{{Cite journal | pmc=4487829 | year=2014 | last1=Brody | first1=H. | last2=Leonard | first2=S. E. | last3=Nie | first3=J. B. | last4=Weindling | first4=P. | title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency | journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=220–230 | doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 | pmid=24534743 }}</ref> Critics argue that [[Anti-Japanese sentiment|racism]] led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities.<ref name="experimentation220"/> Whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in [[Yokohama]] in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment.<ref name="experimentation220"/>
=== Separate Soviet trials ===
Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons [[Unit 1644|Unit 1644]] in [[Nanjing]] and [[Unit 100|Unit 100]] in [[Changchun]] in the [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]]. Among those accused of [[war crime]]s, including germ warfare, was General [[Otozō Yamada]], [[commander-in-chief]] of the million-man [[Kwantung Army]] occupying Manchuria.
The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in [[Khabarovsk]] in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the [[Moscow]] foreign languages press, including an English-language edition.<ref>''Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons'' (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950). (French language: Documents relatifs au procès des anciens Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique / Japanese language: 細菌戦用兵器ノ準備及ビ使用ノ廉デ起訴サレタ元日本軍軍人ノ事件ニ関スル公判書類 / Chinese language: 前日本陸軍軍人因準備和使用細菌武器被控案審判材料)</ref> The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was [[Lev Smirnov]], who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a [[Siberia]]n [[Gulag|labor camp]]. The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda.<ref>Takashi Tsuchiya. "The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China". ''The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics'', pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.</ref> The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell).
In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information regarding their human experimentation. The accusations of both the US and the USSR were true,{{Citation needed|reason= wording implies USSR trials were only propaganda, current evidence indicates they were legitimate. Wording unclear.|date=January 2023}} and it is believed that the Japanese had also given information to the Soviets regarding their biological experimentation for judicial leniency.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Vanderbrook |first=Alan Jay |url=http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |title=Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two |date=2013 |type=MA thesis |publisher=University of Central Florida |access-date=2017-10-27 |archive-date=2018-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117093152/http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |url-status=live }}</ref> This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a [[Sverdlovsk anthrax leak|biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk]] using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.<ref name="Alibek">[[Ken Alibek]] and S. Handelman. ''[[Biohazard (book)|Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it]]''. 1999. Delta (2000) {{ISBN|0385334966}}.</ref>
=== Official silence during the American occupation of Japan ===
As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, [[Douglas MacArthur]], the [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces]], wrote to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in [[Intelligence analysis|intelligence channels]] and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence".<ref name="Gold 2003 p109" />
According to an investigation by [[The Guardian]], after the end of the war, under the pretense of vaccine development, former members of Unit 731 conducted human experiments on Japanese prisoners, babies and mental patients, with secret funding from the American Government.<ref>{{cite news |last=McGILL |first=PETER |date=Aug 21, 1983 |title=Postwar Japan: "US Backed Japan's Germ Tests on Mentally Sick" |page=6 |location=London, Greater London, England |url=https://theguardian.newspapers.com/article/122763034/postwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ/ |work=The Observer}}</ref> One graduate of [[Unit 1644]], Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. He performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with [[rickettsia]] and infected mentally-ill patients with [[typhus]].<ref>日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 126–134</ref> As the chief of the unit, [[Shiro Ishii]] was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the [[National Archives and Records Administration|US National Archives]] before they were shipped back to Japan.<ref>Human Lab Rats: Japanese Atrocities, the Last Secret of World War II (Penthouse, May 2000)</ref>
=== Post-occupation Japanese media coverage and debate ===
Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the [[American occupation of Japan]]. In 1952, human experiments carried out in [[Nagoya City]] [[Children's hospital|Pediatric Hospital]], which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731.<ref>日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 134–136；高杉晋吾『七三一部隊細菌戦の医師を追え』徳間書店、1982年、pp. 94–111; [http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html 保護施設収容者に対する人権擁護に関する件（決議）] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127043917/http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html |date=2016-01-27 }}</ref> Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to [[Sadamichi Hirasawa]] were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author [[Shūsaku Endō]] published the book ''[[The Sea and Poison]]'' about human experimentation in [[Fukuoka]], which is thought to have been based on a real incident.
The author [[Seiichi Morimura]] published ''{{interlanguage link|The Devil's Gluttony|ja|悪魔の飽食}}'' (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by ''The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel'' in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Textbook controversy and the production of public truth: Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges |last=Nozaki |first=Yoshiko |year=2000 |publisher=University of Wisconsin–Madison |pages=300, 381}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Keiichi Tsuneishi|title=『七三一部隊 生物兵器犯罪の真実』 講談社現代新書 |year=1995|isbn=4061492659|page=171|publisher=講談社 }}</ref>
Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human [[vivisection]] in China was given by [[Ken Yuasa]]. Since then, much more in depth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary ''[[Japanese Devils]]'' largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released.<ref>田辺敏雄 『検証 旧日本軍の「悪行」―歪められた歴史像を見直す』 自由社 {{ISBN|4915237362}}</ref>
=== Significance in postwar research on bio-warfare and medicine ===
Japanese biological warfare [[Military operation|operation]]s were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the BW producing nations of France'','' Hungary'','' Italy'','' Poland'','' and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars.<ref>A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 12</ref>
Despite the apparent success, Unit 731 lacked adequate scientific and engineering foundations to further maximize its effectiveness..<ref>A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 27</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf?ver=2017-08-07-142315-127|title=A Short History of Biological Warfare|page=15|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063447/https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf%3Fver%3D2017-08-07-142315-127|url-status=live}}</ref> Harris speculated that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of [[forbidden fruit]], believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=222|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], some scientists called for experimental data from Unit 731 to be publicly released to the international medical community because the data available on human-pathogen interactions could have helped epidemiologists with pandemic control.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Su |first1=Zhaohui |last2=McDonnell |first2=Dean |last3=Cheshmehzangi |first3=Ali |last4=Abbas |first4=Jaffar |last5=Li |first5=Xiaoshan |last6=Cai |first6=Yuyang |date=2021 |title=The promise and perils of Unit 731 data to advance COVID-19 research |journal=BMJ Global Health |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=e004772 |doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004772 |pmid=34016575 |pmc=8141376 }}</ref> The information has been withheld by both the US and Japanese government.
=== Official government response in Japan ===
{{See also|List of war apology statements issued by Japan}}
In 1983, the [[Japanese Ministry of Education]] asked Japanese historian [[Saburō Ienaga]] to remove a reference from one of his textbooks that stated Unit 731 conducted experiments on thousands of Chinese. The ministry alleged that no academic research supported the claim. In 1984, Japanese historian [[Tsuneishi Keiichi]] translated and published over 4,000 pages of U.S. documents on Japanese biological warfare. The ministry backed down after new studies were published in Japan and important evidence surfaced in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Researching Japanese War Crimes|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi Warcrimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group|date=2006|page=35|last=Drea|first=Edward|url=https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf}}</ref>
Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle.<ref>Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, ''The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus'' [http://www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173 "Japanese Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national Conflicts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724222632/http://japanfocus.org/-mark-selden/3173 |date=2012-07-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kathleen Woods Masalski |url=http://spice.stanford.edu/docs/134 |title=Examining the Japanese History Textbook Controversies |publisher=Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education |date=November 2001 |access-date=2012-07-30 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114164704/http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saburō Ienaga's ''New History of Japan'' included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The [[Supreme Court of Japan]] ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of [[freedom of speech]].<ref>''[[Asahi Shimbun]]'' editorial, August 30, 1997</ref>
In 1997, [[international lawyer]] [[Kōnen Tsuchiya]] filed a [[class action]] suit against the Japanese government, demanding [[Reparations (transitional justice)|reparations]] for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of [[Rikkyo University]]. All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by [[international treaties]], not national courts.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
In August 2002, the [[Tokyo District Court|Tokyo district court]] ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[Typhoid fever|typhoid]], in the cities of [[Quzhou]], [[Ningbo]], and [[Changde]]. He rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan|title=Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|date=2002-08-28|website=The Guardian|access-date=2018-10-02|archive-date=2018-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911152228/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan|url-status=live}}</ref>
In October 2003, a member of [[House of Representatives (Japan)|Japan's House of Representatives]] filed an inquiry. [[Junichiro Koizumi|Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi]] responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future.<ref>「[http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm 衆議院議員川田悦子君提出七三一部隊等の旧帝国陸軍防疫給水部に関する質問に対する答弁書] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120204524/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm |date=2013-01-20 }}」 October 10, 2003.</ref> In April 2018, the [[National Archives of Japan]] released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the [[Shiga University of Medical Science]].<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Japan Times]] |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/ |date=April 16, 2018 |title=Names of 3,607 members of Imperial Japanese Army's notorious Unit 731 released by national archives |access-date=April 17, 2018 |archive-date=April 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418105008/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|title=Unit 731: Japan discloses details of notorious chemical warfare division|date=April 17, 2018|website=the Guardian|access-date=September 24, 2021|archive-date=September 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104550/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Abroad ===
After World War II, the [[Office of Special Investigations (United States Department of Justice)|Office of Special Investigations]] created a watchlist of suspected [[Axis collaborators]] and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the [[Department of Justice (United States)|DOJ]] and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors:
# While most documents captured by the US in Europe were [[Microfilmer|microfilmed]] before being returned to their respective governments, the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] decided to not microfilm its vast collection of documents before returning them to the Japanese government.
# The Japanese government has also failed to grant the OSI meaningful access to these and related records after the war, while European countries, on the other hand, have been largely cooperative,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-10-27 |archive-date=2019-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528225700/https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the cumulative effect of which is that information pertaining to identifying these individuals is, in effect, impossible to recover.
== In popular culture ==
=== Print media ===
* ''[[The Narrow Road to the Deep North (novel)|The Narrow Road to the Deep North]]'', a [[Booker Prize]]-winning 2014 novel by Australian writer [[Richard Flanagan]], refers extensively to the atrocities committed by a doctor who served in Unit 731.
* ''{{interlanguage link|Forest Sea|pl|Leśne Morze}}'' ({{lang-pl|Leśne morze}}) (1960), a novel by a Polish writer and educator [[Igor Newerly]], was the first book published outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the unit.
* ''[[The Man Who Ended History: A Documentary]]'' (2011), a novella published in ''[[The Paper Menagerie]]'' book by American writer and Chinese translator [[Ken Liu]]: A scientific discovery allows a victim's descendant to go back in time to witness and learn the truth about the atrocities committed in the unit.
* ''[[Tricky Twenty-Two]]'', a novel in the [[Stephanie Plum]] series by [[Janet Evanovich]], features as its antagonist a deranged biology professor who is obsessed with Unit 731 and is attempting to recreate the unit's bubonic plague dispersals.
* ''[[The Solomon Curse]]'', a novel in the ''[[Fargo Adventures]]'' series by [[Clive Cussler]] and [[Russell Blake (author)|Russell Blake]], involves this unit in its plot, around secret human experimentation on the island of [[Guadalcanal]].
* ''[[The Grimnoire Series]]'', an alternative-history series of novels by [[Larry Correia]], has Unit 731 conducting brutal magical experiments on prisoners of the Japanese Imperium.
* "Setting Sun" story from ''[[Hellblazer]]'' #142 by [[DC Comics]], written by [[Warren Ellis]] and illustrated by [[Javier Pulido]], features a fictitious character who used to be a doctor in Unit 731 during the war and conducted experiments on humans.
* In the manga ''[[My Hero Academia]]'', a mad scientist who conducts experiments on humans to create a genetically modified race was first introduced as Shiga Maruta. Because of the association with the ''Maruta'' project, it caused a major controversy, especially in China, where [[Tencent]] and [[Bilibili]] removed the manga from their platforms.<ref name=scmp>{{cite web | url=https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference | title=Hit manga My Hero Academia removed in China over war crimes reference | date=February 4, 2020 | author=Ye, Josh | work=[[South China Morning Post]] | access-date=November 11, 2020 | archive-date=November 19, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104052/https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference | url-status=live }}</ref> Both ''[[Weekly Shonen Jump]]'' magazine and the author [[Kōhei Horikoshi]] issued individual apologizing statements on Twitter,<ref name=scmp/> and the character name was changed in subsequent publications.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305 | title=My Hero Academia Manga Updated With Villain's New Name | author=Loveridge, Lynzee | date=February 10, 2020 | website=[[Anime News Network]] | access-date=November 11, 2020 | archive-date=June 20, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620042726/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Crisis in the Ashes]]'', by [[William W. Johnstone]] features the grandson of Dr. Ishi who has samples of the bubonic plague that he is trying to use to stop the liberal dictator of the US from using to conduct [[ethnic cleansing]].
* ''[[Occupied City (novel)|Occupied City]]'' (2010), a novel by British author [[David Peace]] who lives in Japan, presents a mystery about a murder on 26 January 1948 in Tokyo. A murderer poisons bank employees by pretending to be a government official administering a [[dysentery]] vaccine. Gradually, through the testimonies of various people connected to the tragedy, it becomes clear that the poisoner has a shared history with Unit 731.
* ''The Collector – Unit 731'', a four-issue miniseries by [[Dark Horse Comics]], written by Rod Monteiro and co-written and illustrated by Will Conrad, features a fictitious character who is captured by the Kenpeitai in Tokyo and taken to the Unit 731 as a prisoner of war.
* ''The English Führer'' (2023) by [[Rory Clements]] involves the use of biological weapons developed by Unit 731.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The English Führer by Rory Clements – Historia Magazine |url=https://www.historiamag.com/the-english-fuhrer-by-rory-clements/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=www.historiamag.com}}</ref>
=== Films ===
There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.
* ''{{interlanguage link|Through Gobi and Khingan|ru|Через Гоби и Хинган}}'' (1981); Coproduction of USSR, Mongolia, Eastern Germany. Miniseries (two episodes).
* ''[[The Sea and Poison (film)|The Sea and Poison]]'' (1986), Japan, directed by [[Kei Kumai]]
* ''[[Men Behind the Sun]]'' (1988), China, directed by [[Tun Fei Mou]]
* ''{{interlanguage link|Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil|zh|黑太陽731續集之殺人工廠}}'' (1992), China, directed by [[Godfrey Ho]]
* ''Kizu (les fantômes de l'unité 731)'' (2004), France, directed by Serge Viallet
* ''731: Two Versions of Hell'' (2007), produced by [[James T. Hong]]; documentary about Unit 731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides<ref>{{cite web|url=https://alexanderstreet.com/|title=Alexander Street|website=Alexander Street|access-date=2021-09-24|archive-date=2021-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926025608/https://alexanderstreet.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Philosophy of a Knife]]'' (2008), Russia, directed by {{interlanguage link|Andrey Iskanov|ru|Исканов, Андрей Геннадьевич}}
* ''[[Dead Mine]]'' (2012), Indonesia, directed by Steven Sheil and based in a fictionalized version of Unit 731
* ''[[Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet]]'' (2016), South Korea, directed by [[Lee Joon-ik|Lee Junik]], depicts dead poet [[Yun Dong-ju|Yoon Dong-ju]]
* ''[[Wife of a Spy]]'' (2020), Japan, directed by [[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]] and won the [[Silver Lion|Silver Lion for Best Direction]] at the [[Venice Film Festival]] in 2020.
=== Music ===
* "The Breeding House" (1994), [[Bruce Dickinson]]. Segment of the CD-single ''[[Tears of the Dragon]]'', describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the Americans to the physicians of the Unit
* "Unit 731" (2009), American [[thrash metal]] band [[Slayer]]. Song on the album ''[[World Painted Blood]]'', describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731
* "Unit 731" (2011), Power electronic band Brandkommando
* "And You Will Beg for Our Secrets" (2016), from the [[Anaal Nathrakh]] album ''[[The Whole of the Law]]'', refers to Unit 731's activities and the US amnesty given in exchange for information resulting from the experiments carried out.
* "The New Eternity" (2018), from the [[Silent Planet]] album ''[[When the End Began]]'' refers to Unit 731's human experimentation and other crimes against humanity.
* "Maruta" (2009), South Korean metal band {{interlanguage link|Sad Legend|ko|새드 레전드}}.
* "Unit 731" (2021), single from German Deathstep producer Kroww.
=== Television ===
* ''Unit 731 – Did the Emperor Know?'' (1985) [[Television South]] documentary first broadcast on 13 August.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115|title=Collections Search|publisher=BFI – British Film Institute|website=collections-search.bfi.org.uk|access-date=2017-08-01|archive-date=2017-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801233508/http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode [[731 (The X-Files)|"731"]] (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their experiments on humans under control of a covert US government agency.
* ''[[ReGenesis]]'' episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of [[anthrax]] and [[glanders]] are traced to World War II Japan.
* ''[[Warehouse 13]]'' episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shirō Ishii's medal from Unit 731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.
* ''[[Concrete Revolutio]]''. The experimentation on superhumans by the Japanese and Americans is a parallel to Unit 731.
* ''731'' ({{zh|s=七三一}}) (2015). A five-episode [[China Central Television|CCTV]] documentary broadcast in 2015.
* ''The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments'' (2017). An [[NHK]] Documentary broadcast in 2017, including paper materials, recording tapes, and interviews to former members and doctors who have implemented experiments in Unit 731.
* In ''[[The Blacklist]]'', the episode "General Shiro" is a reference to [[Shirō Ishii]].
* Link to part of a [https://vimeo.com/622243442 recorded telephone interview] with {{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}.
* ''[[Kamen Rider Black Sun]]'': A 10 episode (2022) [[Amazon Prime Video]] reboot of the original [[Kamen Rider Black]] in Japan. The Kaijin experiments is similar to Unit 731. Dounami Michinosuke began the experiments in 1936. The title "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" is written on the document. It was also in 1936 that [[Nobusuke Kishi]] got the title of "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" in Manchuria, China.
=== Video games ===
* In ''[[Call of Duty: Black Ops III]]'', the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731's divisions, with the story playing on the idea of a ninth hidden one aptly named 'Division 9'.
* In the indie horror game ''Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion'', the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together."
== See also ==
{{portal|History|War|World War II|China|Japan}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[American cover-up of Japanese war crimes]]
* [[Battle of Changde]]
* [[Comfort women]]
* [[History of biological warfare]]
* [[History of chemical warfare]]
* [[Human subject research]]
* [[Kaimingjie germ weapon attack]]
* [[List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II]]
* [[Medical torture]]
* [[Nazi human experimentation]]
* [[Ōkunoshima]]
* [[Operation Bloodstone]]
* [[Project MKNAOMI]]
* [[Unethical human experimentation]]
* [[Unit 543]]
* [[War crime]]
* [[War crimes in Manchukuo]]
{{Div col end}}
== Explanatory notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Barenblatt, Daniel. ''A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation'', HarperCollins, 2004. {{ISBN|0060186259}}.
* Barnaby, Wendy. ''The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare'', Frog Ltd, 1999. {{ISBN|1883319854}}, {{ISBN|0756756987}}, {{ISBN|0826412580}}, {{ISBN|082641415X}}.
* Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. ''Japan at war: an oral history'', New York: New Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. {{ISBN|1565840143}}. Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731 and Tamura Yoshio.
* Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. ''The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea'', Indiana University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0253334721}}.
* Felton, Mark. ''The devil's doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War'', Pen & Sword, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1848844797}}
* Gold, Hal. ''Unit 731 Testimony'', Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. {{ISBN|4900737399}}.
* Grunden, Walter E., ''Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science'', University Press of Kansas, 2005. {{ISBN|0700613838}}.
* Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. ''Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World{{snd}}Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It'', Random House, 1999. {{ISBN|0375502319}}, {{ISBN|0385334966}}.
* Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. ''A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare'', Random House, 2002. {{ISBN|0812966538}}.
* Harris, Sheldon H. ''Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up'', Routledge, 1994. {{ISBN|0415091055}}, {{ISBN|0415932149}}.
* Lupis, Marco. "[http://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/virustre/fabbrica/fabbrica.html Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la 'fabbrica' dei batteri killer]", ''La Repubblica'', 14 aprile 2003,
* Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, [https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC ''Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare''], Macmillan, 2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.
* Moreno, Jonathan D. ''Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans'', Routledge, 2001. {{ISBN|0415928354}}.
* Nie, Jing Bao, et al. ''Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Wartime-Medical-Atrocities-Transformations/dp/0415682282/ excerpt and text search]
* Tsuneishi, Keiichi (November 24, 2005). [https://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.pdf "Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program"]. ''The Asia-Pacific Journal''. Volume 3, Issue 11. Article ID 2194.
* Williams, Peter and Wallace, David. ''Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II'', The Free Press, A Division of Macmillan, Inc., New York. 1989. {{ISBN|0029353017}}.
* Yang, Yan-Jun and Tam, Yue-Him. ''Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil, Auschwitz of the East'', Fonthill Media., UK. 2018. {{ISBN|978-1781556788}}.
== External links ==
{{Sister project links}}
* [https://www.archives.gov/iwg/ The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG)] – The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
* [http://www.unit731.org/ History of the Unit 731] Unit 731 information site.
* [https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ History of Japan's biological weapons program] – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150409024709/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/cbw/bw.htm History of United States' biological weapons program] – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
* ''Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria'', a World Justice documentary.
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024123028/http://www.aiipowmia.com/ |date=October 24, 2007 |title=Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East }} – AII POW-MIA images.
* [http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/demondoc.html ''Army Doctor''] – a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.
* [http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/thth/projects/thth_projects_2003_parkeun.htm ''Theodicy – Through the Case of "Unit 731"''] by Eun Park (2003).
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-08-15/us-paid-for-japanese-human-germ-warfare-data/2080618 "US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data"], Australian Broadcasting Corporation News Online.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.html ''Japan's sins of the past''] by Justin McCurry (2004), ''The Guardian''.
* [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.html "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731"] by Shane Green (2002), ''The Age''.
* [http://kalimao.blogspot.com/2009/12/war-crimes-never-forget.html "War Crimes: Never Forget"] – review of the book ''Unit 731'' by Peter Williams and David Wallace
* {{YouTube|Qfy5TMbueSM|''The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments''}}, a documentary by NHK (2017)
* [http://materiaislamica.com/index.php/The_Unknown_Muslim_Victims_of_Japanese_Unit_731_in_WWII_(1932%E2%80%941945) The Unknown Victims of Japanese Unit 731 in WWII (1932–1945) and Known Experiments]
* [https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/select-documents.pdf Select Documents on Japanese WarCrimes and Japanese Biological Warfare, 1934–2006]
* [http://czasopisma.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Prace-Polonistyczne/article/view/1066 Unit 731 in Polish literature]
* [https://tv.cctv.com/2015/09/01/VIDE1441071222552557.shtml ''731''] (2015), a documentary by [[China Central Television|CCTV]]
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[[Category:Biological warfare facilities]]
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[[Category:Imperial Japanese Army]]
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[[Category:Japanese human subject research]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Anti-Chinese violence in Asia]]
[[Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan]]
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[[Category:1935 establishments in China]]
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[[Category:Medical experimentation on prisoners]]
[[Category:Crimes against humanity]]
[[Category:War crimes in Manchukuo]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Heilongjiang]]
[[Category:Japanese biological weapons program]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{
== Formations ==
[[File:Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facility of Unit 731 関東軍防疫給水部本部731部隊（石井部隊）日軍第731部隊旧址 PB121201.JPG|thumb|Building of the Unit 731 bioweapon facility in [[Harbin]]]]
Japan started its biological weapons program in the 1930s, partly because the use of biological weapons were banned in interstate conflicts by the [[Geneva Protocol]] of 1925; they reasoned that the ban verified its effectiveness as a weapon.<ref name="Kristof"/> Japan's occupation of [[Manchuria]] began in 1931 after the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]].<ref name="montana1">{{cite web|url=https://www.montana.edu/historybug/yersiniaessays/shama.html |title=Japan – Insects, Disease, and History | Montana State University |publisher=Montana.edu |date= |access-date=2022-06-01}}</ref> Japan decided to build Unit 731 in Manchuria because the occupation not only gave the Japanese an advantage of separating the research station from their island, but also gave them access to as many Chinese individuals as they wanted for use as test subjects.<ref name="montana1"/> They viewed the Chinese as no-cost assets, and hoped this would give them a competitive advantage in biological warfare.<ref name="montana1"/> Not all test subjects were Chinese, with many other nationalities being included too.<ref name="Kristof"/>
In 1932, [[Surgeon General]] {{nihongo|[[Shirō Ishii]]|{{ruby-ja|石|<big>いし</big>}}{{ruby-ja|井|<big>い</big>}}{{ruby-ja|四|<big>し</big>}}{{ruby-ja|郎|<big>ろう</big>}}|Ishii Shirō}}, chief medical officer of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] and [[protégé]] of [[Ministry of War of Japan|Army Minister]] [[Sadao Araki]], was placed in command of the '''Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory''' ('''AEPRL'''). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit," for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs.
One of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel [[Chikahiko Koizumi]], who later served as [[Minister of Health, Labour, and Welfare|Japan's Health Minister]] from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret [[poison gas]] research committee in 1915, during [[World War I]], when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the successful German use of [[chlorine gas]] at the [[Second Battle of Ypres]], in which the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] suffered 5,000 deaths and 15,000 wounded as a result of the chemical attack.<ref>Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). ''Unit 731''. Grafton Books, p. 44. {{ISBN|0586208224}}</ref><ref>Van der Kloot 2004, p. 152.</ref>
=== Zhongma Fortress ===
Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the [[Zhongma Fortress]], a prison and experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=us}} south of [[Harbin]] on the [[South Manchuria Railway]]. The prisoners brought to Zhongma included common [[criminal]]s, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, as well as [[political prisoner]]s and people rounded up on trumped up charges by the [[Kempeitai]]. Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of [[rice]] or [[wheat]], [[meat]], [[Fish (food)|fish]], and occasionally even [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also [[vivisected]]. Others were deliberately infected with [[Plague (disease)|plague]] [[bacteria]] and other [[microbes]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Id.</ref>
A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately {{convert|24|km|mi|sp=us}} south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=29|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Unit 731 ===
[[File:A close up photo of the Unit 731 square building taken by the aviation and photography class of Unit 731 in 1940.jpg|thumb|Close-up photo of the Unit 731 main "square building" taken by Unit 731's aviation and photography class in 1940]]
In 1936, Emperor [[Hirohito]] issued a [[decree]] authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the [[Kwantung Army]] as the Epidemic Prevention Department.<ref>Daniel Barenblat, ''A plague upon humanity'', 2004, p. 37.</ref> It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in [[Changchun|Hsinking]]. From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" ({{ruby-ja|關|<big>くわん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|東|<big>とう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|軍|<big>ぐん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|防|<big>ばう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|疫|<big>えき</big>}}{{ruby-ja|給|<big>きふ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|水|<big>すゐ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|本|<big>ほん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}) or "Unit 731" ({{ruby-ja|滿|<big>まん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|洲|<big>しゆう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|第|<big>だい</big>}}{{ruby-ja|７|<big>なな</big>}}{{ruby-ja|３|<big>さん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|１|<big>いち</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|隊|<big>たい</big>}}) for short.<ref>Yuki Tanaka, ''Hidden Horrors'', 1996, p. 136.</ref>
His younger brother, [[Takahito, Prince Mikasa|Prince Mikasa]], toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China, and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans."<ref name="Kristof"/>
[[Hideki Tojo]], who later became [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] in 1941, was also shown films of the experiments, which he described as "unpleasant."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vanderbrook |first=Alan |date=2013 |title=Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 |via=STARS}}</ref>
=== Other units ===
{{Main|Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department}}
In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria [[Unit 100]]), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria [[Unit 516]]). After the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of China]] in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included [[Unit 1855]] in [[Beijing]], [[Unit Ei 1644]] in [[Nanjing]], [[Unit 8604]] in [[Guangzhou]], and later [[Unit 9420]] in [[Singapore]]. All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html|title=Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program – The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus|website=apjjf.org|access-date=2017-10-27|archive-date=2018-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104190943/http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing.<ref name="NHK">The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments (2017). NHK Documentary</ref>
== Experiments ==
A special project, codenamed ''Maruta'', used human beings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from the surrounding population and sometimes euphemistically referred to as {{nihongo|"logs"|{{ruby-ja|丸|<big>まる</big>}}{{ruby-ja|太|<big>た</big>}}|maruta}}, used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?" This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official [[Cover-up|cover story]] for the facility given to local authorities was that it was a [[lumber mill]]. According to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz," German for log.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cook |first1 = Haruko Taya |last2=Cook |first2 = Theodore F. |title = Japan at war: an oral history |edition=1st |year=1992 |publisher = New Press |location = New York |isbn=1565840143 |page=162 }}</ref> In a further parallel, the corpses of "sacrificed" subjects were disposed of by [[Cremation|incineration]].<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all |title = Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |newspaper = The New York Times |date = 17 March 1995 |access-date = April 10, 2017 |archive-date = January 20, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180120034658/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all |url-status = live |last1 = Kristof |first1 = Nicholas D. }}</ref> Researchers in Unit 731 also published some of their results in [[peer-reviewed journal]]s, writing as though the research had been [[Nonhuman primate experimentation|conducted on nonhuman primates]] called "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys."<ref name="Harris 2002 p. 83">{{cite book|last=Harris|first=S.H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84|title=Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=978-0415932141|page=63|access-date=2017-07-08|archive-date=2022-06-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to American historian [[Sheldon H. Harris]]:
<blockquote>The Togo Unit employed gruesome tactics to secure specimens of select body organs. If Ishii or one of his co-workers wished to do research on the human brain, then they would order the guards to find them a useful sample. A prisoner would be taken from his cell. Guards would hold him while another guard would smash the victim's head open with an ax. His brain would be extracted off to the pathologist, and then to the [[crematorium]] for the usual disposal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=28|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>
{{interlanguage link|Nakagawa Yonezo|ja|中川米造}}, [[professor emeritus]] at [[Osaka University]], studied at [[Kyoto University]] during the war. While he was there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the playfulness of the experimenters:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program |year=2019|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-0804852197|page=222|last2=Totani|first2=Yuma.}}</ref>
<blockquote>Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of [[Biological warfare|germ warfare]], or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: ‘What would happen if we did such and such?’ What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play."</blockquote>
Prisoners were injected with diseases, disguised as [[Vaccine|vaccinations]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/|title=Pure Evil: Wartime Japanese Doctor Had No Regard for Human Suffering|date=2014-05-28|website=Medical Bag|access-date=2017-03-28|language=en|archive-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329140410/http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/|url-status=live}}</ref> to study their effects. To study the effects of untreated [[venereal disease]]s, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with [[syphilis]] and [[gonorrhea]], then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to [[Prison rape|rape]] by guards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|title=Unit 731: Overview|work=mtholyoke.edu|access-date=2014-09-06|archive-date=2017-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Vivisection ===
Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to [[vivisection]], often performed without [[anesthesia]] and usually lethal.<ref>Nicholas D. Kristof ''New York Times'', March 17, 1995. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print "Unmasking Horror: A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317115032/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print |date=2011-03-17 }}</ref><ref name="dissect">{{cite news |title=Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed |author=Richard Lloyd Parry |newspaper=Times Online |date=February 25, 2007 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece |location=London |access-date=February 26, 2007 |archive-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523225449/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman.<ref name="vimeo1">{{cite web |title=(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage) |url=https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260 |website=(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage) |access-date=2021-10-07 |archive-date=2021-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074509/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed [[Minimally invasive procedure#Invasive procedures|invasive surgery]] on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/ |title=Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada |access-date=February 5, 2004 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/ |archive-date=November 19, 2006}}</ref>
[[File:Human Dissection Experiment Room at Harbin's 731 Museum.jpg|thumb|Human dissection experiment room]]
Prisoners had limbs [[amputated]] in order to study [[Blood Loss|blood loss]]. Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their [[esophagus]] reattached to the [[Gastrointestinal tract|intestines]]. Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others.<ref name="dissect"/> Imperial Japanese Army surgeon [[Ken Yuasa]] suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731,<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |title=Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |first=Nicholar D. |last=Kristof |date=17 March 1995 |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2 |access-date=20 February 2017 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107115922/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning/|title=Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning|first=Jun|last=Hongo|date=24 October 2007|via=Japan Times Online|access-date=16 May 2013|archive-date=1 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401172838/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning//|url-status=live}}</ref> Yuasa said that when he performed vivisections on captives, they were "all for practice rather than for research," and that such practises were "routine" among Japanese doctors stationed in China during the war.<ref name=":0" />
''[[The New York Times]]'' interviewed a former member of Unit 731. Insisting on anonymity, the former Japanese medical assistant recounted his first experience in vivisecting a live human being, who had been deliberately infected with the [[Plague (disease)|plague]], for the purpose of developing "plague bombs" for war. <blockquote>"The fellow knew that it was over for him, and so he didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down, but when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=1995-03-17 |title=Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref></blockquote>
Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Yanjun |title=Japan's Biological Warfare in China |date=2016 |publisher=Foreign Language Press |location=Beijing |page=13}}</ref>
=== Biological warfare ===
[[File:Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facility of Unit 731 関東軍防疫給水部本部731部隊（石井部隊）日軍第731部隊旧址 PB121178a ボイラー楝跡.JPG|thumb|Ruins of a boiler building at the Unit 731 [[bioweapon]]s facility]]
Unit 731 and its affiliated units ([[Unit 1644]] and [[Unit 100]], among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating [[biological weapon]]s in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. [[Plague (disease)|Plague]]-infected [[flea]]s, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal [[Ningbo]] and [[Changde]], [[Hunan|Hunan Province]], in 1940 and 1941.<ref name="ciadoc" /> These operations killed tens of thousands with [[bubonic plague]] epidemics. An expedition to [[Nanjing]] involved spreading [[typhoid]] and [[paratyphoid]] germs into the [[well]]s, [[marsh]]es, and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. [[Epidemic|Epidemics]] broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that [[paratyphoid fever]] was "the most effective" of the pathogens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|page=77|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Barenblatt2004">Barenblatt, Daniel. ''A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation'', HarperCollins, 2004. {{ISBN|0060186259}}.</ref>{{Rp|xii, 173}}
At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on [[Changde]] in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to [[cholera]].<ref name="histpersp" /> Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[smallpox]], [[botulism]], and other diseases.<ref>[https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ Biological Weapons Program-Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727172723/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ |date=2010-07-27 }} Federation of American Scientists</ref> This research led to the development of the [[defoliation bacilli bomb]] and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague.<ref>[http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm Review of the studies on Germ Warfare] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119074840/http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm |date=2012-11-19 }} Tien-wei Wu ''A Preliminary Review of Studies of Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States''</ref> Some of these bombs were designed with [[porcelain]] shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.
These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, [[reservoir]]s, wells, as well as other areas, with [[anthrax]]- and [[Bubonic plague|plague]]-carrier fleas, [[typhoid]], [[cholera]], or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims. [[Bubonic Plague|Plague]] fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting [[cholera]], [[anthrax]], and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barenblatt |first1=Daniel |title=A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation |date=2004 |publisher=Harper |location=New York|isbn=978-0060186258 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163 163–175] |edition=1 |url=https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163 }}</ref> [[Tularemia]] was also tested on Chinese civilians.<ref>[http://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv Video] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921143738/https://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv |date=2017-09-21 }} adapted from "Biological Warfare & Terrorism: The Military and Public Health Response", [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. Retrieved October 21, 2007</ref>
Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up|page=5|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|website=[[University of Michigan–Flint]]|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Guillemin|first=Jeanne|title=One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences |chapter=The 1925 Geneva Protocol: China's CBW Charges Against Japan at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal |date=2017|editor-last=Friedrich|editor-first=Bretislav|editor2-last=Hoffmann|editor2-first=Dieter|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|editor4-last=Schmaltz|editor4-first=Florian|editor5-last=Wolf|editor5-first=Martin|language=en|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=273–286|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_15|isbn=978-3319516646|doi-access=free}}</ref>
In December 1944, the Japanese Navy explored the possibility of attacking cities in California with biological weapons, known as [[Operation PX]] or Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan for the attack involved [[Aichi M6A|''Seiran'']] aircraft launched by [[I-400-class submarine|submarine aircraft carriers]] upon the West Coast of the United States—specifically, the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The planes would spread weaponized [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[typhus]], [[dengue fever]], and other pathogens in a biological terror attack upon the population. The submarine crews would infect themselves and run ashore in a suicide mission.<ref>Garrett, Benjamin C. and John Hart. ''Historical Dictionary of Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare'', page 159.</ref><ref>Geoghegan, John. ''Operation Storm: Japan's Top Secret Submarines and Its Plan to Change the Course of World War II'', pages 189–191.</ref><ref>Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony: Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program, pages 89–92</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kristoff |first=Nicholas D. |date=March 17, 1995 |title=Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=August 6, 2015 }}</ref> Planning for Operation PX was finalized on March 26, 1945, but shelved shortly thereafter due to the strong opposition of Chief of General Staff [[Yoshijirō Umezu]]. Umezu later explained his decision as such: "If bacteriological warfare is conducted, it will grow from the dimension of war between Japan and America to an endless battle of humanity against bacteria. Japan will earn the derision of the world."<ref>Felton, Mark. ''The Devil's Doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War'', Chapter 10</ref>
=== Weapons testing ===
Human targets were used to test [[grenade]]s positioned at various distances and in various positions. [[Flamethrower]]s were tested on people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hickey |first1=Doug |last2=Li |first2=Scarllet Sijia |last3=Morrison |first3=Ceila |last4=Schulz |first4=Richard |last5=Thiry |first5=Michelle |last6=Sorensen |first6=Kelly |date=April 2017 |title=Unit 731 and Moral Repair |doi=10.1136/medethics-2015-103177 |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=270–276|pmid=27003420 |s2cid=20475762 }}</ref> Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test [[Germ warfare|pathogen-releasing bombs]], [[chemical weapon]]s, shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as [[Bayonet|bayonets]] and knives.
{{Blockquote|To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks that were staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. It was surgery for most, autopsies for the rest.|Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria<ref>Monchinski, Tony (2008). ''Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom''. Volumen 3 de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. {{ISBN|1402084625}}</ref><ref>Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). ''Understanding Research''. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, p. 65. {{ISBN|0205471536}}</ref>}}
=== Other experiments ===
In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the amount of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their [[Low pressure hydrocephalus|eyes popped from the sockets]]; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; hung upside down until death; [[Crushed to death|crushed with heavy objects]]; [[Electrocution|electrocuted]]; [[Dehydration|dehydrated]] with hot fans;<ref>Dwight R. Rider, [http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf ''Japan's Biological and Chemical Weapons Programs; War Crimes and Atrocities: Who's Who, What's What and Where's Where – 1928–1945''], 14 November 2018 3rd Edition, p. 119, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101094710/http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf |date=2021-11-01 }}</ref> placed into [[centrifuge]]s and spun until death; injected with animal blood, notably with horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of [[X-ray]]s; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or [[Premature burial|buried alive]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Electrocuted, gassed, frozen, boiled alive|last=Silvester|first=Christopher|journal=Daily Telegraph|date=2006-04-29|access-date=2019-05-31|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="aiipowmia">{{cite web|url= http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html |title=The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731 |year=2001|publisher=Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-MIAs Archives |access-date=28 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017024440/http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html |archive-date=17 October 2007}}</ref> In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to [[tetrodotoxin]] ([[Tetraodontidae|pufferfish]] or fugu venom), [[heroin]], [[Korean bindweed]], [[bactal]], and castor-oil seeds ([[ricin]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Croddy |first1=Eric |last2=Wirtz |first2=James |title=Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons |date=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1851094905}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=X |first1=X |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow}}</ref> Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of [[Blood Loss|blood loss]] according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan}}</ref>
As stated above, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. The purpose of these tests was to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and to see how long one could survive with a very low to no water intake. It is known that victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at a periodic interval.
{{Blockquote|text="It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight."|source=Hal Gold, ''Japan's Infamous Unit 731'', (2019)}}
Unit 731 also performed [[Blood transfusion|transfusion]] experiments with different [[Blood type|blood types]]. Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote:
{{Blockquote|text=In my experience, when A type blood 100 cc was transfused to an O type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later the temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later the pulse was 106 per minute and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. Two hours later the temperature was 37.7 degrees, and three hours later the subject recovered. When AB type blood 120 cc was transfused to an O type subject, an hour later the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia in both legs. When AB type blood 100 cc was transfused to a B type subject, there seemed to be no side effect.|source=''Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century'' (2006) pp. 38–39}}
Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were [[mustard gas]], [[lewisite]], [[cyanic acid gas]], [[white phosphorus]], [[adamsite]], and [[Phosgene|phosgene gas]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=350}}</ref> A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a [[Emeritus|professor emeritus]] at a national university):
{{Blockquote|text=In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [{{convert|9<!--"3 metres square" is 3x3 = 9 square metres-->|m2|sqft|disp=out}}] and two meters [{{convert|2|m|ft|disp=out}}] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there.|source=Hal Gold, ''Japan's Infamous Unit 731'', p. 349 (2019)}}
Takeo Wano, a former medical worker in Unit 731, said that he saw a Western man, who was vertically cut into two pieces, pickled in a jar of [[formaldehyde]].<ref name="Kristor">{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html|title=Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity|first=Nicholas D. |last=Kristof|date=March 17, 1995|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref> Wano guessed that the man was Russian because there were many Russians living in the area at that time.<ref name="Kristor"/>
Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phone booth-like tanks were used as portable [[Gas chamber|gas chambers]] for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of [[Gas mask|gas masks]]; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all.
Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application." For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death.<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-11-24|title=Inside Japan's wartime factory of death|url=http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/|access-date=2019-05-31|website=[[Ben Hills]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063452/http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1994-12-17|title=Asia's Auschwitz|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html|access-date=2020-10-27|website=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|language=en|archive-date=2020-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030225648/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas ([[mustard gas]]) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, [[Trench warfare|trenches]], gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, [[Respiratory system|respiratory organs]], and [[Gastrointestinal tract|digestive organs]] were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the [[Blister|blister fluid]] from one subject into another subject and analyses of [[Blood test|blood]] and [[Stool test|soil]] were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without [[decontamination]]. The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |last1=Emanuel |first1=Ezekiel |last2=Grady |first2=Christine |last3=Crouch |first3=Robert |last4=Lie |first4=Reidar |last5=Miller |first5=Franklin |title=The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US}}</ref> The following is an excerpt of one of these reports:
{{Blockquote|text=Number 376, dugout of the first area:
September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous, swollen. Epiphora. Hyperemic conjunctivae.
September 8, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen and scrotum weeping,
reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes.
September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucous nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria.
September 9, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities.
Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping.|source=''Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century'' (2006) p. 187}}
==== Frostbite testing ====
Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura<!--Yoshimura is the family name as per http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html, but this article should generally use Western order for Japanese people.--> conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the [[Frostbite|limb to freeze]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html|title=Self Determination by Imperial Japanese Doctors|website=www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063454/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck."<ref name="Kristor"/> Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc.
Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=LaFleur |first1=William |last2=Böhme |first2=Gernot |last3=Shimazono |first3=Susumu |title=Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research |date=2007 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=US}}</ref> Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Emanuel |first1=Ezekiel |last2=Grady |first2=Christine |last3=Crouch |first3=Robert |last4=Lie |first4=Reidar |last5=Miller |first5=Franklin |title=The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US|page=36}}</ref> Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the [[Journal Of Japanese Physiology]] in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yoshimura |first1=Hisato |last2=Iida |first2=Toshiyuki |title=Studies on the Reactivity of Skin Vessels to Extreme Cold |date=1950 |publisher=Japanese Journal Of Physiology |location=Japan}}</ref> Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the ''[[Mainichi Shimbun]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=(RARE) Yoshimura Hisato (excerpt of a telephone interview conducted by Mainichi Shimbun) |url=https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442 |website=Vimeo |access-date=2021-10-07 |archive-date=2021-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074506/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{user-generated inline|date=July 2022}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kei-ichi |first1=Tsuneishi |last2=Asano |first2=Tomizo |title=Kieta saikin-sen butai to jiketsu shita futari no igakusha |trans-title=The biological warfare unit and two physicians who committed suicide |language=ja |date=1982 |publisher=Shinchosha |location=Tokyo}}</ref> Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eckart |first1=Wolfgang |title=Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century |date=2006 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |page=191}}</ref> This original data is seen in the attached figure.
[[File:Scan Of Yoshimura Hisato's Frostbite Research Data.png|thumb|Scan of {{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}'s [[frostbite]] research data]]
==== Syphilis ====
Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of [[syphilis]] between patients shows:
{{blockquote|Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Unit 731: Testimony|last=Gold|first=Hal|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=2004|page=157}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>}}
After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards.<ref name="gold-testimony"/>
Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a [[White émigré#In China|White Russian]] woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven."<ref name="gold-testimony"/> The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.
==== Rape and forced pregnancy ====
Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of [[vertical transmission]] (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or [[Abortion|aborted]].<ref name="gold-testimony"/>
While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of [[sex crimes]]. The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality:
{{blockquote|One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with [[gangrene]] set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with [[pus]] oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work.<ref name="gold-testimony"/>}}
== Prisoners and victims ==
In 2002, [[Changde]], China, site of the plague flea bombing, held an "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare," which estimated that the number of people slaughtered by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] germ warfare and other human experiments was around 580,000.<ref name="Barenblatt2004" />{{Rp|xii, 173}} The American historian [[Sheldon H. Harris]] states that over 200,000 died.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333|title=Routledge Handbook of War, Law and Technology|last1=Gow|first1=James|last2=Dijxhoorn|first2=Ernst|last3=Kerr|first3=Rachel|last4=Verdirame|first4=Guglielmo|date=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1351619974|language=en|access-date=2020-11-22|archive-date=2021-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414162826/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">Sheldon Harris, ''Factories of Death'' (London, Routledge, 1994)</ref> In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese troops in [[Zhejiang]] during [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign]] were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, indicating serious issues with distribution.<ref name="dcr">David C. Rapoport. "Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse". In James M. Ludes, Henry Sokolski (eds.), ''Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are We Ready?'' Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29</ref> Harris also said plague-infected animals were released near the end of the war, and caused plague outbreaks that killed at least 30,000 people in the Harbin area from 1946 to 1948.<ref name="Kristof"/>
Some test subjects were selected to gather a wide cross-section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese [[Partisan (military)|partisans]], [[Political prisoners in Imperial Japan|political prisoners]], [[homeless]] and [[mentally disabled]] people, which included infants, men, the elderly and pregnant women, as well as those rounded up by the ''[[Kenpeitai]]'' military police for alleged "suspicious activities." Unit 731 staff included approximately 300 researchers, including doctors and [[Bacteriologist (Professional)|bacteriologists]].<ref name="Harris 2002 p. 334">{{cite book | last=Harris | first=S.H. | title=Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up | publisher=Routledge | year=2002 | isbn=978-0415932141 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84 | access-date=2017-07-08 | page=334 | archive-date=2022-06-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC | url-status=live }}</ref>
At least 3,000 men, women, and children<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|117}}<ref name="dcr"/>—from which at least 600 every year were provided by the ''Kenpeitai''<ref>Yuki Tanaka, ''Hidden Horrors'', Westviewpress, 1996, p. 138</ref>—were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation conducted at the [[Pingfang District|Pingfang]] camp alone, not including victims from other medical experimentation sites such as [[Unit 100]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html|title=[IAB8] Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities|work=osaka-cu.ac.jp|access-date=2016-10-02|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043000/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Although 3,000 internal victims is the widely accepted figure in the literature, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu claims that there were at least 10,000 victims of internal experiments at the Unit, he himself [[Vivisection|vivisecting]] thousands.<ref name="vimeo1"/>
According to A. S. Wells, the majority of victims were [[Chinese people|Chinese]],{{r|nyt}} with a lesser percentage being [[White émigré|Russian]], [[Mongols|Mongolian]], and [[Koreans|Korean]]. They may also have included a small number of European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref name="Wells 2009 p. 42">{{cite book | last=Wells | first=A. S. | title=The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=The A to Z Guide Series | year=2009 | isbn=978-0810870260 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&pg=PA42 | access-date=2017-07-08 | page=42 | archive-date=2022-06-07 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607180427/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071217155553/http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htm The devil unit, Unit 731. ７３１部隊について], accessed 17 Dec 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror|title=In North Korea: Wonder & Terror|last=Buruma|first=Ian|date=4 June 2015|work=www.chinafile.com|publisher=The New York Review of Books|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=16 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116002323/http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror|url-status=live}}</ref> A member of the [[Yokusan Sonendan]] [[paramilitary]] political youth branch, who worked for Unit 731, stated that not only were Chinese, Russians, and Koreans present, but also Americans, British, and French people.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program |year=2019|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|location=United States|isbn=978-0804852197|pages=169–170|last2=Totani|first2=Yuma.}}</ref> Sheldon H. Harris documented that the victims were generally [[Political dissent|political dissidents]], communist sympathizers, ordinary criminals, impoverished civilians, and the mentally disabled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm|title=Japanese Medical Atrocities in World War II|website=www.vcn.bc.ca|access-date=2019-05-10|archive-date=2019-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618203650/http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Author [[Seiichi Morimura]] estimates that almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese (both military and civilian),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm|title=旧日本軍の７３１部隊（細菌部隊）人体実験に朝鮮人|work=korea-np.co.jp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813034434/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm|archive-date=2015-08-13}}</ref> while close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm|title=Часть 36 из 150 – Моримура Сэйити. Кухня дьявола|website=www.x-libri.ru|access-date=2016-10-02|archive-date=2014-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906073729/http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:A sketch of the prison cells, done by a member of Unit 731. The octagonal sketch represents the pressure chamber.jpg|thumb|A sketch of the prison cells drawn by a Unit 731 staff member. The [[octagon]] represents the [[pressure chamber]].]]
No one who entered Unit 731 came out alive. Prisoners were usually received into Unit 731 at night in motor vehicles painted black with a [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation hole]] but no windows.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=112}}</ref> The vehicle would pull up at the main gates and one of the drivers would go to the guardroom and report to the guard. That guard would then telephone to the "Special Team" in the inner-prison ([[Shirō Ishii|Shiro Ishii's]] brother was head of this Special Team).<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=306}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=X |first1=X |title=Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=366}}</ref> Then, the prisoners would be transported through a secret tunnel dug under the facade of the central building to the inner-prisons.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=117}}</ref> One of the prisons housed women and children (Building 8), while the other prison housed men (Building 7). Once at the inner-prison, technicians would take samples of the prisoners' blood and stool, test their [[Assessment of kidney function|kidney function]], and collect other physical data.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=311}}</ref> Once deemed healthy and fit for experimentation, prisoners lost their names and were given a three-digit number, which they retained until their death. Whenever prisoners died after the experiments they had been subjected to, a clerk of the 1st Division struck their numbers off an index card and took the deceased prisoner's [[manacles]] to be put on new arrivals to the prison.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=427}}</ref>
There is at least one recorded instance of "friendly" social interaction between prisoners and Unit 731 staff. Technician Naokata Ishibashi interacted with two female prisoners, a 21-year-old Chinese woman and a 19-year-old [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] woman. The two prisoners told Ishibashi that they had not seen their faces in a mirror since being captured and begged him to get one. Ishibashi snuck a mirror to them through a hole in the cell door.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Hal |title=Japan's Infamous Unit 731 |date=2019 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |location=Japan |page=317}}</ref> Prisoners were repeatedly reused for experiments as long as they were healthy enough. The average life expectancy of a prisoner once they had entered the Unit was two months. Some prisoners were alive in the Unit for over 12 months, and many female prisoners gave birth in the Unit.
The prison cells had wooden floors and a [[squat toilet]] in each. There was space between the outer walls of the cells and the outer walls of the prison, enabling the guards to walk behind the cells. Each cell door had a small window in it. Chief of the Personnel Division of the [[Kwantung Army Headquarters]] Tamura Tadashi testified that, when he was shown the inner-prison, he looked into the cells and saw living people in chains, some moved around, others were lying on the bare floor and were in a very sick and helpless condition.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |pages=349, 450}}</ref> Former Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that the windows in these prison doors were so small that it was difficult to see in.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Yoshio Shinozuka – UNIT 731 |url=https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/ |website=Unit 731 Museum |access-date=2021-09-11 |archive-date=2021-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009092912/https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The inner-prison was a highly secured building complete with cast iron doors.<ref name="auto2"/> No one could enter without special permits and an ID pass with a photograph, and the entry/exit times were recorded.<ref name="auto1"/> The "special team" worked in these two inner-prison buildings. This team wore white overall suits, army hats, rubber boots, and pistols strapped to their sides.<ref name="auto2"/>
=== Escape attempt ===
Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. [[Corporal]] Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot."<ref>{{cite book |last1=X |author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons |date=1950 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |location=Moscow |page=374}}</ref>
[[Seiichi Morimura]] in his book ''The Devil's Feast'' went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Morimura |first1=Seiichi |title=Zu Binghe translation of Ogre's Cave: terrible inside story of the bacteriological warfare unit from Japan's Kwantung Army |date=1984 |publisher=Qunzhong Chubanshe |location=Beijing |pages=108–109}}</ref> One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side."<ref name="auto" />
Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a {{convert|3|m|ft|sp=us|spell=in|adj=mid|-high}} brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with [[Electric fence|electrified wire]] running around the perimeter of the complex.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Sheldon |title=Japanese Biomedical Experimentation During The World-War-II |journal=Military Medical Ethics |date=2002 |volume=2 |pages=463–506}}</ref>
=== Experiments on staff members ===
Members of Unit 731 were not immune from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with [[bubonic plague]] as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled:
{{Blockquote|text=Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many [[buboes|purple spots]] over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word.|source=''Criminal History of Unit 731 of the Japanese Military'', pp. 118–119 (1991)}}
Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>
== Known unit members ==
There are unit members who were known to be interned at the [[Fushun War Criminals Management Centre]] and [[Taiyuan War Criminals Management Centre]] after the war, who then went on to be repatriated to Japan and founded the [[Association of Returnees from China]] and testified about Unit 731 and the crimes perpetrated there.
Some members included:
* [[Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda]]
* [[Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni]]
* [[Yoshio Shinozuka]]
* [[Yasuji Kaneko]]
* {{interlanguage link|Tadayuki Furumi|ja|古海忠之}}
* [[Shigeru Fujita]]
* [[Ken Yuasa]]
In April 2018, the [[National Archives of Japan]] disclosed a nearly complete list of 3,607 members of Unit 731 to [[Katsuo Nishiyama]], a professor at [[Shiga University of Medical Science]]. Nishiyama reportedly intended to publish the list online to encourage further study into the unit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|title=Japan publishes list of members of Unit 731 imperial army branch|last=McCurry|first=Justin|date=2018-04-17|website=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=2018-04-17|archive-date=2018-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417111333/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|url-status=live}}</ref>
Previously disclosed members included:
[[File:Shiro-ishii.jpg|thumb|[[Shirō Ishii]], commander of Unit 731]]
[[File:Ryōichi Naitō.png|thumb|{{interlanguage link|Ryōichi Naitō|ja|内藤良一}}]]
[[File:Yoshimura Hisato.jpg|thumb|{{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}]]
* [[Lieutenant general|Lieutenant General]] [[Shirō Ishii]]
* [[Lieutenant colonel|Lieutenant Colonel]] {{interlanguage link|Ryoichi Naito|ja|内藤良一}}, founder of the [[pharmaceutical company]] [[Green Cross (Japan)|Green Cross]]
* Professor, [[Major general|Major General]] [[Masaji Kitano]], commander, 1942–1945<ref name="histpersp">{{cite journal|doi=10.1001/jama.1997.03550050074036|last1=Christopher W.|first1=George|last2=Cieslak|first2=Theodore J.|last3=Pavlin|first3=Julie A.|last4=Eitzen|first4=Edward M.|journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association|date=August 1997|volume=278|pages=412–417|title=Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective|issue=5|pmid=9244333}}</ref><ref name="shokan">{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=Richard |date=1992 |title=Shōkan: Hirohito's Samurai |publisher=Arms and Armour |isbn=978-1854091512 |url=https://archive.org/details/shokanhirohitoss00full }}</ref>{{rp|137}}
* [[Yoshio Shinozuka]]
* [[Yasuji Kaneko]]
* [[Kazuhisa Kanazawa]]<!--Western order-->, chief of the 1st Division of Branch 673 of Unit 731
* [[Ryoichiro Hotta]], member of the [[Hailar District|Hailar Branch]] of Unit 731
* [[Shigeo Ozeki]], civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* [[Kioyashi Mineoi]], civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* [[Masateru Saito]]<!--Western order-->, civilian employee<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
* Major General [[Hitoshi Kikuchi]], head of Research Division, 1942–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|133}}
* Lieutenant General [unknown first name] Yasazaka, doctor<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|241}}
* [[Yoshio Furuichi]], student at [[Sunyu|Sunyu Branch]] of Unit 731<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|243}}
Twelve members were formally tried and sentenced in the [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Name !! scope="col" | Military position !! scope="col" | Unit position<ref name="trialmaterials">{{cite book |publisher = Foreign Languages Publishing House |year = 1950 |title = Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons }}</ref>{{rp|5}} !! scope="col" | Unit !! scope="col" | Sentenced years in labor camp<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|534–535}}
|-
! scope="row" |Kiyoshi Shimizu
| [[Lieutenant colonel]]||Chief of General Division, 1939–1941, Head of Production Division, 1941–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|131}} || 731 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | [[Otozō Yamada]]
| [[General officer|General]]|| Direct controller, 1944–1945<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|232}} || 731, 100 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Ryuji Kajitsuka
| [[Lieutenant general]] of the Medical Service ||Chief of the Medical Administration<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|131}} || 731 || 25 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Takaatsu Takahashi
| Lieutenant general of the Veterinary Service || Chief of the [[Veterinary medicine|Veterinary]] Service || 731 || 25 (died in prison in 1952)
|-
! scope="row" | Tomio Karasawa
| Major of the Medical Service || Chief of a section || 731 || 20 (committed suicide in prison in 1956)
|-
! scope="row" | Toshihide Nishi
| Lieutenant colonel of the Medical Service || Chief of a division || 731 || 18 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Masao Onoue
| [[Major]] of the Medical Service || Chief of a branch || 731 || 12 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Zensaku Hirazakura
| [[Lieutenant]]|| Officer || 100 || 10 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Kazuo Mitomo
| [[Senior sergeant]]|| Member || 731|| 15 (served 7)
|-
! scope="row" | Norimitsu Kikuchi
| [[Corporal]]|| Probationer medical [[orderly]]|| Branch 643 || 2 (served full term)
|-
! scope="row" | Yuji Kurushima
| [none] || Laboratory orderly || Branch 162 || 3 (served full term)
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shunji Sato]]
| Major general of the Medical Service || Chief of the Medical Service<ref name="shokan" />{{rp|192}} || 731, 1644 || 20 (served 7)
|}
== Divisions ==
Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:
* Division 1: research on [[bubonic plague]], [[cholera]], [[anthrax]], [[typhoid]], and [[tuberculosis]] using live human subjects; for this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to four hundred people
* Division 2: research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of devices to spread germs and [[Parasitism|parasites]]
* Division 3: production of [[Shell (weapon)|shells]] containing biological agents; stationed in [[Harbin]]
* Division 4: bacteria mass-production and storage<ref>{{cite web|title=Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century|url=https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|access-date=November 8, 2015|archive-date=March 8, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Division 5: training of personnel
* Divisions 6–8: equipment, medical, and administrative units
== Facilities ==
{{Main|Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department}}
[[File:Main entrance of Harbin's Unit 731 Museum.jpg|thumb|The Harbin bioweapon facility is open to visitors]]
[[File:Harbin Gedenkplakette Einheit731.JPG|thumb|Information sign at the site today]]
Unit 731 had other units underneath it in the [[Chain of Command|chain of command]]; there were several other units under the auspice of [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department|Japan's biological weapons programs]]. Most or all Units had branch offices, which were also often referred to as "Units." The term Unit 731 can refer to the Harbin complex, or it can refer to the organization and its branches, sub-Units and their branches.
The Unit 731 complex covered {{convert|6|km2|sqmi|spell=in|sp=us}} and consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise [[flea]]s, six [[Cauldron|cauldrons]] to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately {{convert|30|kg|lb}} of [[Plague (disease)|bubonic plague bacteria]] could be produced in a few days.
Some of Unit 731's satellite (branch) facilities are still in use by various Chinese industrial companies. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a [https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/ museum].<ref>{{cite web|title=Harbin museum – Unit 731|url=https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/|access-date=2020-08-10|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023024127/https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Branches ===
Unit 731 had branches in [[Linkou County|Linkou]] (Branch 162), [[Mudanjiang]], [[Hailin]] (Branch 643), [[Sunwu County|Sunwu]] (Branch 673), [[Toan]], and [[Hailar District|Hailar]] (Branch 543).<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|60, 84, 124, 310}}
=== Tokyo ===
A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the [[Shinjuku, Tokyo|Shinjuku]] District of [[Tokyo]] during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after [[Surrender of Japan|Japan's surrender]] in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the [[Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)|Ministry of Health]] began to excavate the site.<ref>[[Associated Press]], "[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/ Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224023705/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/ |date=2018-12-24 }}", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 22 February 2011, p. 1.</ref>
While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 has been involved in biological warfare research, {{as of|2011|lc=y}} the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for [[Genetic testing|DNA samples]] to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081|title=Deafening silence|date=24 February 2011|page=48|access-date=16 March 2011|archive-date=3 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303063531/http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081|url-status=live}}</ref>
At Tokyo's [[Kyushu Imperial University]] in 1945, US [[Prisoner of war|POWs]] from a shot down [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] were subjected to fatal [[Medical experimentation on prisoners|medical experimentation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm |title=Mansell POW |access-date=2021-10-03 |archive-date=2021-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003225411/http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Surrender and immunity ==
Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the [[Pacific War]] since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly snubbed.
=== Destruction of evidence ===
[[File:A photograph of the Unit 731 square building taken during its destruction in 1945.jpg|thumb|The Unit 731 square building during its demolition in 1945]]
As the Second World War started to come to an end, all prisoners within the compound were killed to conceal evidence, and there were no documented survivors.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=4487829 | year=2014 | last1=Brody | first1=H. | last2=Leonard | first2=S. E. | last3=Nie | first3=J. B. | last4=Weindling | first4=P. | title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency | journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=220–230 | doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 | pmid=24534743 }}</ref> With the coming of the [[Red Army]] in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in [[Pingfang District|Pingfang]]. Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up|page=5|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Potassium cyanide]] vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured.
[[Skeleton crew|Skeleton crews]] of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.
=== American grant of immunity ===
Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel [[Murray Sanders]], who arrived in [[Yokohama]] via the American ship ''Sturgess'' in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded [[microbiologist]] and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was.<ref name="gold-testimony">{{cite book|title=Unit 731 Testimony|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|isbn=978-1462900824|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=157–158}}</ref> Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the [[Law of the Soviet Union|Soviet legal system]], so, the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Unit 731 Testimony|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-1462900824|page=96|edition=1st}}</ref> Sanders took this information to General [[Douglas MacArthur]], who was the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers|Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers]] and responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese [[Informant|informants]]:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gold|first1=Hal|title=Unit 731 Testimony|date=2011|publisher=Tuttle Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-1462900824|page=97|edition=1st}}</ref> he secretly granted [[Immunity from prosecution|immunity]] to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America solely, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation.<ref name="Gold 2003 p109" /> American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail.<ref>[[Kyodo News]], "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html Occupation censored Unit 731 ex-members' mail: secret paper] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805092306/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html |date=2010-08-05 }}", ''[[Japan Times]]'', February 10, 2010, p. 3.</ref> The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons.<ref>BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm – Unit 731: Japan's biological force.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229164025/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm |date=2017-12-29 }}</ref>
The [[Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal]] heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir [[William Webb (judge)|William Webb]], for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental. Later in 1981, one of the last surviving members of the Tokyo Tribunal, Judge Röling, had expressed bitterness in not being made aware of the suppression of evidence of Unit 731 and wrote, "It is a bitter experience for me to be informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the court by the U.S. government."<ref>{{Cite web |title=The United States and the Japanese Mengele: Payoffs and Amnesty for Unit 731 |url=https://apjjf.org/-Christopher-Reed/2177/article.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus}}</ref>
While [[Nuremberg trials|German physicians were brought to trial]] and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the perpetrators.<ref name="experimentation220">{{Cite journal | pmc=4487829 | year=2014 | last1=Brody | first1=H. | last2=Leonard | first2=S. E. | last3=Nie | first3=J. B. | last4=Weindling | first4=P. | title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency | journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=220–230 | doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753 | pmid=24534743 }}</ref> Critics argue that [[Anti-Japanese sentiment|racism]] led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities.<ref name="experimentation220"/> Whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in [[Yokohama]] in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment.<ref name="experimentation220"/>
=== Separate Soviet trials ===
Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons [[Unit 1644|Unit 1644]] in [[Nanjing]] and [[Unit 100|Unit 100]] in [[Changchun]] in the [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]]. Among those accused of [[war crime]]s, including germ warfare, was General [[Otozō Yamada]], [[commander-in-chief]] of the million-man [[Kwantung Army]] occupying Manchuria.
The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in [[Khabarovsk]] in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the [[Moscow]] foreign languages press, including an English-language edition.<ref>''Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons'' (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950). (French language: Documents relatifs au procès des anciens Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique / Japanese language: 細菌戦用兵器ノ準備及ビ使用ノ廉デ起訴サレタ元日本軍軍人ノ事件ニ関スル公判書類 / Chinese language: 前日本陸軍軍人因準備和使用細菌武器被控案審判材料)</ref> The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was [[Lev Smirnov]], who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a [[Siberia]]n [[Gulag|labor camp]]. The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda.<ref>Takashi Tsuchiya. "The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China". ''The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics'', pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.</ref> The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell).
In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information regarding their human experimentation. The accusations of both the US and the USSR were true,{{Citation needed|reason= wording implies USSR trials were only propaganda, current evidence indicates they were legitimate. Wording unclear.|date=January 2023}} and it is believed that the Japanese had also given information to the Soviets regarding their biological experimentation for judicial leniency.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Vanderbrook |first=Alan Jay |url=http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |title=Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two |date=2013 |type=MA thesis |publisher=University of Central Florida |access-date=2017-10-27 |archive-date=2018-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117093152/http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd |url-status=live }}</ref> This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a [[Sverdlovsk anthrax leak|biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk]] using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.<ref name="Alibek">[[Ken Alibek]] and S. Handelman. ''[[Biohazard (book)|Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it]]''. 1999. Delta (2000) {{ISBN|0385334966}}.</ref>
=== Official silence during the American occupation of Japan ===
As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, [[Douglas MacArthur]], the [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces]], wrote to [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in [[Intelligence analysis|intelligence channels]] and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence".<ref name="Gold 2003 p109" />
According to an investigation by [[The Guardian]], after the end of the war, under the pretense of vaccine development, former members of Unit 731 conducted human experiments on Japanese prisoners, babies and mental patients, with secret funding from the American Government.<ref>{{cite news |last=McGILL |first=PETER |date=Aug 21, 1983 |title=Postwar Japan: "US Backed Japan's Germ Tests on Mentally Sick" |page=6 |location=London, Greater London, England |url=https://theguardian.newspapers.com/article/122763034/postwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ/ |work=The Observer}}</ref> One graduate of [[Unit 1644]], Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. He performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with [[rickettsia]] and infected mentally-ill patients with [[typhus]].<ref>日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 126–134</ref> As the chief of the unit, [[Shiro Ishii]] was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the [[National Archives and Records Administration|US National Archives]] before they were shipped back to Japan.<ref>Human Lab Rats: Japanese Atrocities, the Last Secret of World War II (Penthouse, May 2000)</ref>
=== Post-occupation Japanese media coverage and debate ===
Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the [[American occupation of Japan]]. In 1952, human experiments carried out in [[Nagoya City]] [[Children's hospital|Pediatric Hospital]], which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731.<ref>日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 134–136；高杉晋吾『七三一部隊細菌戦の医師を追え』徳間書店、1982年、pp. 94–111; [http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html 保護施設収容者に対する人権擁護に関する件（決議）] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127043917/http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html |date=2016-01-27 }}</ref> Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to [[Sadamichi Hirasawa]] were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author [[Shūsaku Endō]] published the book ''[[The Sea and Poison]]'' about human experimentation in [[Fukuoka]], which is thought to have been based on a real incident.
The author [[Seiichi Morimura]] published ''{{interlanguage link|The Devil's Gluttony|ja|悪魔の飽食}}'' (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by ''The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel'' in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Textbook controversy and the production of public truth: Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges |last=Nozaki |first=Yoshiko |year=2000 |publisher=University of Wisconsin–Madison |pages=300, 381}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Keiichi Tsuneishi|title=『七三一部隊 生物兵器犯罪の真実』 講談社現代新書 |year=1995|isbn=4061492659|page=171|publisher=講談社 }}</ref>
Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human [[vivisection]] in China was given by [[Ken Yuasa]]. Since then, much more in depth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary ''[[Japanese Devils]]'' largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released.<ref>田辺敏雄 『検証 旧日本軍の「悪行」―歪められた歴史像を見直す』 自由社 {{ISBN|4915237362}}</ref>
=== Significance in postwar research on bio-warfare and medicine ===
Japanese biological warfare [[Military operation|operation]]s were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the BW producing nations of France'','' Hungary'','' Italy'','' Poland'','' and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars.<ref>A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 12</ref>
Despite the apparent success, Unit 731 lacked adequate scientific and engineering foundations to further maximize its effectiveness..<ref>A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 27</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf?ver=2017-08-07-142315-127|title=A Short History of Biological Warfare|page=15|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2019-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063447/https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf%3Fver%3D2017-08-07-142315-127|url-status=live}}</ref> Harris speculated that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of [[forbidden fruit]], believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|title=Factories of Death|page=222|last=Harris|first=Sheldon|access-date=2019-05-31|archive-date=2021-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], some scientists called for experimental data from Unit 731 to be publicly released to the international medical community because the data available on human-pathogen interactions could have helped epidemiologists with pandemic control.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Su |first1=Zhaohui |last2=McDonnell |first2=Dean |last3=Cheshmehzangi |first3=Ali |last4=Abbas |first4=Jaffar |last5=Li |first5=Xiaoshan |last6=Cai |first6=Yuyang |date=2021 |title=The promise and perils of Unit 731 data to advance COVID-19 research |journal=BMJ Global Health |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=e004772 |doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004772 |pmid=34016575 |pmc=8141376 }}</ref> The information has been withheld by both the US and Japanese government.
=== Official government response in Japan ===
{{See also|List of war apology statements issued by Japan}}
In 1983, the [[Japanese Ministry of Education]] asked Japanese historian [[Saburō Ienaga]] to remove a reference from one of his textbooks that stated Unit 731 conducted experiments on thousands of Chinese. The ministry alleged that no academic research supported the claim. In 1984, Japanese historian [[Tsuneishi Keiichi]] translated and published over 4,000 pages of U.S. documents on Japanese biological warfare. The ministry backed down after new studies were published in Japan and important evidence surfaced in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Researching Japanese War Crimes|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi Warcrimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group|date=2006|page=35|last=Drea|first=Edward|url=https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf}}</ref>
Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle.<ref>Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, ''The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus'' [http://www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173 "Japanese Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national Conflicts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724222632/http://japanfocus.org/-mark-selden/3173 |date=2012-07-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kathleen Woods Masalski |url=http://spice.stanford.edu/docs/134 |title=Examining the Japanese History Textbook Controversies |publisher=Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education |date=November 2001 |access-date=2012-07-30 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114164704/http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Saburō Ienaga's ''New History of Japan'' included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The [[Supreme Court of Japan]] ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of [[freedom of speech]].<ref>''[[Asahi Shimbun]]'' editorial, August 30, 1997</ref>
In 1997, [[international lawyer]] [[Kōnen Tsuchiya]] filed a [[class action]] suit against the Japanese government, demanding [[Reparations (transitional justice)|reparations]] for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of [[Rikkyo University]]. All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by [[international treaties]], not national courts.{{citation needed|date=October 2018}}
In August 2002, the [[Tokyo District Court|Tokyo district court]] ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including [[Plague (disease)|plague]] and [[Typhoid fever|typhoid]], in the cities of [[Quzhou]], [[Ningbo]], and [[Changde]]. He rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan|title=Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|date=2002-08-28|website=The Guardian|access-date=2018-10-02|archive-date=2018-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911152228/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan|url-status=live}}</ref>
In October 2003, a member of [[House of Representatives (Japan)|Japan's House of Representatives]] filed an inquiry. [[Junichiro Koizumi|Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi]] responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future.<ref>「[http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm 衆議院議員川田悦子君提出七三一部隊等の旧帝国陸軍防疫給水部に関する質問に対する答弁書] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120204524/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm |date=2013-01-20 }}」 October 10, 2003.</ref> In April 2018, the [[National Archives of Japan]] released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the [[Shiga University of Medical Science]].<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Japan Times]] |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/ |date=April 16, 2018 |title=Names of 3,607 members of Imperial Japanese Army's notorious Unit 731 released by national archives |access-date=April 17, 2018 |archive-date=April 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418105008/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|title=Unit 731: Japan discloses details of notorious chemical warfare division|date=April 17, 2018|website=the Guardian|access-date=September 24, 2021|archive-date=September 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104550/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Abroad ===
After World War II, the [[Office of Special Investigations (United States Department of Justice)|Office of Special Investigations]] created a watchlist of suspected [[Axis collaborators]] and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the [[Department of Justice (United States)|DOJ]] and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors:
# While most documents captured by the US in Europe were [[Microfilmer|microfilmed]] before being returned to their respective governments, the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] decided to not microfilm its vast collection of documents before returning them to the Japanese government.
# The Japanese government has also failed to grant the OSI meaningful access to these and related records after the war, while European countries, on the other hand, have been largely cooperative,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-10-27 |archive-date=2019-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528225700/https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the cumulative effect of which is that information pertaining to identifying these individuals is, in effect, impossible to recover.
== In popular culture ==
=== Print media ===
* ''[[The Narrow Road to the Deep North (novel)|The Narrow Road to the Deep North]]'', a [[Booker Prize]]-winning 2014 novel by Australian writer [[Richard Flanagan]], refers extensively to the atrocities committed by a doctor who served in Unit 731.
* ''{{interlanguage link|Forest Sea|pl|Leśne Morze}}'' ({{lang-pl|Leśne morze}}) (1960), a novel by a Polish writer and educator [[Igor Newerly]], was the first book published outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the unit.
* ''[[The Man Who Ended History: A Documentary]]'' (2011), a novella published in ''[[The Paper Menagerie]]'' book by American writer and Chinese translator [[Ken Liu]]: A scientific discovery allows a victim's descendant to go back in time to witness and learn the truth about the atrocities committed in the unit.
* ''[[Tricky Twenty-Two]]'', a novel in the [[Stephanie Plum]] series by [[Janet Evanovich]], features as its antagonist a deranged biology professor who is obsessed with Unit 731 and is attempting to recreate the unit's bubonic plague dispersals.
* ''[[The Solomon Curse]]'', a novel in the ''[[Fargo Adventures]]'' series by [[Clive Cussler]] and [[Russell Blake (author)|Russell Blake]], involves this unit in its plot, around secret human experimentation on the island of [[Guadalcanal]].
* ''[[The Grimnoire Series]]'', an alternative-history series of novels by [[Larry Correia]], has Unit 731 conducting brutal magical experiments on prisoners of the Japanese Imperium.
* "Setting Sun" story from ''[[Hellblazer]]'' #142 by [[DC Comics]], written by [[Warren Ellis]] and illustrated by [[Javier Pulido]], features a fictitious character who used to be a doctor in Unit 731 during the war and conducted experiments on humans.
* In the manga ''[[My Hero Academia]]'', a mad scientist who conducts experiments on humans to create a genetically modified race was first introduced as Shiga Maruta. Because of the association with the ''Maruta'' project, it caused a major controversy, especially in China, where [[Tencent]] and [[Bilibili]] removed the manga from their platforms.<ref name=scmp>{{cite web | url=https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference | title=Hit manga My Hero Academia removed in China over war crimes reference | date=February 4, 2020 | author=Ye, Josh | work=[[South China Morning Post]] | access-date=November 11, 2020 | archive-date=November 19, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104052/https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference | url-status=live }}</ref> Both ''[[Weekly Shonen Jump]]'' magazine and the author [[Kōhei Horikoshi]] issued individual apologizing statements on Twitter,<ref name=scmp/> and the character name was changed in subsequent publications.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305 | title=My Hero Academia Manga Updated With Villain's New Name | author=Loveridge, Lynzee | date=February 10, 2020 | website=[[Anime News Network]] | access-date=November 11, 2020 | archive-date=June 20, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620042726/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Crisis in the Ashes]]'', by [[William W. Johnstone]] features the grandson of Dr. Ishi who has samples of the bubonic plague that he is trying to use to stop the liberal dictator of the US from using to conduct [[ethnic cleansing]].
* ''[[Occupied City (novel)|Occupied City]]'' (2010), a novel by British author [[David Peace]] who lives in Japan, presents a mystery about a murder on 26 January 1948 in Tokyo. A murderer poisons bank employees by pretending to be a government official administering a [[dysentery]] vaccine. Gradually, through the testimonies of various people connected to the tragedy, it becomes clear that the poisoner has a shared history with Unit 731.
* ''The Collector – Unit 731'', a four-issue miniseries by [[Dark Horse Comics]], written by Rod Monteiro and co-written and illustrated by Will Conrad, features a fictitious character who is captured by the Kenpeitai in Tokyo and taken to the Unit 731 as a prisoner of war.
* ''The English Führer'' (2023) by [[Rory Clements]] involves the use of biological weapons developed by Unit 731.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The English Führer by Rory Clements – Historia Magazine |url=https://www.historiamag.com/the-english-fuhrer-by-rory-clements/ |access-date=2023-02-05 |website=www.historiamag.com}}</ref>
=== Films ===
There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.
* ''{{interlanguage link|Through Gobi and Khingan|ru|Через Гоби и Хинган}}'' (1981); Coproduction of USSR, Mongolia, Eastern Germany. Miniseries (two episodes).
* ''[[The Sea and Poison (film)|The Sea and Poison]]'' (1986), Japan, directed by [[Kei Kumai]]
* ''[[Men Behind the Sun]]'' (1988), China, directed by [[Tun Fei Mou]]
* ''{{interlanguage link|Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil|zh|黑太陽731續集之殺人工廠}}'' (1992), China, directed by [[Godfrey Ho]]
* ''Kizu (les fantômes de l'unité 731)'' (2004), France, directed by Serge Viallet
* ''731: Two Versions of Hell'' (2007), produced by [[James T. Hong]]; documentary about Unit 731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides<ref>{{cite web|url=https://alexanderstreet.com/|title=Alexander Street|website=Alexander Street|access-date=2021-09-24|archive-date=2021-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926025608/https://alexanderstreet.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[Philosophy of a Knife]]'' (2008), Russia, directed by {{interlanguage link|Andrey Iskanov|ru|Исканов, Андрей Геннадьевич}}
* ''[[Dead Mine]]'' (2012), Indonesia, directed by Steven Sheil and based in a fictionalized version of Unit 731
* ''[[Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet]]'' (2016), South Korea, directed by [[Lee Joon-ik|Lee Junik]], depicts dead poet [[Yun Dong-ju|Yoon Dong-ju]]
* ''[[Wife of a Spy]]'' (2020), Japan, directed by [[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]] and won the [[Silver Lion|Silver Lion for Best Direction]] at the [[Venice Film Festival]] in 2020.
=== Music ===
* "The Breeding House" (1994), [[Bruce Dickinson]]. Segment of the CD-single ''[[Tears of the Dragon]]'', describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the Americans to the physicians of the Unit
* "Unit 731" (2009), American [[thrash metal]] band [[Slayer]]. Song on the album ''[[World Painted Blood]]'', describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731
* "Unit 731" (2011), Power electronic band Brandkommando
* "And You Will Beg for Our Secrets" (2016), from the [[Anaal Nathrakh]] album ''[[The Whole of the Law]]'', refers to Unit 731's activities and the US amnesty given in exchange for information resulting from the experiments carried out.
* "The New Eternity" (2018), from the [[Silent Planet]] album ''[[When the End Began]]'' refers to Unit 731's human experimentation and other crimes against humanity.
* "Maruta" (2009), South Korean metal band {{interlanguage link|Sad Legend|ko|새드 레전드}}.
* "Unit 731" (2021), single from German Deathstep producer Kroww.
=== Television ===
* ''Unit 731 – Did the Emperor Know?'' (1985) [[Television South]] documentary first broadcast on 13 August.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115|title=Collections Search|publisher=BFI – British Film Institute|website=collections-search.bfi.org.uk|access-date=2017-08-01|archive-date=2017-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801233508/http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode [[731 (The X-Files)|"731"]] (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their experiments on humans under control of a covert US government agency.
* ''[[ReGenesis]]'' episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of [[anthrax]] and [[glanders]] are traced to World War II Japan.
* ''[[Warehouse 13]]'' episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shirō Ishii's medal from Unit 731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.
* ''[[Concrete Revolutio]]''. The experimentation on superhumans by the Japanese and Americans is a parallel to Unit 731.
* ''731'' ({{zh|s=七三一}}) (2015). A five-episode [[China Central Television|CCTV]] documentary broadcast in 2015.
* ''The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments'' (2017). An [[NHK]] Documentary broadcast in 2017, including paper materials, recording tapes, and interviews to former members and doctors who have implemented experiments in Unit 731.
* In ''[[The Blacklist]]'', the episode "General Shiro" is a reference to [[Shirō Ishii]].
* Link to part of a [https://vimeo.com/622243442 recorded telephone interview] with {{interlanguage link|Yoshimura Hisato|ja|吉村寿人}}.
* ''[[Kamen Rider Black Sun]]'': A 10 episode (2022) [[Amazon Prime Video]] reboot of the original [[Kamen Rider Black]] in Japan. The Kaijin experiments is similar to Unit 731. Dounami Michinosuke began the experiments in 1936. The title "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" is written on the document. It was also in 1936 that [[Nobusuke Kishi]] got the title of "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" in Manchuria, China.
=== Video games ===
* In ''[[Call of Duty: Black Ops III]]'', the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731's divisions, with the story playing on the idea of a ninth hidden one aptly named 'Division 9'.
* In the indie horror game ''Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion'', the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together."
== See also ==
{{portal|History|War|World War II|China|Japan}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[American cover-up of Japanese war crimes]]
* [[Battle of Changde]]
* [[Comfort women]]
* [[History of biological warfare]]
* [[History of chemical warfare]]
* [[Human subject research]]
* [[Kaimingjie germ weapon attack]]
* [[List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II]]
* [[Medical torture]]
* [[Nazi human experimentation]]
* [[Ōkunoshima]]
* [[Operation Bloodstone]]
* [[Project MKNAOMI]]
* [[Unethical human experimentation]]
* [[Unit 543]]
* [[War crime]]
* [[War crimes in Manchukuo]]
{{Div col end}}
== Explanatory notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* Barenblatt, Daniel. ''A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation'', HarperCollins, 2004. {{ISBN|0060186259}}.
* Barnaby, Wendy. ''The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare'', Frog Ltd, 1999. {{ISBN|1883319854}}, {{ISBN|0756756987}}, {{ISBN|0826412580}}, {{ISBN|082641415X}}.
* Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. ''Japan at war: an oral history'', New York: New Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. {{ISBN|1565840143}}. Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731 and Tamura Yoshio.
* Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. ''The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea'', Indiana University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0253334721}}.
* Felton, Mark. ''The devil's doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War'', Pen & Sword, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1848844797}}
* Gold, Hal. ''Unit 731 Testimony'', Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. {{ISBN|4900737399}}.
* Grunden, Walter E., ''Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science'', University Press of Kansas, 2005. {{ISBN|0700613838}}.
* Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. ''Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World{{snd}}Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It'', Random House, 1999. {{ISBN|0375502319}}, {{ISBN|0385334966}}.
* Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. ''A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare'', Random House, 2002. {{ISBN|0812966538}}.
* Harris, Sheldon H. ''Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up'', Routledge, 1994. {{ISBN|0415091055}}, {{ISBN|0415932149}}.
* Lupis, Marco. "[http://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/virustre/fabbrica/fabbrica.html Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la 'fabbrica' dei batteri killer]", ''La Repubblica'', 14 aprile 2003,
* Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, [https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC ''Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare''], Macmillan, 2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.
* Moreno, Jonathan D. ''Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans'', Routledge, 2001. {{ISBN|0415928354}}.
* Nie, Jing Bao, et al. ''Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Wartime-Medical-Atrocities-Transformations/dp/0415682282/ excerpt and text search]
* Tsuneishi, Keiichi (November 24, 2005). [https://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.pdf "Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program"]. ''The Asia-Pacific Journal''. Volume 3, Issue 11. Article ID 2194.
* Williams, Peter and Wallace, David. ''Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II'', The Free Press, A Division of Macmillan, Inc., New York. 1989. {{ISBN|0029353017}}.
* Yang, Yan-Jun and Tam, Yue-Him. ''Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil, Auschwitz of the East'', Fonthill Media., UK. 2018. {{ISBN|978-1781556788}}.
== External links ==
{{Sister project links}}
* [https://www.archives.gov/iwg/ The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG)] – The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
* [http://www.unit731.org/ History of the Unit 731] Unit 731 information site.
* [https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/ History of Japan's biological weapons program] – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150409024709/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/cbw/bw.htm History of United States' biological weapons program] – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
* ''Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria'', a World Justice documentary.
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024123028/http://www.aiipowmia.com/ |date=October 24, 2007 |title=Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East }} – AII POW-MIA images.
* [http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/demondoc.html ''Army Doctor''] – a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.
* [http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/thth/projects/thth_projects_2003_parkeun.htm ''Theodicy – Through the Case of "Unit 731"''] by Eun Park (2003).
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-08-15/us-paid-for-japanese-human-germ-warfare-data/2080618 "US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data"], Australian Broadcasting Corporation News Online.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.html ''Japan's sins of the past''] by Justin McCurry (2004), ''The Guardian''.
* [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.html "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731"] by Shane Green (2002), ''The Age''.
* [http://kalimao.blogspot.com/2009/12/war-crimes-never-forget.html "War Crimes: Never Forget"] – review of the book ''Unit 731'' by Peter Williams and David Wallace
* {{YouTube|Qfy5TMbueSM|''The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments''}}, a documentary by NHK (2017)
* [http://materiaislamica.com/index.php/The_Unknown_Muslim_Victims_of_Japanese_Unit_731_in_WWII_(1932%E2%80%941945) The Unknown Victims of Japanese Unit 731 in WWII (1932–1945) and Known Experiments]
* [https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/select-documents.pdf Select Documents on Japanese WarCrimes and Japanese Biological Warfare, 1934–2006]
* [http://czasopisma.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Prace-Polonistyczne/article/view/1066 Unit 731 in Polish literature]
* [https://tv.cctv.com/2015/09/01/VIDE1441071222552557.shtml ''731''] (2015), a documentary by [[China Central Television|CCTV]]
{{IJA special research units}}
{{JapanEmpireNavbox}}
{{World War II}}
{{Bioterrorism}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Unit 731}}
[[Category:Biological warfare facilities]]
[[Category:World War II sites in China]]
[[Category:Second Sino-Japanese War crimes]]
[[Category:Imperial Japanese Army]]
[[Category:Kwantung Army]]
[[Category:Japanese human subject research]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan during World War II]]
[[Category:Anti-Chinese violence in Asia]]
[[Category:Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan]]
[[Category:Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan]]
[[Category:1935 establishments in China]]
[[Category:1945 disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:Medical experimentation on prisoners]]
[[Category:Crimes against humanity]]
[[Category:War crimes in Manchukuo]]
[[Category:Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Heilongjiang]]
[[Category:Japanese biological weapons program]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,33 +1,3 @@
-{{Short description|Japanese army unit infamous for war crimes and crimes against humanity}}
-{{Infobox civilian attack
-|image = Unit_731_-_Complex.jpg
-|image_upright = 1.1
-|alt =
-|caption = The Unit 731 complex. Two prisons are hidden in the center of the main building.
-|location = Japan occupied Pingfang, [[Harbin]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Manchukuo]] (now [[China]])
-|target =
-|coordinates = {{Coord|45|36|30|N|126|37|55|E|region:CN-HL_type:landmark|display=inline}}
-|date = 1936–1945
-|time =
-|timezone =
-|type = {{ubl|[[Human subject research|Human experimentation]]|[[Biological warfare]]|[[Chemical warfare]]}}
-|fatalities = Estimated 3,000<ref name="Kristof">{{cite news |last = Kristof |first = Nicholas D. |date = 1995-03-17 |title = Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |newspaper = The New York Times |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190714031133/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |url-status = live }}</ref> to 300,000<ref>{{cite news |last = Watts |first = Jonathan |date = 2002-08-28 |title = Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |newspaper = The Guardian |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-08-06 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190806103833/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |url-status = live }}</ref>
-* 400,000 or higher from biological warfare
-* Over 3,000 from inside experiments from each unit (not including branches, 1940–1945 only)<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|20}}
-* At least 10,000 prisoners died<ref name="histpersp" />
-* No documented survivors
-|perps = {{ubl|[[Surgeon General]] [[Shirō Ishii]]|[[Lieutenant General|Lt. Gen.]] [[Masaji Kitano]]|[[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]]}}
-|weapons = {{ubl|Biological weapons|Chemical weapons|Explosives}}
-}}
-
-{{Shōwa Statism|Atrocities}}{{nihongo|'''Unit 731'''|{{ruby-ja|７|<big>なな</big>}}{{ruby-ja|３|<big>さん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|１|<big>いち</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|隊|<big>たい</big>}}|Nana-san-ichi Butai|lead=yes}},{{NoteTag|The Japanese word ''[[:wikt:butai|butai]]'' is variously translated with military terms such as "unit", "detachment", "regiment", or "company".}} short for '''Manshu Detachment 731''' and also known as the '''Kamo Detachment'''<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|198}} and the '''Ishii Unit''',<ref name="ciadoc">{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |title = CIA Special Collection ISHII, SHIRO_0005 |access-date = 2019-09-18 |archive-date = 2020-08-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200809175401/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> was a covert [[Biological warfare|biological]] and [[chemical warfare]] [[research and development]] unit of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] that engaged in [[unethical human experimentation|lethal human experimentation]] and [[Biological warfare|biological weapons]] manufacturing during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945) and [[World War II]]. It killed an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 people. It was based in the [[Pingfang]] district of [[Harbin]], the largest city in the Japanese [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]] (now [[Northeast China]], formerly named [[Manchuria]]) and had active branch offices throughout China and Southeast Asia.
-
-Unit 731 was responsible for some of the most notorious [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes committed by the Japanese armed forces]]. It routinely conducted tests on people who were dehumanized and internally referred to as "logs." Experiments included disease injections, controlled dehydration, biological weapons testing, [[Decompression (altitude)|hypobaric]] [[pressure chamber]] testing, [[vivisection]], [[organ procurement|organ harvesting]], [[amputation]], and standard weapons testing. Victims included not only kidnapped men, women (including pregnant women) and children but also babies born from the systemic [[rape]] perpetrated by the staff inside the compound. The victims also came from different nationalities, with the majority being Chinese and a significant minority being [[Russians|Russian]]. Additionally, Unit 731 produced biological weapons that were used in areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces, which included Chinese cities and towns, water sources, and fields. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people, and none of the inmates survived. In the final moments of the Second World War, all prisoners were killed to conceal evidence.
-
-It was officially known as the {{nihongo|'''Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army'''|{{ruby-ja|關|<big>くわん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|東|<big>とう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|軍|<big>ぐん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|防|<big>ぼう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|疫|<big>えき</big>}}{{ruby-ja|給|<big>きふ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|水|<big>すゐ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|本|<big>ほん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}|Kuwantōgun Bōeki Kyūsuwibu Honbu}}. Originally set up by the ''[[Kenpeitai]]'' [[military police]] of the [[Empire of Japan]], Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of the war]] by General [[Shirō Ishii]], a [[combat medic]] officer in the [[Kwantung Army]]. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement for the [[Zhongma Fortress]], and Ishii and his team used it to expand their capabilities. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and the other units of the [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]] operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities.
-
-While Unit 731 researchers arrested by [[Red Army|Soviet forces]] were tried at the December 1949 [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]], those captured by the [[Military history of the United States during World War II|United States]] were secretly given [[Immunity from prosecution (international law)|immunity]] in exchange for the data gathered during their human experiments.<ref name="Gold 2003 p109">Hal Gold, ''Unit 731 Testimony'', 2003, p. 109.</ref> The United States helped cover up the human experimentations and handed stipends to the perpetrators.<ref name="Kristof"/> The Americans co-opted the researchers' [[Biological warfare|bioweapons]] information and experience for use in their own [[United States biological weapons program|biological warfare program]], much like what had been done with [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] researchers in [[Operation Paperclip]].<ref>Harris, S.H. (2002) ''Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up'', revised ed. Routledge, New York.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brody|first1=Howard|last2=Leonard|first2=Sarah E.|last3=Nie|first3=Jing-Bao|last4=Weindling|first4=Paul|title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency|journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics|year=2014|volume=23|issue=2|pages=220–230|doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753|issn=0963-1801|pmc=4487829|pmid=24534743}}</ref>
-
-On 28 August 2002, [[Tokyo District Court]] ruled that Japan had committed biological warfare in China and consequently had slaughtered many residents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Ruling recognizes Unit 731 used germ warfare in China |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/08/28/national/ruling-recognizes-unit-731-used-germ-warfare-in-china/ |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Japan Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
+{{
== Formations ==
' |
New page size (new_size) | 122836 |
Old page size (old_size) | 131171 |
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '{{Short description|Japanese army unit infamous for war crimes and crimes against humanity}}',
1 => '{{Infobox civilian attack',
2 => '|image = Unit_731_-_Complex.jpg',
3 => '|image_upright = 1.1',
4 => '|alt =',
5 => '|caption = The Unit 731 complex. Two prisons are hidden in the center of the main building.',
6 => '|location = Japan occupied Pingfang, [[Harbin]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Manchukuo]] (now [[China]])',
7 => '|target =',
8 => '|coordinates = {{Coord|45|36|30|N|126|37|55|E|region:CN-HL_type:landmark|display=inline}}',
9 => '|date = 1936–1945',
10 => '|time =',
11 => '|timezone =',
12 => '|type = {{ubl|[[Human subject research|Human experimentation]]|[[Biological warfare]]|[[Chemical warfare]]}}',
13 => '|fatalities = Estimated 3,000<ref name="Kristof">{{cite news |last = Kristof |first = Nicholas D. |date = 1995-03-17 |title = Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |newspaper = The New York Times |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190714031133/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html |url-status = live }}</ref> to 300,000<ref>{{cite news |last = Watts |first = Jonathan |date = 2002-08-28 |title = Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |newspaper = The Guardian |access-date = 2019-07-14 |archive-date = 2019-08-06 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190806103833/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |url-status = live }}</ref>',
14 => '* 400,000 or higher from biological warfare',
15 => '* Over 3,000 from inside experiments from each unit (not including branches, 1940–1945 only)<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|20}}',
16 => '* At least 10,000 prisoners died<ref name="histpersp" />',
17 => '* No documented survivors',
18 => '|perps = {{ubl|[[Surgeon General]] [[Shirō Ishii]]|[[Lieutenant General|Lt. Gen.]] [[Masaji Kitano]]|[[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]]}}',
19 => '|weapons = {{ubl|Biological weapons|Chemical weapons|Explosives}}',
20 => '}}',
21 => '',
22 => '{{Shōwa Statism|Atrocities}}{{nihongo|'''Unit 731'''|{{ruby-ja|７|<big>なな</big>}}{{ruby-ja|３|<big>さん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|１|<big>いち</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|隊|<big>たい</big>}}|Nana-san-ichi Butai|lead=yes}},{{NoteTag|The Japanese word ''[[:wikt:butai|butai]]'' is variously translated with military terms such as "unit", "detachment", "regiment", or "company".}} short for '''Manshu Detachment 731''' and also known as the '''Kamo Detachment'''<ref name="trialmaterials" />{{rp|198}} and the '''Ishii Unit''',<ref name="ciadoc">{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |title = CIA Special Collection ISHII, SHIRO_0005 |access-date = 2019-09-18 |archive-date = 2020-08-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200809175401/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII%2C%20SHIRO_0005.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> was a covert [[Biological warfare|biological]] and [[chemical warfare]] [[research and development]] unit of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] that engaged in [[unethical human experimentation|lethal human experimentation]] and [[Biological warfare|biological weapons]] manufacturing during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945) and [[World War II]]. It killed an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 people. It was based in the [[Pingfang]] district of [[Harbin]], the largest city in the Japanese [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]] (now [[Northeast China]], formerly named [[Manchuria]]) and had active branch offices throughout China and Southeast Asia.',
23 => '',
24 => 'Unit 731 was responsible for some of the most notorious [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes committed by the Japanese armed forces]]. It routinely conducted tests on people who were dehumanized and internally referred to as "logs." Experiments included disease injections, controlled dehydration, biological weapons testing, [[Decompression (altitude)|hypobaric]] [[pressure chamber]] testing, [[vivisection]], [[organ procurement|organ harvesting]], [[amputation]], and standard weapons testing. Victims included not only kidnapped men, women (including pregnant women) and children but also babies born from the systemic [[rape]] perpetrated by the staff inside the compound. The victims also came from different nationalities, with the majority being Chinese and a significant minority being [[Russians|Russian]]. Additionally, Unit 731 produced biological weapons that were used in areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces, which included Chinese cities and towns, water sources, and fields. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people, and none of the inmates survived. In the final moments of the Second World War, all prisoners were killed to conceal evidence.',
25 => '',
26 => 'It was officially known as the {{nihongo|'''Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army'''|{{ruby-ja|關|<big>くわん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|東|<big>とう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|軍|<big>ぐん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|防|<big>ぼう</big>}}{{ruby-ja|疫|<big>えき</big>}}{{ruby-ja|給|<big>きふ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|水|<big>すゐ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}{{ruby-ja|本|<big>ほん</big>}}{{ruby-ja|部|<big>ぶ</big>}}|Kuwantōgun Bōeki Kyūsuwibu Honbu}}. Originally set up by the ''[[Kenpeitai]]'' [[military police]] of the [[Empire of Japan]], Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of the war]] by General [[Shirō Ishii]], a [[combat medic]] officer in the [[Kwantung Army]]. The facility itself was built in 1935 as a replacement for the [[Zhongma Fortress]], and Ishii and his team used it to expand their capabilities. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and the other units of the [[Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department]] operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities.',
27 => '',
28 => 'While Unit 731 researchers arrested by [[Red Army|Soviet forces]] were tried at the December 1949 [[Khabarovsk war crimes trials]], those captured by the [[Military history of the United States during World War II|United States]] were secretly given [[Immunity from prosecution (international law)|immunity]] in exchange for the data gathered during their human experiments.<ref name="Gold 2003 p109">Hal Gold, ''Unit 731 Testimony'', 2003, p. 109.</ref> The United States helped cover up the human experimentations and handed stipends to the perpetrators.<ref name="Kristof"/> The Americans co-opted the researchers' [[Biological warfare|bioweapons]] information and experience for use in their own [[United States biological weapons program|biological warfare program]], much like what had been done with [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] researchers in [[Operation Paperclip]].<ref>Harris, S.H. (2002) ''Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up'', revised ed. Routledge, New York.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brody|first1=Howard|last2=Leonard|first2=Sarah E.|last3=Nie|first3=Jing-Bao|last4=Weindling|first4=Paul|title=United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency|journal=Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics|year=2014|volume=23|issue=2|pages=220–230|doi=10.1017/S0963180113000753|issn=0963-1801|pmc=4487829|pmid=24534743}}</ref> ',
29 => '',
30 => 'On 28 August 2002, [[Tokyo District Court]] ruled that Japan had committed biological warfare in China and consequently had slaughtered many residents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Ruling recognizes Unit 731 used germ warfare in China |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/08/28/national/ruling-recognizes-unit-731-used-germ-warfare-in-china/ |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Japan Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-08-28 |title=Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>'
] |
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113 => 'https://tv.cctv.com/2015/09/01/VIDE1441071222552557.shtml',
114 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190714031133/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html',
115 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190806103833/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan',
116 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20200809175401/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII,%20SHIRO_0005.pdf',
117 => 'https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/ISHII,%20SHIRO_0005.pdf',
118 => 'http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html',
119 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063454/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html',
120 => 'https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442',
121 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074506/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442',
122 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333',
123 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20210414162826/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333',
124 => 'http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html',
125 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043000/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html',
126 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&pg=PA42',
127 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220607180427/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC',
128 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20071217155553/http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htm',
129 => 'http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror',
130 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20180116002323/http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror',
131 => 'http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm',
132 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20190618203650/http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm',
133 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150813034434/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm',
134 => 'http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm',
135 => 'http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm',
136 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140906073729/http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm',
137 => 'https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf',
138 => 'https://apjjf.org/-Christopher-Reed/2177/article.html',
139 => 'https://www.historiamag.com/the-english-fuhrer-by-rory-clements/',
140 => 'https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1997.03550050074036',
141 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9244333',
142 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829',
143 => 'https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963180113000753',
144 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0963-1801',
145 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24534743',
146 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331',
147 => 'https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_15',
148 => 'https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2015-103177',
149 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27003420',
150 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235',
151 => 'https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC',
152 => 'https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82080077',
153 => 'https://theguardian.newspapers.com/article/122763034/postwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ/',
154 => 'https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd',
155 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8141376',
156 => 'https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2020-004772',
157 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34016575',
158 => 'https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Unit_731¶ms=45_36_30_N_126_37_55_E_region:CN-HL_type:landmark',
159 => 'https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/08/28/national/ruling-recognizes-unit-731-used-germ-warfare-in-china/',
160 => 'http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan'
] |
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<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Formations"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Formations</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Zhongma_Fortress"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Zhongma Fortress</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Unit_731"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Unit 731</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Other_units"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other units</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Experiments"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Experiments</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Vivisection"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Vivisection</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Biological_warfare"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Biological warfare</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Weapons_testing"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Weapons testing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Other_experiments"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other experiments</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Frostbite_testing"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Frostbite testing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Syphilis"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Syphilis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Rape_and_forced_pregnancy"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Rape and forced pregnancy</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Prisoners_and_victims"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Prisoners and victims</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Escape_attempt"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Escape attempt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Experiments_on_staff_members"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Experiments on staff members</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Known_unit_members"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Known unit members</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Divisions"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Divisions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Facilities"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Facilities</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Branches"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Branches</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Tokyo"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Tokyo</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Surrender_and_immunity"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Surrender and immunity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Destruction_of_evidence"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Destruction of evidence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#American_grant_of_immunity"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">American grant of immunity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Separate_Soviet_trials"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Separate Soviet trials</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Official_silence_during_the_American_occupation_of_Japan"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">Official silence during the American occupation of Japan</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Post-occupation_Japanese_media_coverage_and_debate"><span class="tocnumber">7.5</span> <span class="toctext">Post-occupation Japanese media coverage and debate</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Significance_in_postwar_research_on_bio-warfare_and_medicine"><span class="tocnumber">7.6</span> <span class="toctext">Significance in postwar research on bio-warfare and medicine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Official_government_response_in_Japan"><span class="tocnumber">7.7</span> <span class="toctext">Official government response in Japan</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Abroad"><span class="tocnumber">7.8</span> <span class="toctext">Abroad</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#In_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">In popular culture</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Print_media"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Print media</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Films"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Films</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Music"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Music</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Television"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Video_games"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Video games</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Explanatory_notes"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Explanatory notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Formations">Formations</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG/220px-Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG/330px-Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG/440px-Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121201.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Building of the Unit 731 bioweapon facility in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>Japan started its biological weapons program in the 1930s, partly because the use of biological weapons were banned in interstate conflicts by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a> of 1925; they reasoned that the ban verified its effectiveness as a weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristof_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristof-1">[1]</a></sup> Japan's occupation of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> began in 1931 after the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-montana1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-montana1-2">[2]</a></sup> Japan decided to build Unit 731 in Manchuria because the occupation not only gave the Japanese an advantage of separating the research station from their island, but also gave them access to as many Chinese individuals as they wanted for use as test subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-montana1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-montana1-2">[2]</a></sup> They viewed the Chinese as no-cost assets, and hoped this would give them a competitive advantage in biological warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-montana1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-montana1-2">[2]</a></sup> Not all test subjects were Chinese, with many other nationalities being included too.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristof_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristof-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1932, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgeon_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeon General">Surgeon General</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1163242311">.mw-parser-output .templateruby>rt{font-variant-east-asian:ruby;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large{font-size:250%}.mw-parser-output .templateruby.large>rt{font-size:50%}</style><ruby lang="ja">石<rp>（</rp><rt><big>いし</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">井<rp>（</rp><rt><big>い</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">四<rp>（</rp><rt><big>し</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">郎<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ろう</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby></span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Ishii Shirō</i></span>)</span>, chief medical officer of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Protégé">protégé</a> of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of War of Japan">Army Minister</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadao_Araki" title="Sadao Araki">Sadao Araki</a>, was placed in command of the <b>Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory</b> (<b>AEPRL</b>). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit," for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs.
</p><p>One of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikahiko_Koizumi" title="Chikahiko Koizumi">Chikahiko Koizumi</a>, who later served as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Health,_Labour,_and_Welfare" title="Minister of Health, Labour, and Welfare">Japan's Health Minister</a> from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison gas">poison gas</a> research committee in 1915, during <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when he and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were impressed by the successful German use of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorine gas">chlorine gas</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres" title="Second Battle of Ypres">Second Battle of Ypres</a>, in which the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> suffered 5,000 deaths and 15,000 wounded as a result of the chemical attack.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Zhongma_Fortress">Zhongma Fortress</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Unit Tōgō was set into motion in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongma_Fortress" title="Zhongma Fortress">Zhongma Fortress</a>, a prison and experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village 100 kilometers (62 mi) south of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a> on the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Manchuria_Railway" title="South Manchuria Railway">South Manchuria Railway</a>. The prisoners brought to Zhongma included common <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">criminals</a>, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, as well as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> and people rounded up on trumped up charges by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempeitai" title="Kempeitai">Kempeitai</a>. Prisoners were generally well fed on a diet of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish (food)">fish</a>, and occasionally even <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcohol</a> in order to be in normal health at the beginning of experiments. Then, over several days, prisoners were eventually drained of blood and deprived of nutrients and water. Their deteriorating health was recorded. Some were also <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisected" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivisected">vivisected</a>. Others were deliberately infected with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and other <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p><p>A prison break in the autumn of 1934, which jeopardized the facility's secrecy, and an explosion in 1935 (believed to be sabotage) led Ishii to shut down Zhongma Fortress. He then received authorization to move to Pingfang, approximately 24 kilometers (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Unit_731">Unit 731</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg/220px-A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg/330px-A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg/440px-A_close_up_photo_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_by_the_aviation_and_photography_class_of_Unit_731_in_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Close-up photo of the Unit 731 main "square building" taken by Unit 731's aviation and photography class in 1940</figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1936, Emperor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Hirohito</a> issued a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decree</a> authorizing the expansion of the unit and its integration into the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> as the Epidemic Prevention Department.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> It was divided at that time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit", with a base in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Hsinking</a>. From August 1940 on, the units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">關<rp>（</rp><rt><big>くわん</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">東<rp>（</rp><rt><big>とう</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">軍<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ぐん</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">防<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ばう</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">疫<rp>（</rp><rt><big>えき</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">給<rp>（</rp><rt><big>きふ</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">水<rp>（</rp><rt><big>すゐ</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">部<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ぶ</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">本<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ほん</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">部<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ぶ</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby>) or "Unit 731" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">滿<rp>（</rp><rt><big>まん</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">洲<rp>（</rp><rt><big>しゆう</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">第<rp>（</rp><rt><big>だい</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">７<rp>（</rp><rt><big>なな</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">３<rp>（</rp><rt><big>さん</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">１<rp>（</rp><rt><big>いち</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">部<rp>（</rp><rt><big>ぶ</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">隊<rp>（</rp><rt><big>たい</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby>) for short.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>His younger brother, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takahito,_Prince_Mikasa" title="Takahito, Prince Mikasa">Prince Mikasa</a>, toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China, and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans."<sup id="cite_ref-Kristof_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristof-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a>, who later became <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Japan" title="Prime Minister of Japan">Prime Minister</a> in 1941, was also shown films of the experiments, which he described as "unpleasant."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_units">Other units</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" title="Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department">Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department</a></div>
<p>In addition to the establishment of Unit 731, the decree also called for the creation of an additional biological warfare development unit, called the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later referred to as Manchuria <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a>), and a chemical warfare development unit called the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department (later referred to as Manchuria <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_516" title="Unit 516">Unit 516</a>). After the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese invasion of China</a> in 1937, sister chemical and biological warfare units were founded in major Chinese cities and were referred to as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units. Detachments included <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1855" title="Unit 1855">Unit 1855</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_Ei_1644" title="Unit Ei 1644">Unit Ei 1644</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_8604" title="Unit 8604">Unit 8604</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, and later <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_9420" title="Unit 9420">Unit 9420</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. All of these units comprised Ishii's network, which, at its height in 1939, oversaw over 10,000 personnel.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> Medical doctors and professors from Japan were attracted to join Unit 731 both by the rare opportunity to conduct human experimentation and the Army's strong financial backing.<sup id="cite_ref-NHK_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHK-11">[11]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Experiments">Experiments</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>A special project, codenamed <i>Maruta</i>, used human beings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from the surrounding population and sometimes euphemistically referred to as "logs"<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">丸<rp>（</rp><rt><big>まる</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1163242311"><ruby lang="ja">太<rp>（</rp><rt><big>た</big></rt><rp>）</rp></ruby></span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">maruta</i></span>)</span>, used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?" This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover-up" title="Cover-up">cover story</a> for the facility given to local authorities was that it was a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumber mill">lumber mill</a>. According to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz," German for log.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> In a further parallel, the corpses of "sacrificed" subjects were disposed of by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">incineration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</a></sup> Researchers in Unit 731 also published some of their results in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-reviewed_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-reviewed journal">peer-reviewed journals</a>, writing as though the research had been <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonhuman_primate_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman primate experimentation">conducted on nonhuman primates</a> called "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys."<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_2002_p._83_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2002_p._83-14">[14]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to American historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_H._Harris" title="Sheldon H. Harris">Sheldon H. Harris</a>:
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<blockquote><p>The Togo Unit employed gruesome tactics to secure specimens of select body organs. If Ishii or one of his co-workers wished to do research on the human brain, then they would order the guards to find them a useful sample. A prisoner would be taken from his cell. Guards would hold him while another guard would smash the victim's head open with an ax. His brain would be extracted off to the pathologist, and then to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crematorium" title="Crematorium">crematorium</a> for the usual disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nakagawa_Yonezo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nakagawa Yonezo (page does not exist)">Nakagawa Yonezo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B7%9D%E7%B1%B3%E9%80%A0" class="extiw" title="ja:中川米造">ja</a>]</span>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka_University" title="Osaka University">Osaka University</a>, studied at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_University" title="Kyoto University">Kyoto University</a> during the war. While he was there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the playfulness of the experimenters:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
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<blockquote><p>Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">germ warfare</a>, or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: ‘What would happen if we did such and such?’ What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play."</p></blockquote>
<p>Prisoners were injected with diseases, disguised as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccinations</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> to study their effects. To study the effects of untreated <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal diseases</a>, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonorrhea" title="Gonorrhea">gonorrhea</a>, then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison_rape" title="Prison rape">rape</a> by guards.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vivisection">Vivisection</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Thousands of men, women, children, and infants interned at prisoner of war camps were subjected to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a>, often performed without <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a> and usually lethal.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dissect_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dissect-20">[20]</a></sup> In a video interview, former Unit 731 member Okawa Fukumatsu admitted to having vivisected a pregnant woman.<sup id="cite_ref-vimeo1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vimeo1-21">[21]</a></sup> Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases. Researchers performed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_procedure#Invasive_procedures" title="Minimally invasive procedure">invasive surgery</a> on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects of disease on the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg/220px-Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg/330px-Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg/440px-Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin%27s_731_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="1009" /></a><figcaption>Human dissection experiment room</figcaption></figure>
<p>Prisoners had limbs <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amputated" class="mw-redirect" title="Amputated">amputated</a> in order to study <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood Loss">blood loss</a>. Limbs removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite side of victims' bodies. Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and their <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> reattached to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">intestines</a>. Parts of organs, such as the brain, lungs, and liver, were removed from others.<sup id="cite_ref-dissect_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dissect-20">[20]</a></sup> Imperial Japanese Army surgeon <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasa" title="Ken Yuasa">Ken Yuasa</a> suggests that practising vivisection on human subjects was widespread even outside Unit 731,<sup id="cite_ref-nyt_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-23">[23]</a></sup> estimating that at least 1,000 Japanese personnel were involved in the practice in mainland China.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> Yuasa said that when he performed vivisections on captives, they were "all for practice rather than for research," and that such practises were "routine" among Japanese doctors stationed in China during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13">[13]</a></sup>
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<p><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> interviewed a former member of Unit 731. Insisting on anonymity, the former Japanese medical assistant recounted his first experience in vivisecting a live human being, who had been deliberately infected with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a>, for the purpose of developing "plague bombs" for war. </p><blockquote><p>"The fellow knew that it was over for him, and so he didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down, but when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>Other sources suggest that it was the usual practice in the Unit for surgeons to stuff a rag (or medical gauze) into the mouth of prisoners before commencing vivisection in order to stifle any screaming.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Biological_warfare">Biological warfare</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of a boiler building at the Unit 731 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioweapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioweapon">bioweapons</a> facility</figcaption></figure>
<p>Unit 731 and its affiliated units (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit 1644">Unit 1644</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a>, among others) were involved in research, development and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapon">biological weapons</a> in assaults against the Chinese populace (both military and civilian) throughout World War II. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a>-infected <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a>, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were spread by low-flying airplanes over Chinese cities, including coastal <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan Province</a>, in 1940 and 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-ciadoc_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ciadoc-27">[27]</a></sup> These operations killed tens of thousands with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> epidemics. An expedition to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> involved spreading <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratyphoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratyphoid">paratyphoid</a> germs into the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well" title="Well">wells</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a>, and houses of the city, as well as infusing them in snacks distributed to locals. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> broke out shortly after, to the elation of many researchers, who concluded that <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratyphoid_fever" title="Paratyphoid fever">paratyphoid fever</a> was "the most effective" of the pathogens.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barenblatt2004_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barenblatt2004-29">[29]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xii, 173">: xii, 173 </span></sup>
</p><p>At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field trials were carried out, and at least 11 Chinese cities attacked with biological agents. An attack on <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a> in 1941 reportedly led to approximately 10,000 biological casualties and 1,700 deaths among ill-prepared Japanese troops, in most cases due to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-histpersp_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histpersp-30">[30]</a></sup> Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">botulism</a>, and other diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> This research led to the development of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoliation_bacilli_bomb" title="Defoliation bacilli bomb">defoliation bacilli bomb</a> and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Some of these bombs were designed with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.
</p><p>These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a>, wells, as well as other areas, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>- and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>-carrier fleas, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, or other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candy were given to unsuspecting victims. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_Plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Bubonic Plague">Plague</a> fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, and plague were estimated to have killed at least 400,000 Chinese civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a> was also tested on Chinese civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the biowarfare attacks, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infected fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>In December 1944, the Japanese Navy explored the possibility of attacking cities in California with biological weapons, known as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_PX" title="Operation PX">Operation PX</a> or Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan for the attack involved <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aichi_M6A" title="Aichi M6A"><i>Seiran</i></a> aircraft launched by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-400-class_submarine" title="I-400-class submarine">submarine aircraft carriers</a> upon the West Coast of the United States—specifically, the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The planes would spread weaponized <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, and other pathogens in a biological terror attack upon the population. The submarine crews would infect themselves and run ashore in a suicide mission.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Planning for Operation PX was finalized on March 26, 1945, but shelved shortly thereafter due to the strong opposition of Chief of General Staff <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshijir%C5%8D_Umezu" title="Yoshijirō Umezu">Yoshijirō Umezu</a>. Umezu later explained his decision as such: "If bacteriological warfare is conducted, it will grow from the dimension of war between Japan and America to an endless battle of humanity against bacteria. Japan will earn the derision of the world."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Weapons_testing">Weapons testing</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Human targets were used to test <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a> positioned at various distances and in various positions. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">Flamethrowers</a> were tested on people.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ warfare">pathogen-releasing bombs</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical weapons</a>, shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, and explosive bombs as well as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonets</a> and knives.
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks that were staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. It was surgery for most, autopsies for the rest.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></cite></div></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_experiments">Other experiments</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the amount of time until death; placed into low-pressure chambers until their <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_pressure_hydrocephalus" title="Low pressure hydrocephalus">eyes popped from the sockets</a>; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; hung upside down until death; <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crushed_to_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Crushed to death">crushed with heavy objects</a>; <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocution" title="Electrocution">electrocuted</a>; <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydrated</a> with hot fans;<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> placed into <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">centrifuges</a> and spun until death; injected with animal blood, notably with horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premature_burial" title="Premature burial">buried alive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aiipowmia_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aiipowmia-47">[47]</a></sup> In addition to chemical agents, the properties of many different toxins were also investigated by the Unit. To name a few, prisoners were exposed to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">tetrodotoxin</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraodontidae" title="Tetraodontidae">pufferfish</a> or fugu venom), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korean_bindweed&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Korean bindweed (page does not exist)">Korean bindweed</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bactal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bactal (page does not exist)">bactal</a>, and castor-oil seeds (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Massive amounts of blood were drained from some prisoners in order to study the effects of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood Loss">blood loss</a> according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu. In one case, at least half a liter of blood was drawn at two-to-three-day intervals.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>As stated above, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. The purpose of these tests was to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and to see how long one could survive with a very low to no water intake. It is known that victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at a periodic interval.
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Hal Gold, <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>, (2019)</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>Unit 731 also performed <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">transfusion</a> experiments with different <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type" title="Blood type">blood types</a>. Unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote:
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In my experience, when A type blood 100 cc was transfused to an O type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later the temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later the pulse was 106 per minute and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. Two hours later the temperature was 37.7 degrees, and three hours later the subject recovered. When AB type blood 120 cc was transfused to an O type subject, an hour later the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia in both legs. When AB type blood 100 cc was transfused to a B type subject, there seemed to be no side effect.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century</i> (2006) pp. 38–39</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>Unit 731 tested many different chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewisite" title="Lewisite">lewisite</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyanic_acid_gas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanic acid gas (page does not exist)">cyanic acid gas</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="White phosphorus">white phosphorus</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamsite" title="Adamsite">adamsite</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">phosgene gas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup> A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeritus" title="Emeritus">professor emeritus</a> at a national university):
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [97 sq ft] and two meters [6.6 ft] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Hal Gold, <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>, p. 349 (2019)</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>Takeo Wano, a former medical worker in Unit 731, said that he saw a Western man, who was vertically cut into two pieces, pickled in a jar of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">formaldehyde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristor_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristor-52">[52]</a></sup> Wano guessed that the man was Russian because there were many Russians living in the area at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristor_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristor-52">[52]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unit 100 also experimented with toxic gas. Phone booth-like tanks were used as portable <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chambers</a> for the prisoners. Some were forced to wear various types of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_mask" title="Gas mask">gas masks</a>; others wore military uniforms, and some wore no clothes at all.
</p><p>Some of the tests have been described as "psychopathically sadistic, with no conceivable military application." For example, one experiment documented the time it took for three-day-old babies to freeze to death.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unit 731 also tested chemical weapons on prisoners in field conditions. A report authored by unknown researcher in the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) describes a large human experiment of yperite gas (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>) on 7–10 September 1940. Twenty subjects were divided into three groups and placed in combat emplacements, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trenches</a>, gazebos, and observatories. One group was clothed with Chinese underwear, no hat, and no mask and was subjected to as much as 1,800 field gun rounds of yperite gas over 25 minutes. Another group was clothed in summer military uniform and shoes; three had masks and another three had no mask. They also were exposed to as much as 1,800 rounds of yperite gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as much as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to skin, eye, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory organs</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">digestive organs</a> were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots. Injecting the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">blister fluid</a> from one subject into another subject and analyses of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stool_test" title="Stool test">soil</a> were also performed. Five subjects were forced to drink a solution of yperite and lewisite gas in water, with or without <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decontamination" title="Decontamination">decontamination</a>. The report describes conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-55">[55]</a></sup> The following is an excerpt of one of these reports:
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Number 376, dugout of the first area:
</p><p>September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous, swollen. Epiphora. Hyperemic conjunctivae.
</p><p>September 8, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen and scrotum weeping,
reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes.
</p><p>September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucous nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria.
</p><p>September 9, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities.
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Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century</i> (2006) p. 187</cite></div></blockquote>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Frostbite_testing">Frostbite testing</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Army Engineer Hisato Yoshimura conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping various appendages into water of varying temperatures, and allowing the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">limb to freeze</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup> Once frozen, Yoshimura would strike their affected limbs with a short stick, "emitting a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck."<sup id="cite_ref-Kristor_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristor-52">[52]</a></sup> Ice was then chipped away, with the affected area being subjected to various treatments, such as being doused in water, exposed to the heat of fire, etc.
</p><p>Members of the Unit referred to Yoshimura as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because he would conduct his work with strictness.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Naoji Uezono, a member of Unit 731, described in a 1980s interview a grisly scene where Yoshimura had "two naked men put in an area 40–50 degrees below zero and researchers filmed the whole process until [the subjects] died. [The subjects] suffered such agony they were digging their nails into each other's flesh."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Yoshimura's lack of remorse was evident in an article he wrote for the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journal_Of_Japanese_Physiology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal Of Japanese Physiology (page does not exist)">Journal Of Japanese Physiology</a> in 1950 in which he admitted to using 20 children and a three-day-old infant in experiments which exposed them to zero-degree-Celsius ice and salt water.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun" title="Mainichi Shimbun">Mainichi Shimbun</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:UGC" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:UGC"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a user-generated source. (July 2022)">user-generated source?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature first rises after immersion. In a number of separate experiments it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, how the victim had been treated before the immersion ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions with regard to dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> This original data is seen in the attached figure.
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png/220px-Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png/330px-Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png/440px-Scan_Of_Yoshimura_Hisato%27s_Frostbite_Research_Data.png 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1222" /></a><figcaption>Scan of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoshimura_Hisato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yoshimura Hisato (page does not exist)">Yoshimura Hisato</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E6%9D%91%E5%AF%BF%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="ja:吉村寿人">ja</a>]</span>'s <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">frostbite</a> research data</figcaption></figure>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Syphilis">Syphilis</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and non-infected prisoners to transmit the disease, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> between patients shows:
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>After victims were infected, they were vivisected at different stages of infection, so that internal and external organs could be observed as the disease progressed. Testimony from multiple guards blames the female victims as being hosts of the diseases, even as they were forcibly infected. Genitals of female prisoners that were infected with syphilis were called "jam-filled buns" by guards.<sup id="cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold-testimony-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "one was a Chinese woman holding an infant, one was a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9#In_China" title="White émigré">White Russian</a> woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven."<sup id="cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold-testimony-64">[64]</a></sup> The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments.
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Rape_and_forced_pregnancy">Rape and forced pregnancy</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Female prisoners were forced to become pregnant for use in experiments. The hypothetical possibility of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_transmission" title="Vertical transmission">vertical transmission</a> (from mother to child) of diseases, particularly syphilis, was the stated reason for the torture. Fetal survival and damage to mother's reproductive organs were objects of interest. Though "a large number of babies were born in captivity," there have been no accounts of any survivors of Unit 731, children included. It is suspected that the children of female prisoners were killed after birth or <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">aborted</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold-testimony-64">[64]</a></sup>
</p><p>While male prisoners were often used in single studies, so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex crimes">sex crimes</a>. The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this reality:
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus" title="Pus">pus</a> oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work.<sup id="cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold-testimony-64">[64]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prisoners_and_victims">Prisoners and victims</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>In 2002, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a>, China, site of the plague flea bombing, held an "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare," which estimated that the number of people slaughtered by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> germ warfare and other human experiments was around 580,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Barenblatt2004_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barenblatt2004-29">[29]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: xii, 173">: xii, 173 </span></sup> The American historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_H._Harris" title="Sheldon H. Harris">Sheldon H. Harris</a> states that over 200,000 died.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-66">[66]</a></sup> In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese troops in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> during <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a> were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, indicating serious issues with distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-dcr_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dcr-67">[67]</a></sup> Harris also said plague-infected animals were released near the end of the war, and caused plague outbreaks that killed at least 30,000 people in the Harbin area from 1946 to 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristof_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristof-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some test subjects were selected to gather a wide cross-section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan_(military)" title="Partisan (military)">partisans</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_prisoners_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Political prisoners in Imperial Japan">political prisoners</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeless" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeless">homeless</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentally_disabled" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentally disabled">mentally disabled</a> people, which included infants, men, the elderly and pregnant women, as well as those rounded up by the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenpeitai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenpeitai">Kenpeitai</a></i> military police for alleged "suspicious activities." Unit 731 staff included approximately 300 researchers, including doctors and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist_(Professional)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriologist (Professional)">bacteriologists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_2002_p._334_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris_2002_p._334-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>At least 3,000 men, women, and children<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 117">: 117 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dcr_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dcr-67">[67]</a></sup>—from which at least 600 every year were provided by the <i>Kenpeitai</i><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>—were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation conducted at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfang_District" title="Pingfang District">Pingfang</a> camp alone, not including victims from other medical experimentation sites such as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> Although 3,000 internal victims is the widely accepted figure in the literature, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu claims that there were at least 10,000 victims of internal experiments at the Unit, he himself <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisecting</a> thousands.<sup id="cite_ref-vimeo1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vimeo1-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to A. S. Wells, the majority of victims were <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nyt_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-23">[23]</a></sup> with a lesser percentage being <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9" title="White émigré">Russian</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongolian</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Korean</a>. They may also have included a small number of European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wells_2009_p._42_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wells_2009_p._42-72">[72]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup> A member of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokusan_Sonendan" title="Yokusan Sonendan">Yokusan Sonendan</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> political youth branch, who worked for Unit 731, stated that not only were Chinese, Russians, and Koreans present, but also Americans, British, and French people.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> Sheldon H. Harris documented that the victims were generally <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">political dissidents</a>, communist sympathizers, ordinary criminals, impoverished civilians, and the mentally disabled.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup> Author <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiichi_Morimura" title="Seiichi Morimura">Seiichi Morimura</a> estimates that almost 70 percent of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese (both military and civilian),<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> while close to 30 percent of the victims were Russian.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells,_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg/220px-A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg/330px-A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg/440px-A_sketch_of_the_prison_cells%2C_done_by_a_member_of_Unit_731._The_octagonal_sketch_represents_the_pressure_chamber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1688" data-file-height="1043" /></a><figcaption>A sketch of the prison cells drawn by a Unit 731 staff member. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagon" title="Octagon">octagon</a> represents the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure chamber">pressure chamber</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>No one who entered Unit 731 came out alive. Prisoners were usually received into Unit 731 at night in motor vehicles painted black with a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">ventilation hole</a> but no windows.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> The vehicle would pull up at the main gates and one of the drivers would go to the guardroom and report to the guard. That guard would then telephone to the "Special Team" in the inner-prison (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shiro Ishii's</a> brother was head of this Special Team).<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup> Then, the prisoners would be transported through a secret tunnel dug under the facade of the central building to the inner-prisons.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> One of the prisons housed women and children (Building 8), while the other prison housed men (Building 7). Once at the inner-prison, technicians would take samples of the prisoners' blood and stool, test their <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assessment_of_kidney_function" title="Assessment of kidney function">kidney function</a>, and collect other physical data.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> Once deemed healthy and fit for experimentation, prisoners lost their names and were given a three-digit number, which they retained until their death. Whenever prisoners died after the experiments they had been subjected to, a clerk of the 1st Division struck their numbers off an index card and took the deceased prisoner's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Manacles">manacles</a> to be put on new arrivals to the prison.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>There is at least one recorded instance of "friendly" social interaction between prisoners and Unit 731 staff. Technician Naokata Ishibashi interacted with two female prisoners, a 21-year-old Chinese woman and a 19-year-old <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> woman. The two prisoners told Ishibashi that they had not seen their faces in a mirror since being captured and begged him to get one. Ishibashi snuck a mirror to them through a hole in the cell door.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> Prisoners were repeatedly reused for experiments as long as they were healthy enough. The average life expectancy of a prisoner once they had entered the Unit was two months. Some prisoners were alive in the Unit for over 12 months, and many female prisoners gave birth in the Unit.
</p><p>The prison cells had wooden floors and a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat_toilet" title="Squat toilet">squat toilet</a> in each. There was space between the outer walls of the cells and the outer walls of the prison, enabling the guards to walk behind the cells. Each cell door had a small window in it. Chief of the Personnel Division of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kwantung_Army_Headquarters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwantung Army Headquarters (page does not exist)">Kwantung Army Headquarters</a> Tamura Tadashi testified that, when he was shown the inner-prison, he looked into the cells and saw living people in chains, some moved around, others were lying on the bare floor and were in a very sick and helpless condition.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> Former Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that the windows in these prison doors were so small that it was difficult to see in.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-87">[87]</a></sup> The inner-prison was a highly secured building complete with cast iron doors.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-80">[80]</a></sup> No one could enter without special permits and an ID pass with a photograph, and the entry/exit times were recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-87">[87]</a></sup> The "special team" worked in these two inner-prison buildings. This team wore white overall suits, army hats, rubber boots, and pistols strapped to their sides.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-80">[80]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Escape_attempt">Escape attempt</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Despite the prison's status as a highly secure building, at least one unsuccessful escape attempt did occur. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal" title="Corporal">Corporal</a> Kikuchi Norimitsu testified that he was told by another unit member that a prisoner "had shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle" and then "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, seized the keys and opened the iron doors and some of the cells. Some of the prisoners managed to jump out but these were only the bold ones. These bold ones were shot."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiichi_Morimura" title="Seiichi Morimura">Seiichi Morimura</a> in his book <i>The Devil's Feast</i> went into some greater detail regarding this escape attempt. Two Russian male prisoners were in a cell with handcuffs on, one of them lay flat on the floor pretending to be sick. This got the attention of a staff member who saw it as an unusual condition. That staff member decided to enter the cell. The Russian lying on the floor suddenly sprang up and knocked the guard down. The two Russians opened their handcuffs, took the keys, and opened some other cells while yelling. Some prisoners, including Russian and Chinese, were frantically roaming the corridors and kept yelling and shouting. One Russian shouted to the members of Unit 731, demanding to be shot rather than used as an experimental object. This Russian was shot to death.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[89]</a></sup> One staff member, who was an eyewitness at this escape attempt, recalled: "spiritually we were all lost in front of the 'marutas' who had no freedom and no weapons. At that time we understood in our hearts that justice was not on our side."<sup id="cite_ref-auto_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[89]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unfortunately for the prisoners of Unit 731, escape was an impossibility. Even if they had managed to escape the quadrangle (itself a heavily fortified building full of staff), they would have had to get over a three-meter-high (9.8 ft) brick wall surrounding the complex, and then across a dry moat filled with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fence" title="Electric fence">electrified wire</a> running around the perimeter of the complex.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Experiments_on_staff_members">Experiments on staff members</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Members of Unit 731 were not immune from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first division at Unit 731, became infected with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> as a result of the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. Tamura recalled:
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996844942"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buboes" class="mw-redirect" title="Buboes">purple spots</a> over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Criminal History of Unit 731 of the Japanese Military</i>, pp. 118–119 (1991)</cite></div></blockquote>
<p>Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa was vivisected as a result of being accidentally infected with plague.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-55">[55]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Known_unit_members">Known unit members</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>There are unit members who were known to be interned at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fushun_War_Criminals_Management_Centre" title="Fushun War Criminals Management Centre">Fushun War Criminals Management Centre</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taiyuan_War_Criminals_Management_Centre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taiyuan War Criminals Management Centre (page does not exist)">Taiyuan War Criminals Management Centre</a> after the war, who then went on to be repatriated to Japan and founded the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Returnees_from_China" title="Association of Returnees from China">Association of Returnees from China</a> and testified about Unit 731 and the crimes perpetrated there.
</p><p>Some members included:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Tsuneyoshi_Takeda" title="Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda">Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Naruhiko_Higashikuni" title="Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni">Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshio_Shinozuka" title="Yoshio Shinozuka">Yoshio Shinozuka</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasuji_Kaneko" title="Yasuji Kaneko">Yasuji Kaneko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tadayuki_Furumi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tadayuki Furumi (page does not exist)">Tadayuki Furumi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B5%B7%E5%BF%A0%E4%B9%8B" class="extiw" title="ja:古海忠之">ja</a>]</span></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeru_Fujita" title="Shigeru Fujita">Shigeru Fujita</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasa" title="Ken Yuasa">Ken Yuasa</a></li></ul>
<p>In April 2018, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_of_Japan" title="National Archives of Japan">National Archives of Japan</a> disclosed a nearly complete list of 3,607 members of Unit 731 to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katsuo_Nishiyama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Katsuo Nishiyama (page does not exist)">Katsuo Nishiyama</a>, a professor at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiga_University_of_Medical_Science" title="Shiga University of Medical Science">Shiga University of Medical Science</a>. Nishiyama reportedly intended to publish the list online to encourage further study into the unit.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup>
</p><p>Previously disclosed members included:
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiro-ishii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/220px-Shiro-ishii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/330px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Shiro-ishii.jpg/440px-Shiro-ishii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="1082" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>, commander of Unit 731</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png/220px-Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png/330px-Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png/440px-Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ry%C5%8Dichi_Nait%C5%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ryōichi Naitō (page does not exist)">Ryōichi Naitō</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E8%97%A4%E8%89%AF%E4%B8%80" class="extiw" title="ja:内藤良一">ja</a>]</span></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg/220px-Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg/330px-Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg/440px-Yoshimura_Hisato.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="1063" /></a><figcaption><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoshimura_Hisato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yoshimura Hisato (page does not exist)">Yoshimura Hisato</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E6%9D%91%E5%AF%BF%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="ja:吉村寿人">ja</a>]</span></figcaption></figure>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">Lieutenant General</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel" title="Lieutenant colonel">Lieutenant Colonel</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ryoichi_Naito&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ryoichi Naito (page does not exist)">Ryoichi Naito</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E8%97%A4%E8%89%AF%E4%B8%80" class="extiw" title="ja:内藤良一">ja</a>]</span>, founder of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">pharmaceutical company</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Cross_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Cross (Japan)">Green Cross</a></li>
<li>Professor, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general" title="Major general">Major General</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaji_Kitano" title="Masaji Kitano">Masaji Kitano</a>, commander, 1942–1945<sup id="cite_ref-histpersp_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histpersp-30">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 137">: 137 </span></sup></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshio_Shinozuka" title="Yoshio Shinozuka">Yoshio Shinozuka</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasuji_Kaneko" title="Yasuji Kaneko">Yasuji Kaneko</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kazuhisa_Kanazawa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kazuhisa Kanazawa (page does not exist)">Kazuhisa Kanazawa</a>, chief of the 1st Division of Branch 673 of Unit 731</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ryoichiro_Hotta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ryoichiro Hotta (page does not exist)">Ryoichiro Hotta</a>, member of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailar_District" title="Hailar District">Hailar Branch</a> of Unit 731</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shigeo_Ozeki&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shigeo Ozeki (page does not exist)">Shigeo Ozeki</a>, civilian employee<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kioyashi_Mineoi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kioyashi Mineoi (page does not exist)">Kioyashi Mineoi</a>, civilian employee<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Masateru_Saito&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Masateru Saito (page does not exist)">Masateru Saito</a>, civilian employee<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup></li>
<li>Major General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hitoshi_Kikuchi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitoshi Kikuchi (page does not exist)">Hitoshi Kikuchi</a>, head of Research Division, 1942–1945<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 133">: 133 </span></sup></li>
<li>Lieutenant General [unknown first name] Yasazaka, doctor<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 241">: 241 </span></sup></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoshio_Furuichi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yoshio Furuichi (page does not exist)">Yoshio Furuichi</a>, student at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sunyu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunyu (page does not exist)">Sunyu Branch</a> of Unit 731<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243">: 243 </span></sup></li></ul>
<p>Twelve members were formally tried and sentenced in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk_war_crimes_trials" title="Khabarovsk war crimes trials">Khabarovsk war crimes trials</a>:
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th scope="col">Name</th>
<th scope="col">Military position</th>
<th scope="col">Unit position<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup></th>
<th scope="col">Unit</th>
<th scope="col">Sentenced years in labor camp<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 534–535">: 534–535 </span></sup>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Kiyoshi Shimizu
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel" title="Lieutenant colonel">Lieutenant colonel</a></td>
<td>Chief of General Division, 1939–1941, Head of Production Division, 1941–1945<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131">: 131 </span></sup></td>
<td>731</td>
<td>25 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoz%C5%8D_Yamada" title="Otozō Yamada">Otozō Yamada</a>
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_officer" title="General officer">General</a></td>
<td>Direct controller, 1944–1945<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 232">: 232 </span></sup></td>
<td>731, 100</td>
<td>25 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Ryuji Kajitsuka
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">Lieutenant general</a> of the Medical Service</td>
<td>Chief of the Medical Administration<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131">: 131 </span></sup></td>
<td>731</td>
<td>25 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Takaatsu Takahashi
</th>
<td>Lieutenant general of the Veterinary Service</td>
<td>Chief of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary</a> Service</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>25 (died in prison in 1952)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Tomio Karasawa
</th>
<td>Major of the Medical Service</td>
<td>Chief of a section</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>20 (committed suicide in prison in 1956)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Toshihide Nishi
</th>
<td>Lieutenant colonel of the Medical Service</td>
<td>Chief of a division</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>18 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Masao Onoue
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major" title="Major">Major</a> of the Medical Service</td>
<td>Chief of a branch</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>12 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Zensaku Hirazakura
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant" title="Lieutenant">Lieutenant</a></td>
<td>Officer</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>10 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Kazuo Mitomo
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_sergeant" title="Senior sergeant">Senior sergeant</a></td>
<td>Member</td>
<td>731</td>
<td>15 (served 7)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Norimitsu Kikuchi
</th>
<td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal" title="Corporal">Corporal</a></td>
<td>Probationer medical <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orderly" title="Orderly">orderly</a></td>
<td>Branch 643</td>
<td>2 (served full term)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row">Yuji Kurushima
</th>
<td>[none]</td>
<td>Laboratory orderly</td>
<td>Branch 162</td>
<td>3 (served full term)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th scope="row"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunji_Sato" title="Shunji Sato">Shunji Sato</a>
</th>
<td>Major general of the Medical Service</td>
<td>Chief of the Medical Service<sup id="cite_ref-shokan_92-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shokan-92">[92]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 192">: 192 </span></sup></td>
<td>731, 1644</td>
<td>20 (served 7)
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Divisions">Divisions</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:
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<ul><li>Division 1: research on <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> using live human subjects; for this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to four hundred people</li>
<li>Division 2: research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of devices to spread germs and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a></li>
<li>Division 3: production of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell (weapon)">shells</a> containing biological agents; stationed in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a></li>
<li>Division 4: bacteria mass-production and storage<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup></li>
<li>Division 5: training of personnel</li>
<li>Divisions 6–8: equipment, medical, and administrative units</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Facilities">Facilities</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" title="Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department">Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg/220px-Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg/330px-Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg/440px-Main_entrance_of_Harbin%27s_Unit_731_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>The Harbin bioweapon facility is open to visitors</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG/220px-Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG/330px-Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG/440px-Harbin_Gedenkplakette_Einheit731.JPG 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Information sign at the site today</figcaption></figure>
<p>Unit 731 had other units underneath it in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Chain of Command">chain of command</a>; there were several other units under the auspice of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic_Prevention_and_Water_Purification_Department" title="Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department">Japan's biological weapons programs</a>. Most or all Units had branch offices, which were also often referred to as "Units." The term Unit 731 can refer to the Harbin complex, or it can refer to the organization and its branches, sub-Units and their branches.
</p><p>The Unit 731 complex covered six square kilometers (2.3 sq mi) and consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a>, six <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauldron" title="Cauldron">cauldrons</a> to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately 30 kilograms (66 lb) of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">bubonic plague bacteria</a> could be produced in a few days.
</p><p>Some of Unit 731's satellite (branch) facilities are still in use by various Chinese industrial companies. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/">museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Branches">Branches</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Unit 731 had branches in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkou_County" title="Linkou County">Linkou</a> (Branch 162), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudanjiang" title="Mudanjiang">Mudanjiang</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailin" title="Hailin">Hailin</a> (Branch 643), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunwu_County" title="Sunwu County">Sunwu</a> (Branch 673), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toan (page does not exist)">Toan</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailar_District" title="Hailar District">Hailar</a> (Branch 543).<sup id="cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trialmaterials-69">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60, 84, 124, 310">: 60, 84, 124, 310 </span></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tokyo">Tokyo</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinjuku,_Tokyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinjuku, Tokyo">Shinjuku</a> District of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds shortly after <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan's surrender</a> in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health,_Labour_and_Welfare_(Japan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan)">Ministry of Health</a> began to excavate the site.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup>
</p><p>While Tokyo courts acknowledged in 2002 that Unit 731 has been involved in biological warfare research, as of 2011<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_731&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the Japanese government had made no official acknowledgment of the atrocities committed against test subjects and rejected the Chinese government's requests for <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">DNA samples</a> to identify human remains (including skulls and bones) found near an army medical school.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup>
</p><p>At Tokyo's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyushu_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyushu Imperial University">Kyushu Imperial University</a> in 1945, US <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a> from a shot down <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">B-29</a> were subjected to fatal <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_experimentation_on_prisoners" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical experimentation on prisoners">medical experimentation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Surrender_and_immunity">Surrender and immunity</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly snubbed.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Destruction_of_evidence">Destruction of evidence</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg/220px-A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg/330px-A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg/440px-A_photograph_of_the_Unit_731_square_building_taken_during_its_destruction_in_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="914" /></a><figcaption>The Unit 731 square building during its demolition in 1945</figcaption></figure>
<p>As the Second World War started to come to an end, all prisoners within the compound were killed to conceal evidence, and there were no documented survivors.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> With the coming of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in haste. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfang_District" title="Pingfang District">Pingfang</a>. Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were shot. Ishii ordered every member of the group to disappear and "take the secret to the grave."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_cyanide" title="Potassium cyanide">Potassium cyanide</a> vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel were captured.
</p><p><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton_crew" title="Skeleton crew">Skeleton crews</a> of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="American_grant_of_immunity">American grant of immunity</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Sanders" title="Murray Sanders">Murray Sanders</a>, who arrived in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a> via the American ship <i>Sturgess</i> in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a> and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was.<sup id="cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gold-testimony-64">[64]</a></sup> Until Sanders finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Soviet legal system</a>, so, the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup> Sanders took this information to General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, who was the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Commander_for_the_Allied_Powers" title="Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers">Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers</a> and responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informant" title="Informant">informants</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> he secretly granted <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_from_prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity from prosecution">immunity</a> to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America solely, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_2003_p109_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_2003_p109-102">[102]</a></sup> American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including reading and censoring their mail.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup> The Americans believed that the research data was valuable and did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_War_Crimes_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal">Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal</a> heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Webb_(judge)" title="William Webb (judge)">William Webb</a>, for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental. Later in 1981, one of the last surviving members of the Tokyo Tribunal, Judge Röling, had expressed bitterness in not being made aware of the suppression of evidence of Unit 731 and wrote, "It is a bitter experience for me to be informed now that centrally ordered Japanese war criminality of the most disgusting kind was kept secret from the court by the U.S. government."<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup>
</p><p>While <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">German physicians were brought to trial</a> and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the perpetrators.<sup id="cite_ref-experimentation220_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-experimentation220-106">[106]</a></sup> Critics argue that <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">racism</a> led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities.<sup id="cite_ref-experimentation220_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-experimentation220-106">[106]</a></sup> Whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a> in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-experimentation220_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-experimentation220-106">[106]</a></sup>
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<p>Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit 1644">Unit 1644</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a> in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a> in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk_war_crimes_trials" title="Khabarovsk war crimes trials">Khabarovsk war crimes trials</a>. Among those accused of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>, including germ warfare, was General <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoz%C5%8D_Yamada" title="Otozō Yamada">Otozō Yamada</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> of the million-man <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> occupying Manchuria.
</p><p>The trial of the Japanese perpetrators was held in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk" title="Khabarovsk">Khabarovsk</a> in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> foreign languages press, including an English-language edition.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup> The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Smirnov" title="Lev Smirnov">Lev Smirnov</a>, who had been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg Trials</a>. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberian</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">labor camp</a>. The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards, and all but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell).
</p><p>In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the US also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the US had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information regarding their human experimentation. The accusations of both the US and the USSR were true,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="wording implies USSR trials were only propaganda, current evidence indicates they were legitimate. Wording unclear. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and it is believed that the Japanese had also given information to the Soviets regarding their biological experimentation for judicial leniency.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leak" title="Sverdlovsk anthrax leak">biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk</a> using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.<sup id="cite_ref-Alibek_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alibek-110">[110]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Official_silence_during_the_American_occupation_of_Japan">Official silence during the American occupation of Japan</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>As above, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were allowed to go free. On 6 May 1947, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Commander_of_the_Allied_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces">Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces</a>, wrote to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> in order to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_analysis" title="Intelligence analysis">intelligence channels</a> and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence".<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_2003_p109_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_2003_p109-102">[102]</a></sup>
</p><p>According to an investigation by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, after the end of the war, under the pretense of vaccine development, former members of Unit 731 conducted human experiments on Japanese prisoners, babies and mental patients, with secret funding from the American Government.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> One graduate of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit 1644">Unit 1644</a>, Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. He performed his experiments while he was working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsia" title="Rickettsia">rickettsia</a> and infected mentally-ill patients with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup> As the chief of the unit, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiro_Ishii" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiro Ishii">Shiro Ishii</a> was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities, because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. From 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">US National Archives</a> before they were shipped back to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
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<p>Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_occupation_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="American occupation of Japan">American occupation of Japan</a>. In 1952, human experiments carried out in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagoya City">Nagoya City</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_hospital" title="Children's hospital">Pediatric Hospital</a>, which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup> Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadamichi_Hirasawa" title="Sadamichi Hirasawa">Sadamichi Hirasawa</a> were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%ABsaku_End%C5%8D" title="Shūsaku Endō">Shūsaku Endō</a> published the book <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_and_Poison" title="The Sea and Poison">The Sea and Poison</a></i> about human experimentation in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuoka" title="Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a>, which is thought to have been based on a real incident.
</p><p>The author <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiichi_Morimura" title="Seiichi Morimura">Seiichi Morimura</a> published <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Devil%27s_Gluttony&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Devil's Gluttony (page does not exist)">The Devil's Gluttony</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%82%AA%E9%AD%94%E3%81%AE%E9%A3%BD%E9%A3%9F" class="extiw" title="ja:悪魔の飽食">ja</a>]</span></i> (悪魔の飽食) in 1981, followed by <i>The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel</i> in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731, but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
</p><p>Also in 1981, the first direct testimony of human <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">vivisection</a> in China was given by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasa" title="Ken Yuasa">Ken Yuasa</a>. Since then, much more in depth testimony has been given in Japan. The 2001 documentary <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Devils" title="Japanese Devils">Japanese Devils</a></i> largely consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup>
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<p>Japanese biological warfare <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">operations</a> were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the BW producing nations of France<i>,</i> Hungary<i>,</i> Italy<i>,</i> Poland<i>,</i> and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
Despite the apparent success, Unit 731 lacked adequate scientific and engineering foundations to further maximize its effectiveness..<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></sup> Harris speculated that US scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">forbidden fruit</a>, believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>During the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, some scientists called for experimental data from Unit 731 to be publicly released to the international medical community because the data available on human-pathogen interactions could have helped epidemiologists with pandemic control.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-122">[122]</a></sup> The information has been withheld by both the US and Japanese government.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Official_government_response_in_Japan">Official government response in Japan</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_war_apology_statements_issued_by_Japan" title="List of war apology statements issued by Japan">List of war apology statements issued by Japan</a></div>
<p>In 1983, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Ministry_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Ministry of Education">Japanese Ministry of Education</a> asked Japanese historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabur%C5%8D_Ienaga" title="Saburō Ienaga">Saburō Ienaga</a> to remove a reference from one of his textbooks that stated Unit 731 conducted experiments on thousands of Chinese. The ministry alleged that no academic research supported the claim. In 1984, Japanese historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsuneishi_Keiichi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsuneishi Keiichi (page does not exist)">Tsuneishi Keiichi</a> translated and published over 4,000 pages of U.S. documents on Japanese biological warfare. The ministry backed down after new studies were published in Japan and important evidence surfaced in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup> Saburō Ienaga's <i>New History of Japan</i> included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Japan">Supreme Court of Japan</a> ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1997, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="International lawyer">international lawyer</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K%C5%8Dnen_Tsuchiya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kōnen Tsuchiya (page does not exist)">Kōnen Tsuchiya</a> filed a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">class action</a> suit against the Japanese government, demanding <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reparations_(transitional_justice)" title="Reparations (transitional justice)">reparations</a> for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikkyo_University" title="Rikkyo University">Rikkyo University</a>. All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the courts' ruling was that reparations are determined by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="International treaties">international treaties</a>, not national courts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In August 2002, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_District_Court" title="Tokyo District Court">Tokyo district court</a> ruled for the first time that Japan had engaged in biological warfare. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid</a>, in the cities of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quzhou" title="Quzhou">Quzhou</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changde" title="Changde">Changde</a>. He rejected victims' compensation claims on the grounds that they had already been settled by international peace treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup>
</p><p>In October 2003, a member of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Japan's House of Representatives</a> filed an inquiry. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumi" title="Junichiro Koizumi">Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi</a> responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731, but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup> In April 2018, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_of_Japan" title="National Archives of Japan">National Archives of Japan</a> released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731, in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiga_University_of_Medical_Science" title="Shiga University of Medical Science">Shiga University of Medical Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abroad">Abroad</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>After World War II, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Special_Investigations_(United_States_Department_of_Justice)" title="Office of Special Investigations (United States Department of Justice)">Office of Special Investigations</a> created a watchlist of suspected <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_collaborators" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis collaborators">Axis collaborators</a> and persecutors who are banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Justice_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Justice (United States)">DOJ</a> and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of OSI, stated that this was due to two factors:
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<ol><li>While most documents captured by the US in Europe were <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfilmer" title="Microfilmer">microfilmed</a> before being returned to their respective governments, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> decided to not microfilm its vast collection of documents before returning them to the Japanese government.</li>
<li>The Japanese government has also failed to grant the OSI meaningful access to these and related records after the war, while European countries, on the other hand, have been largely cooperative,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup> the cumulative effect of which is that information pertaining to identifying these individuals is, in effect, impossible to recover.</li></ol>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Print_media">Print media</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Narrow_Road_to_the_Deep_North_(novel)" title="The Narrow Road to the Deep North (novel)">The Narrow Road to the Deep North</a></i>, a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_Prize" title="Booker Prize">Booker Prize</a>-winning 2014 novel by Australian writer <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Flanagan" title="Richard Flanagan">Richard Flanagan</a>, refers extensively to the atrocities committed by a doctor who served in Unit 731.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_Sea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Forest Sea (page does not exist)">Forest Sea</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C5%9Bne_Morze" class="extiw" title="pl:Leśne Morze">pl</a>]</span></i> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: <i lang="pl">Leśne morze</i>) (1960), a novel by a Polish writer and educator <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Newerly" title="Igor Newerly">Igor Newerly</a>, was the first book published outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the unit.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Man_Who_Ended_History:_A_Documentary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Man Who Ended History: A Documentary (page does not exist)">The Man Who Ended History: A Documentary</a></i> (2011), a novella published in <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Paper_Menagerie" title="The Paper Menagerie">The Paper Menagerie</a></i> book by American writer and Chinese translator <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Liu" title="Ken Liu">Ken Liu</a>: A scientific discovery allows a victim's descendant to go back in time to witness and learn the truth about the atrocities committed in the unit.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricky_Twenty-Two" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricky Twenty-Two">Tricky Twenty-Two</a></i>, a novel in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Plum" title="Stephanie Plum">Stephanie Plum</a> series by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Evanovich" title="Janet Evanovich">Janet Evanovich</a>, features as its antagonist a deranged biology professor who is obsessed with Unit 731 and is attempting to recreate the unit's bubonic plague dispersals.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Solomon_Curse" title="The Solomon Curse">The Solomon Curse</a></i>, a novel in the <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fargo_Adventures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fargo Adventures (page does not exist)">Fargo Adventures</a></i> series by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Cussler" title="Clive Cussler">Clive Cussler</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Blake_(author)" title="Russell Blake (author)">Russell Blake</a>, involves this unit in its plot, around secret human experimentation on the island of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal" title="Guadalcanal">Guadalcanal</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Grimnoire_Series&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Grimnoire Series (page does not exist)">The Grimnoire Series</a></i>, an alternative-history series of novels by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Correia" title="Larry Correia">Larry Correia</a>, has Unit 731 conducting brutal magical experiments on prisoners of the Japanese Imperium.</li>
<li>"Setting Sun" story from <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellblazer" title="Hellblazer">Hellblazer</a></i> #142 by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_Comics" title="DC Comics">DC Comics</a>, written by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Ellis" title="Warren Ellis">Warren Ellis</a> and illustrated by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javier_Pulido" title="Javier Pulido">Javier Pulido</a>, features a fictitious character who used to be a doctor in Unit 731 during the war and conducted experiments on humans.</li>
<li>In the manga <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Hero_Academia" title="My Hero Academia">My Hero Academia</a></i>, a mad scientist who conducts experiments on humans to create a genetically modified race was first introduced as Shiga Maruta. Because of the association with the <i>Maruta</i> project, it caused a major controversy, especially in China, where <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencent" title="Tencent">Tencent</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilibili" title="Bilibili">Bilibili</a> removed the manga from their platforms.<sup id="cite_ref-scmp_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmp-132">[132]</a></sup> Both <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekly_Shonen_Jump" class="mw-redirect" title="Weekly Shonen Jump">Weekly Shonen Jump</a></i> magazine and the author <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dhei_Horikoshi" title="Kōhei Horikoshi">Kōhei Horikoshi</a> issued individual apologizing statements on Twitter,<sup id="cite_ref-scmp_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scmp-132">[132]</a></sup> and the character name was changed in subsequent publications.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crisis_in_the_Ashes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis in the Ashes (page does not exist)">Crisis in the Ashes</a></i>, by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_W._Johnstone" title="William W. Johnstone">William W. Johnstone</a> features the grandson of Dr. Ishi who has samples of the bubonic plague that he is trying to use to stop the liberal dictator of the US from using to conduct <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupied_City_(novel)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Occupied City (novel) (page does not exist)">Occupied City</a></i> (2010), a novel by British author <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Peace" title="David Peace">David Peace</a> who lives in Japan, presents a mystery about a murder on 26 January 1948 in Tokyo. A murderer poisons bank employees by pretending to be a government official administering a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> vaccine. Gradually, through the testimonies of various people connected to the tragedy, it becomes clear that the poisoner has a shared history with Unit 731.</li>
<li><i>The Collector – Unit 731</i>, a four-issue miniseries by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Horse_Comics" title="Dark Horse Comics">Dark Horse Comics</a>, written by Rod Monteiro and co-written and illustrated by Will Conrad, features a fictitious character who is captured by the Kenpeitai in Tokyo and taken to the Unit 731 as a prisoner of war.</li>
<li><i>The English Führer</i> (2023) by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rory_Clements" title="Rory Clements">Rory Clements</a> involves the use of biological weapons developed by Unit 731.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Films">Films</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<p>There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.
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<ul><li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Through_Gobi_and_Khingan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Through Gobi and Khingan (page does not exist)">Through Gobi and Khingan</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD" class="extiw" title="ru:Через Гоби и Хинган">ru</a>]</span></i> (1981); Coproduction of USSR, Mongolia, Eastern Germany. Miniseries (two episodes).</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_and_Poison_(film)" title="The Sea and Poison (film)">The Sea and Poison</a></i> (1986), Japan, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei_Kumai" title="Kei Kumai">Kei Kumai</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_Behind_the_Sun" title="Men Behind the Sun">Men Behind the Sun</a></i> (1988), China, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tun_Fei_Mou" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun Fei Mou">Tun Fei Mou</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unit_731:_Laboratory_of_the_Devil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil (page does not exist)">Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD731%E7%BA%8C%E9%9B%86%E4%B9%8B%E6%AE%BA%E4%BA%BA%E5%B7%A5%E5%BB%A0" class="extiw" title="zh:黑太陽731續集之殺人工廠">zh</a>]</span></i> (1992), China, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Ho" title="Godfrey Ho">Godfrey Ho</a></li>
<li><i>Kizu (les fantômes de l'unité 731)</i> (2004), France, directed by Serge Viallet</li>
<li><i>731: Two Versions of Hell</i> (2007), produced by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_T._Hong" title="James T. Hong">James T. Hong</a>; documentary about Unit 731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_a_Knife" title="Philosophy of a Knife">Philosophy of a Knife</a></i> (2008), Russia, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrey_Iskanov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrey Iskanov (page does not exist)">Andrey Iskanov</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87" class="extiw" title="ru:Исканов, Андрей Геннадьевич">ru</a>]</span></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Mine" title="Dead Mine">Dead Mine</a></i> (2012), Indonesia, directed by Steven Sheil and based in a fictionalized version of Unit 731</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongju:_The_Portrait_of_a_Poet" title="Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet">Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet</a></i> (2016), South Korea, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Joon-ik" title="Lee Joon-ik">Lee Junik</a>, depicts dead poet <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yun_Dong-ju" title="Yun Dong-ju">Yoon Dong-ju</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wife_of_a_Spy" title="Wife of a Spy">Wife of a Spy</a></i> (2020), Japan, directed by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiyoshi_Kurosawa" title="Kiyoshi Kurosawa">Kiyoshi Kurosawa</a> and won the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Lion" title="Silver Lion">Silver Lion for Best Direction</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival" title="Venice Film Festival">Venice Film Festival</a> in 2020.</li></ul>
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<ul><li>"The Breeding House" (1994), <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Dickinson" title="Bruce Dickinson">Bruce Dickinson</a>. Segment of the CD-single <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_of_the_Dragon" title="Tears of the Dragon">Tears of the Dragon</a></i>, describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the Americans to the physicians of the Unit</li>
<li>"Unit 731" (2009), American <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrash_metal" title="Thrash metal">thrash metal</a> band <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayer" title="Slayer">Slayer</a>. Song on the album <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Painted_Blood" title="World Painted Blood">World Painted Blood</a></i>, describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731</li>
<li>"Unit 731" (2011), Power electronic band Brandkommando</li>
<li>"And You Will Beg for Our Secrets" (2016), from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaal_Nathrakh" title="Anaal Nathrakh">Anaal Nathrakh</a> album <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whole_of_the_Law" title="The Whole of the Law">The Whole of the Law</a></i>, refers to Unit 731's activities and the US amnesty given in exchange for information resulting from the experiments carried out.</li>
<li>"The New Eternity" (2018), from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Planet" title="Silent Planet">Silent Planet</a> album <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_End_Began" title="When the End Began">When the End Began</a></i> refers to Unit 731's human experimentation and other crimes against humanity.</li>
<li>"Maruta" (2009), South Korean metal band <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sad_Legend&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sad Legend (page does not exist)">Sad Legend</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%88%EB%93%9C_%EB%A0%88%EC%A0%84%EB%93%9C" class="extiw" title="ko:새드 레전드">ko</a>]</span>.</li>
<li>"Unit 731" (2021), single from German Deathstep producer Kroww.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Television">Television</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><i>Unit 731 – Did the Emperor Know?</i> (1985) <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_South" title="Television South">Television South</a> documentary first broadcast on 13 August.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files" title="The X-Files">The X-Files</a></i> episode <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/731_(The_X-Files)" title="731 (The X-Files)">"731"</a> (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their experiments on humans under control of a covert US government agency.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReGenesis" title="ReGenesis">ReGenesis</a></i> episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">glanders</a> are traced to World War II Japan.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warehouse_13" title="Warehouse 13">Warehouse 13</a></i> episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shirō Ishii's medal from Unit 731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_Revolutio" title="Concrete Revolutio">Concrete Revolutio</a></i>. The experimentation on superhumans by the Japanese and Americans is a parallel to Unit 731.</li>
<li><i>731</i> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">七三一</span>) (2015). A five-episode <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Central_Television" title="China Central Television">CCTV</a> documentary broadcast in 2015.</li>
<li><i>The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments</i> (2017). An <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK" title="NHK">NHK</a> Documentary broadcast in 2017, including paper materials, recording tapes, and interviews to former members and doctors who have implemented experiments in Unit 731.</li>
<li>In <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blacklist" title="The Blacklist">The Blacklist</a></i>, the episode "General Shiro" is a reference to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shir%C5%8D_Ishii" title="Shirō Ishii">Shirō Ishii</a>.</li>
<li>Link to part of a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/622243442">recorded telephone interview</a> with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoshimura_Hisato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yoshimura Hisato (page does not exist)">Yoshimura Hisato</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E6%9D%91%E5%AF%BF%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="ja:吉村寿人">ja</a>]</span>.</li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Black_Sun" title="Kamen Rider Black Sun">Kamen Rider Black Sun</a></i>: A 10 episode (2022) <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Prime_Video" title="Amazon Prime Video">Amazon Prime Video</a> reboot of the original <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamen_Rider_Black" title="Kamen Rider Black">Kamen Rider Black</a> in Japan. The Kaijin experiments is similar to Unit 731. Dounami Michinosuke began the experiments in 1936. The title "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" is written on the document. It was also in 1936 that <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobusuke_Kishi" title="Nobusuke Kishi">Nobusuke Kishi</a> got the title of "業部総務司長(Chief General Affairs Officer)" in Manchuria, China.</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Video_games">Video games</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li>In <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_of_Duty:_Black_Ops_III" title="Call of Duty: Black Ops III">Call of Duty: Black Ops III</a></i>, the Zombies map included in the second DLC pack, "Zetsubou no Shima", is loosely inspired by Unit 731's divisions, with the story playing on the idea of a ninth hidden one aptly named 'Division 9'.</li>
<li>In the indie horror game <i>Spooky's Jumpscare Mansion</i>, the Unit 731 experiments are explicitly referenced multiple times in terms of Specimen 9 (specifically stated to be a survivor of the Unit 731 experiments), as well as the labeling of human bodies as "logs": "I'm taking all those 'logs' they keep throwing out, and I'm nailing them together."</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_cover-up_of_Japanese_war_crimes" title="American cover-up of Japanese war crimes">American cover-up of Japanese war crimes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Battle of Changde</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biological_warfare" title="History of biological warfare">History of biological warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_warfare" title="History of chemical warfare">History of chemical warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_torture" title="Medical torture">Medical torture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi human experimentation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ckunoshima" title="Ōkunoshima">Ōkunoshima</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bloodstone" title="Operation Bloodstone">Operation Bloodstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MKNAOMI" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MKNAOMI">Project MKNAOMI</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation" title="Unethical human experimentation">Unethical human experimentation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_543" title="Unit 543">Unit 543</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">War crimes in Manchukuo</a></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1011085734"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Kristof-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristof_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristof_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristof_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristof_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Kristof</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-montana1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-montana1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-montana1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-montana1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.montana.edu/historybug/yersiniaessays/shama.html">"Japan – Insects, Disease, and History | Montana State University"</a>. Montana.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Japan+%E2%80%93+Insects%2C+Disease%2C+and+History+%26%23124%3B+Montana+State+University&rft.pub=Montana.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.montana.edu%2Fhistorybug%2Fyersiniaessays%2Fshama.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). <i>Unit 731</i>. Grafton Books, p. 44. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0586208224" title="Special:BookSources/0586208224">0586208224</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van der Kloot 2004, p. 152.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Id.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris" class="citation web cs1">Harris, Sheldon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">"Factories of Death"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 29. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death&rft.pages=29&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fthe-eye.eu%2Fpublic%2Fconcen.org%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%252C%25201932-1945%252C%2520and%2520the%2520American%2520Cover-Up%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Barenblat, <i>A plague upon humanity</i>, 2004, p. 37.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuki Tanaka, <i>Hidden Horrors</i>, 1996, p. 136.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVanderbrook2013" class="citation journal cs1">Vanderbrook, Alan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd">"Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two"</a>. <i>Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019</i> – via STARS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Theses+and+Dissertations%2C+2004-2019&rft.atitle=Imperial+Japan%27s+Human+Experiments+Before+And+During+World+War+Two&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Vanderbrook&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fstars.library.ucf.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3588%26context%3Detd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html">"Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program – The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus"</a>. <i>apjjf.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180104190943/http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=apjjf.org&rft.atitle=Unit+731+and+the+Japanese+Imperial+Army%27s+Biological+Warfare+Program+%E2%80%93+The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fapjjf.org%2F-Tsuneishi-Keiichi%2F2194%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NHK-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NHK_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments (2017). NHK Documentary</span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCookCook1992" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. (1992). <i>Japan at war: an oral history</i> (1st ed.). New York: New Press. p. 162. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1565840143" title="Special:BookSources/1565840143"><bdi>1565840143</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan+at+war%3A+an+oral+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=162&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1565840143&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Haruko+Taya&rft.au=Cook%2C+Theodore+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKristof1995" class="citation news cs1">Kristof, Nicholas D. (17 March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all">"Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180120034658/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=all">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 10,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unmasking+Horror+%E2%80%93+A+special+report.+Japan+Confronting+Gruesome+War+Atrocity&rft.date=1995-03-17&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F03%2F17%2Fworld%2Funmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Harris_2002_p._83-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harris_2002_p._83_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2002" class="citation book cs1">Harris, S.H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84"><i>Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up</i></a>. Routledge. p. 63. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415932141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415932141"><bdi>978-0415932141</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death%3A+Japanese+Biological+Warfare%2C+1932%E2%80%931945%2C+and+the+American+Cover-up&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415932141&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=S.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyCZ6yr-J3dIC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris" class="citation web cs1">Harris, Sheldon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">"Factories of Death"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 28. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death&rft.pages=28&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fthe-eye.eu%2Fpublic%2Fconcen.org%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%252C%25201932-1945%252C%2520and%2520the%2520American%2520Cover-Up%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGoldTotani2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal; Totani, Yuma. (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program</i>. Tuttle Publishing. p. 222. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804852197" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804852197"><bdi>978-0804852197</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731%3A+First-hand+Accounts+of+Japan%27s+Wartime+Human+Experimentation+Program&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0804852197&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rft.au=Totani%2C+Yuma.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/">"Pure Evil: Wartime Japanese Doctor Had No Regard for Human Suffering"</a>. <i>Medical Bag</i>. 2014-05-28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329140410/http://www.medicalbag.com/despicable-doctors/pure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering/article/472462/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Bag&rft.atitle=Pure+Evil%3A+Wartime+Japanese+Doctor+Had+No+Regard+for+Human+Suffering&rft.date=2014-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.medicalbag.com%2Fdespicable-doctors%2Fpure-evil-wartime-japanese-doctor-had-no-regard-for-human-suffering%2Farticle%2F472462%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html">"Unit 731: Overview"</a>. <i>mtholyoke.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html">the original</a> on 2017-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mtholyoke.edu&rft.atitle=Unit+731%3A+Overview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2F~kann20c%2Fclassweb%2Fdw2%2Fpage1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas D. Kristof <i>New York Times</i>, March 17, 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print">"Unmasking Horror: A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110317115032/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=print">Archived</a> 2011-03-17 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-dissect-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dissect_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dissect_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Lloyd_Parry2007" class="citation news cs1">Richard Lloyd Parry (February 25, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">"Dissect them alive: order not to be disobeyed"</a>. <i>Times Online</i>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110523225449/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ece">Archived</a> from the original on May 23, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+Online&rft.atitle=Dissect+them+alive%3A+order+not+to+be+disobeyed&rft.date=2007-02-25&rft.au=Richard+Lloyd+Parry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fasia%2Farticle1438491.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-vimeo1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vimeo1_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vimeo1_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260">"(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage)"</a>. <i>(RARE) Unit 731 surgeon Okawa Fukumatsu (interview footage)</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074509/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/625179260">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%28RARE%29+Unit+731+surgeon+Okawa+Fukumatsu+%28interview+footage%29&rft.atitle=%28RARE%29+Unit+731+surgeon+Okawa+Fukumatsu+%28interview+footage%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fvimeo.com%2Fmanage%2Fvideos%2F625179260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/">"Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada"</a>. Archived from the original on November 19, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2004</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+former+Unit+731+member+Nobuo+Kamada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.technologyartist.com%2Funit_731%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-nyt-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKristof1995" class="citation news cs1">Kristof, Nicholar D. (17 March 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2">"Unmasking Horror – A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107115922/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2">Archived</a> from the original on 7 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unmasking+Horror+%E2%80%93+A+special+report.+Japan+Confronting+Gruesome+War+Atrocity&rft.date=1995-03-17&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholar+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F03%2F17%2Fworld%2Funmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html%3Fpagewanted%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHongo2007" class="citation web cs1">Hongo, Jun (24 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning/">"Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170401172838/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning//">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 May</span> 2013</span> – via Japan Times Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vivisectionist+recalls+his+day+of+reckoning&rft.date=2007-10-24&rft.aulast=Hongo&rft.aufirst=Jun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fnews%2F2007%2F10%2F24%2Freference%2Fvivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKristof1995" class="citation news cs1">Kristof, Nicholas D. (1995-03-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html">"Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unmasking+Horror+%E2%80%93+A+special+report.%3B+Japan+Confronting+Gruesome+War+Atrocity&rft.date=1995-03-17&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F03%2F17%2Fworld%2Funmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYang2016" class="citation book cs1">Yang, Yanjun (2016). <i>Japan's Biological Warfare in China</i>. Beijing: Foreign Language Press. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Biological+Warfare+in+China&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Foreign+Language+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Yanjun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ciadoc-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ciadoc_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>ciadoc</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris" class="citation web cs1">Harris, Sheldon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">"Factories of Death"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 77. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death&rft.pages=77&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fthe-eye.eu%2Fpublic%2Fconcen.org%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%252C%25201932-1945%252C%2520and%2520the%2520American%2520Cover-Up%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Barenblatt2004-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barenblatt2004_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barenblatt2004_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barenblatt, Daniel. <i>A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation</i>, HarperCollins, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259" title="Special:BookSources/0060186259">0060186259</a>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-histpersp-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-histpersp_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-histpersp_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_W.CieslakPavlinEitzen1997" class="citation journal cs1">Christopher W., George; Cieslak, Theodore J.; Pavlin, Julie A.; Eitzen, Edward M. (August 1997). "Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective". <i>The Journal of the American Medical Association</i>. <b>278</b> (5): 412–417. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1997.03550050074036">10.1001/jama.1997.03550050074036</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9244333">9244333</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Association&rft.atitle=Biological+Warfare%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=278&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=412-417&rft.date=1997-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.1997.03550050074036&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9244333&rft.aulast=Christopher+W.&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Cieslak%2C+Theodore+J.&rft.au=Pavlin%2C+Julie+A.&rft.au=Eitzen%2C+Edward+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/">Biological Weapons Program-Japan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100727172723/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/">Archived</a> 2010-07-27 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Federation of American Scientists</span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm">Review of the studies on Germ Warfare</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121119074840/http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htm">Archived</a> 2012-11-19 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Tien-wei Wu <i>A Preliminary Review of Studies of Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarenblatt2004" class="citation book cs1">Barenblatt, Daniel (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163"><i>A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation</i></a> (1 ed.). New York: Harper. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plagueuponhumani00bare/page/163">163–175</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060186258" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060186258"><bdi>978-0060186258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Plague+upon+Humanity%3A+The+Secret+Genocide+of+Axis+Japan%27s+Germ+Warfare+Operation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=163-175&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0060186258&rft.aulast=Barenblatt&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplagueuponhumani00bare%2Fpage%2F163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv">Video</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170921143738/https://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmv">Archived</a> 2017-09-21 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> adapted from "Biological Warfare & Terrorism: The Military and Public Health Response", <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. Retrieved October 21, 2007</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf">"Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan%E2%80%93Flint" title="University of Michigan–Flint">University of Michigan–Flint</a></i>. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-07-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Michigan%E2%80%93Flint&rft.atitle=Biohazard%3A+Unit+731+and+the+American+Cover-Up&rft.pages=5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.umflint.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fgroups%2FResearch_and_Sponsored_Programs%2FMOM%2Fb.altheide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin2017" class="citation book cs1">Guillemin, Jeanne (2017). "The 1925 Geneva Protocol: China's CBW Charges Against Japan at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal". In Friedrich, Bretislav; Hoffmann, Dieter; Renn, Jürgen; Schmaltz, Florian; Wolf, Martin (eds.). <i>One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences</i>. Springer International Publishing. pp. 273–286. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_15">10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_15</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319516646" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319516646"><bdi>978-3319516646</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+1925+Geneva+Protocol%3A+China%27s+CBW+Charges+Against+Japan+at+the+Tokyo+War+Crimes+Tribunal&rft.btitle=One+Hundred+Years+of+Chemical+Warfare%3A+Research%2C+Deployment%2C+Consequences&rft.pages=273-286&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-51664-6_15&rft.isbn=978-3319516646&rft.aulast=Guillemin&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrett, Benjamin C. and John Hart. <i>Historical Dictionary of Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare</i>, page 159.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geoghegan, John. <i>Operation Storm: Japan's Top Secret Submarines and Its Plan to Change the Course of World War II</i>, pages 189–191.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony: Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program, pages 89–92</span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKristoff1995" class="citation news cs1">Kristoff, Nicholas D. (March 17, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html">"Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unmasking+Horror+--+A+special+report.%3B+Japan+Confronting+Gruesome+War+Atrocity&rft.date=1995-03-17&rft.aulast=Kristoff&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F03%2F17%2Fworld%2Funmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Felton, Mark. <i>The Devil's Doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War</i>, Chapter 10</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHickeyLiMorrisonSchulz2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hickey, Doug; Li, Scarllet Sijia; Morrison, Ceila; Schulz, Richard; Thiry, Michelle; Sorensen, Kelly (April 2017). "Unit 731 and Moral Repair". <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 270–276. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2015-103177">10.1136/medethics-2015-103177</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27003420">27003420</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20475762">20475762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=Unit+731+and+Moral+Repair&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=270-276&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20475762%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27003420&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fmedethics-2015-103177&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft.au=Li%2C+Scarllet+Sijia&rft.au=Morrison%2C+Ceila&rft.au=Schulz%2C+Richard&rft.au=Thiry%2C+Michelle&rft.au=Sorensen%2C+Kelly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Monchinski, Tony (2008). <i>Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom</i>. Volumen 3 de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1402084625" title="Special:BookSources/1402084625">1402084625</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). <i>Understanding Research</i>. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, p. 65. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0205471536" title="Special:BookSources/0205471536">0205471536</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dwight R. Rider, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf"><i>Japan's Biological and Chemical Weapons Programs; War Crimes and Atrocities: Who's Who, What's What and Where's Where – 1928–1945</i></a>, 14 November 2018 3rd Edition, p. 119, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211101094710/http://www.mansell.com/Resources/Rider_Whos_Who_in_Japanese_BW_2018-10-09_IN_PROCESS--SEEK-PERMISSION-TO-USE.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-11-01 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSilvester2006" class="citation news cs1">Silvester, Christopher (2006-04-29). <span class="cs1-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html">"Electrocuted, gassed, frozen, boiled alive"</a></span>. <i>Daily Telegraph</i>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235">0307-1235</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3651939/Electrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Electrocuted%2C+gassed%2C+frozen%2C+boiled+alive&rft.date=2006-04-29&rft.issn=0307-1235&rft.aulast=Silvester&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fculture%2Fbooks%2F3651939%2FElectrocuted-gassed-frozen-boiled-alive.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-aiipowmia-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aiipowmia_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071017024440/http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html">"The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731"</a>. Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-MIAs Archives. 2001. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.html">the original</a> on 17 October 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nanjing+Massacre+and+Unit+731&rft.pub=Advocacy+%26+Intelligence+Index+For+POWs-MIAs+Archives&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.aiipowmia.com%2F731%2F731holocaust.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCroddyWirtz2005" class="citation book cs1">Croddy, Eric; Wirtz, James (2005). <i>Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical and biological weapons</i>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851094905" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851094905"><bdi>978-1851094905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction%3A+Chemical+and+biological+weapons&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1851094905&rft.aulast=Croddy&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft.au=Wirtz%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFX1950" class="citation book cs1">X, X (1950). <i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=X&rft.aufirst=X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>. Japan: Tuttle Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>. Japan: Tuttle Publishing. p. 350.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731&rft.place=Japan&rft.pages=350&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Kristor-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristor_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristor_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristor_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKristof1995" class="citation news cs1">Kristof, Nicholas D. (March 17, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html">"Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Unmasking+Horror+%E2%80%93+A+special+report.%3B+Japan+Confronting+Gruesome+War+Atrocity&rft.date=1995-03-17&rft.aulast=Kristof&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F03%2F17%2Fworld%2Funmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/">"Inside Japan's wartime factory of death"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Hills" title="Ben Hills">Ben Hills</a></i>. 2013-11-24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063452/http://benhills.com/articles/the-war/inside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ben+Hills&rft.atitle=Inside+Japan%27s+wartime+factory+of+death&rft.date=2013-11-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fbenhills.com%2Farticles%2Fthe-war%2Finside-japans-wartime-factory-of-death%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html">"Asia's Auschwitz"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a></i>. 1994-12-17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030225648/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Asia%27s+Auschwitz&rft.date=1994-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Fworld%2Fasias-auschwitz-19941217-gdfkwq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEmanuelGradyCrouchLie2011" class="citation book cs1">Emanuel, Ezekiel; Grady, Christine; Crouch, Robert; Lie, Reidar; Miller, Franklin (2011). <i>The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics</i>. US: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Textbook+of+Clinical+Research+Ethics&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Emanuel&rft.aufirst=Ezekiel&rft.au=Grady%2C+Christine&rft.au=Crouch%2C+Robert&rft.au=Lie%2C+Reidar&rft.au=Miller%2C+Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html">"Self Determination by Imperial Japanese Doctors"</a>. <i>www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063454/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/UNESCOkumamoto07.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp&rft.atitle=Self+Determination+by+Imperial+Japanese+Doctors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp%2Fuser%2Ftsuchiya%2Fgyoseki%2Fpresentation%2FUNESCOkumamoto07.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLaFleurBöhmeShimazono2007" class="citation book cs1">LaFleur, William; Böhme, Gernot; Shimazono, Susumu (2007). <i>Dark medicine: rationalizing unethical medical research</i>. US: Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark+medicine%3A+rationalizing+unethical+medical+research&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=LaFleur&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=B%C3%B6hme%2C+Gernot&rft.au=Shimazono%2C+Susumu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEmanuelGradyCrouchLie2011" class="citation book cs1">Emanuel, Ezekiel; Grady, Christine; Crouch, Robert; Lie, Reidar; Miller, Franklin (2011). <i>The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics</i>. US: Oxford University Press. p. 36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Textbook+of+Clinical+Research+Ethics&rft.place=US&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Emanuel&rft.aufirst=Ezekiel&rft.au=Grady%2C+Christine&rft.au=Crouch%2C+Robert&rft.au=Lie%2C+Reidar&rft.au=Miller%2C+Franklin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYoshimuraIida1950" class="citation book cs1">Yoshimura, Hisato; Iida, Toshiyuki (1950). <i>Studies on the Reactivity of Skin Vessels to Extreme Cold</i>. Japan: Japanese Journal Of Physiology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+the+Reactivity+of+Skin+Vessels+to+Extreme+Cold&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=Japanese+Journal+Of+Physiology&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Yoshimura&rft.aufirst=Hisato&rft.au=Iida%2C+Toshiyuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442">"(RARE) Yoshimura Hisato (excerpt of a telephone interview conducted by Mainichi Shimbun)"</a>. <i>Vimeo</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211007074506/https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/622243442">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vimeo&rft.atitle=%28RARE%29+Yoshimura+Hisato+%28excerpt+of+a+telephone+interview+conducted+by+Mainichi+Shimbun%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fvimeo.com%2Fmanage%2Fvideos%2F622243442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKei-ichiAsano1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kei-ichi, Tsuneishi; Asano, Tomizo (1982). <i>Kieta saikin-sen butai to jiketsu shita futari no igakusha</i> [<i>The biological warfare unit and two physicians who committed suicide</i>] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shinchosha.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kieta+saikin-sen+butai+to+jiketsu+shita+futari+no+igakusha&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Shinchosha&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Kei-ichi&rft.aufirst=Tsuneishi&rft.au=Asano%2C+Tomizo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEckart2006" class="citation book cs1">Eckart, Wolfgang (2006). <i>Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century</i>. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man%2C+Medicine%2C+and+the+State%3A+The+Human+Body+as+an+Object+of+Government+Sponsored+Medical+Research+in+the+20th+Century&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Eckart&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2004" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2004). <i>Unit 731: Testimony</i>. Tuttle Publishing. p. 157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unit+731%3A+Testimony&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-gold-testimony-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gold-testimony_64-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2011" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2011). <i>Unit 731 Testimony</i> (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. pp. 157–158. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1462900824" title="Special:BookSources/978-1462900824"><bdi>978-1462900824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unit+731+Testimony&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=157-158&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Tuttle+Pub.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1462900824&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGowDijxhoornKerrVerdirame2019" class="citation book cs1">Gow, James; Dijxhoorn, Ernst; Kerr, Rachel; Verdirame, Guglielmo (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333"><i>Routledge Handbook of War, Law and Technology</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351619974" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351619974"><bdi>978-1351619974</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414162826/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-YDwAAQBAJ&q=harris+200000+biological+warfare&pg=PT333">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+War%2C+Law+and+Technology&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1351619974&rft.aulast=Gow&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Dijxhoorn%2C+Ernst&rft.au=Kerr%2C+Rachel&rft.au=Verdirame%2C+Guglielmo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiX-YDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dharris%2B200000%2Bbiological%2Bwarfare%26pg%3DPT333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheldon Harris, <i>Factories of Death</i> (London, Routledge, 1994)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dcr-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dcr_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dcr_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">David C. Rapoport. "Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse". In James M. Ludes, Henry Sokolski (eds.), <i>Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are We Ready?</i> Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Harris_2002_p._334-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harris_2002_p._334_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2002" class="citation book cs1">Harris, S.H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC&pg=PA84"><i>Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-up</i></a>. Routledge. p. 334. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415932141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415932141"><bdi>978-0415932141</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220607175944/https://books.google.com/books?id=yCZ6yr-J3dIC">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death%3A+Japanese+Biological+Warfare%2C+1932%E2%80%931945%2C+and+the+American+Cover-up&rft.pages=334&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415932141&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=S.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyCZ6yr-J3dIC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-trialmaterials-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trialmaterials_69-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1950.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yuki Tanaka, <i>Hidden Horrors</i>, Westviewpress, 1996, p. 138</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html">"[IAB8] Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities"</a>. <i>osaka-cu.ac.jp</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043000/http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=osaka-cu.ac.jp&rft.atitle=%5BIAB8%5D+Imperial+Japanese+Medical+Atrocities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp%2Fuser%2Ftsuchiya%2Fgyoseki%2Fpresentation%2FIAB8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Wells_2009_p._42-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wells_2009_p._42_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWells2009" class="citation book cs1">Wells, A. S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC&pg=PA42"><i>The A to Z of World War II: The War Against Japan</i></a>. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 42. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810870260" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810870260"><bdi>978-0810870260</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220607180427/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ptE9EGO_WUC">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-07-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+A+to+Z+of+World+War+II%3A+The+War+Against+Japan&rft.series=The+A+to+Z+Guide+Series&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0810870260&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ptE9EGO_WUC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071217155553/http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htm">The devil unit, Unit 731. ７３１部隊について</a>, accessed 17 Dec 2007</span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBuruma2015" class="citation web cs1">Buruma, Ian (4 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror">"In North Korea: Wonder & Terror"</a>. <i>www.chinafile.com</i>. The New York Review of Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180116002323/http://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/north-korea-wonder-terror">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chinafile.com&rft.atitle=In+North+Korea%3A+Wonder+%26+Terror&rft.date=2015-06-04&rft.aulast=Buruma&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.chinafile.com%2Flibrary%2Fnyrb-china-archive%2Fnorth-korea-wonder-terror&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGoldTotani2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal; Totani, Yuma. (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731: First-hand Accounts of Japan's Wartime Human Experimentation Program</i>. United States: Tuttle Publishing. pp. 169–170. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804852197" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804852197"><bdi>978-0804852197</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731%3A+First-hand+Accounts+of+Japan%27s+Wartime+Human+Experimentation+Program&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=169-170&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0804852197&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rft.au=Totani%2C+Yuma.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm">"Japanese Medical Atrocities in World War II"</a>. <i>www.vcn.bc.ca</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190618203650/http://www.vcn.bc.ca/alpha/speech/Harris.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-06-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vcn.bc.ca&rft.atitle=Japanese+Medical+Atrocities+in+World+War+II&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.vcn.bc.ca%2Falpha%2Fspeech%2FHarris.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150813034434/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm">"旧日本軍の７３１部隊（細菌部隊）人体実験に朝鮮人"</a>. <i>korea-np.co.jp</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htm">the original</a> on 2015-08-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=korea-np.co.jp&rft.atitle=%E6%97%A7%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%BB%8D%E3%81%AE%EF%BC%97%EF%BC%93%EF%BC%91%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%B4%B0%E8%8F%8C%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E4%BA%BA%E4%BD%93%E5%AE%9F%E9%A8%93%E3%81%AB%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E4%BA%BA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww1.korea-np.co.jp%2Fsinboj%2Fsinboj2002%2F8%2F0826%2F81.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm">"Часть 36 из 150 – Моримура Сэйити. Кухня дьявола"</a>. <i>www.x-libri.ru</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140906073729/http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-09-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.x-libri.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+36+%D0%B8%D0%B7+150+%E2%80%93+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8.+%D0%9A%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BD%D1%8F+%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.x-libri.ru%2Felib%2Fmorim000%2F00000036.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1950. p. 112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto2-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>. Japan: Tuttle Publishing. p. 306.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731&rft.place=Japan&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFX1950" class="citation book cs1">X, X (1950). <i>Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. p. 366.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+On+The+Trial+Of+Former+Servicemen+Of+The+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+And+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=366&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=X&rft.aufirst=X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Materials On The Trial Of Former Servicemen Of The Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing And Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1950. p. 117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+On+The+Trial+Of+Former+Servicemen+Of+The+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+And+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>. Japan: Tuttle Publishing. p. 311.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731&rft.place=Japan&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1950. p. 427.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=427&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2019" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2019). <i>Japan's Infamous Unit 731</i>. Japan: Tuttle Publishing. p. 317.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japan%27s+Infamous+Unit+731&rft.place=Japan&rft.pages=317&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 1950. pp. 349, 450.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=349%2C+450&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto1-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/">"Yoshio Shinozuka – UNIT 731"</a>. <i>Unit 731 Museum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211009092912/https://unit731.org/yoshio-shinozuka/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Unit+731+Museum&rft.atitle=Yoshio+Shinozuka+%E2%80%93+UNIT+731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Funit731.org%2Fyoshio-shinozuka%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFX1950" class="citation book cs1">X (1950). <i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged With Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i>. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. p. 374.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+on+the+Trial+of+Former+Servicemen+of+the+Japanese+Army+Charged+With+Manufacturing+and+Employing+Bacteriological+Weapons&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Publishing+House&rft.date=1950&rft.au=X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorimura1984" class="citation book cs1">Morimura, Seiichi (1984). <i>Zu Binghe translation of Ogre's Cave: terrible inside story of the bacteriological warfare unit from Japan's Kwantung Army</i>. Beijing: Qunzhong Chubanshe. pp. 108–109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zu+Binghe+translation+of+Ogre%27s+Cave%3A+terrible+inside+story+of+the+bacteriological+warfare+unit+from+Japan%27s+Kwantung+Army&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=108-109&rft.pub=Qunzhong+Chubanshe&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Morimura&rft.aufirst=Seiichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2002" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Sheldon (2002). "Japanese Biomedical Experimentation During The World-War-II". <i>Military Medical Ethics</i>. <b>2</b>: 463–506.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=Japanese+Biomedical+Experimentation+During+The+World-War-II&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=463-506&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMcCurry2018" class="citation web cs1">McCurry, Justin (2018-04-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war">"Japan publishes list of members of Unit 731 imperial army branch"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417111333/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Japan+publishes+list+of+members+of+Unit+731+imperial+army+branch&rft.date=2018-04-17&rft.aulast=McCurry&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fapr%2F17%2Fjapan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-shokan-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shokan_92-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFuller1992" class="citation book cs1">Fuller, Richard (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shokanhirohitoss00full"><i>Shōkan: Hirohito's Samurai</i></a>. Arms and Armour. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1854091512" title="Special:BookSources/978-1854091512"><bdi>978-1854091512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sh%C5%8Dkan%3A+Hirohito%27s+Samurai&rft.pub=Arms+and+Armour&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1854091512&rft.aulast=Fuller&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshokanhirohitoss00full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170308232538/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html">"Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.html">the original</a> on March 8, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unit+731%3A+One+of+the+Most+Terrifying+Secrets+of+the+20th+Century&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2F~kann20c%2Fclassweb%2Fdw2%2Fpage1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/">"Harbin museum – Unit 731"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201023024127/https://unit731.org/harbin-museum/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harbin+museum+%E2%80%93+Unit+731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Funit731.org%2Fharbin-museum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/">Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224023705/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2011/02/22/national/work-starts-at-shinjuku-unit-731-site/">Archived</a> 2018-12-24 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Times">Japan Times</a></i>, 22 February 2011, p. 1.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081">"Deafening silence"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i>. 24 February 2011. p. 48. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110303063531/http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Deafening+silence&rft.pages=48&rft.date=2011-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F18237081%3Fstory_id%3D18237081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm">"Mansell POW"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211003225411/http://mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/fukuoka/fuk_01_fukuoka/fukuoka_01/Page05.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-10-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mansell+POW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fmansell.com%2Fpow_resources%2Fcamplists%2Ffukuoka%2Ffuk_01_fukuoka%2Ffukuoka_01%2FPage05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBrodyLeonardNieWeindling2014" class="citation journal cs1">Brody, H.; Leonard, S. E.; Nie, J. B.; Weindling, P. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">"United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency"</a>. <i>Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 220–230. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963180113000753">10.1017/S0963180113000753</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">4487829</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24534743">24534743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Quarterly+of+Healthcare+Ethics&rft.atitle=United+States+Responses+to+Japanese+Wartime+Inhuman+Experimentation+after+World+War+II%3A+National+Security+and+Wartime+Exigency&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-230&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24534743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0963180113000753&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Leonard%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Nie%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Weindling%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190731012542/https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf">"Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-07-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biohazard%3A+Unit+731+and+the+American+Cover-Up&rft.pages=5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.umflint.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fgroups%2FResearch_and_Sponsored_Programs%2FMOM%2Fb.altheide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2011" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2011). <i>Unit 731 Testimony</i> (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 96. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1462900824" title="Special:BookSources/978-1462900824"><bdi>978-1462900824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unit+731+Testimony&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=96&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Tuttle+Pub.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1462900824&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGold2011" class="citation book cs1">Gold, Hal (2011). <i>Unit 731 Testimony</i> (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 97. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1462900824" title="Special:BookSources/978-1462900824"><bdi>978-1462900824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unit+731+Testimony&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=97&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Tuttle+Pub.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1462900824&rft.aulast=Gold&rft.aufirst=Hal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Gold_2003_p109-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gold_2003_p109_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gold_2003_p109_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Gold 2003 p109</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyodo_News" title="Kyodo News">Kyodo News</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html">Occupation censored Unit 731 ex-members' mail: secret paper</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805092306/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html">Archived</a> 2010-08-05 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Times">Japan Times</a></i>, February 10, 2010, p. 3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BBC News <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm">– Unit 731: Japan's biological force.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171229164025/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stm">Archived</a> 2017-12-29 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/-Christopher-Reed/2177/article.html">"The United States and the Japanese Mengele: Payoffs and Amnesty for Unit 731"</a>. <i>The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=The+United+States+and+the+Japanese+Mengele%3A+Payoffs+and+Amnesty+for+Unit+731&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapjjf.org%2F-Christopher-Reed%2F2177%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-experimentation220-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-experimentation220_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-experimentation220_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-experimentation220_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBrodyLeonardNieWeindling2014" class="citation journal cs1">Brody, H.; Leonard, S. E.; Nie, J. B.; Weindling, P. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">"United States Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II: National Security and Wartime Exigency"</a>. <i>Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 220–230. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963180113000753">10.1017/S0963180113000753</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829">4487829</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24534743">24534743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Quarterly+of+Healthcare+Ethics&rft.atitle=United+States+Responses+to+Japanese+Wartime+Inhuman+Experimentation+after+World+War+II%3A+National+Security+and+Wartime+Exigency&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-230&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24534743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0963180113000753&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Leonard%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Nie%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Weindling%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4487829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons</i> (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950). (French language: Documents relatifs au procès des anciens Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique / Japanese language: 細菌戦用兵器ノ準備及ビ使用ノ廉デ起訴サレタ元日本軍軍人ノ事件ニ関スル公判書類 / Chinese language: 前日本陸軍軍人因準備和使用細菌武器被控案審判材料)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Takashi Tsuchiya. "The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China". <i>The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics</i>, pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVanderbrook2013" class="citation thesis cs1">Vanderbrook, Alan Jay (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd"><i>Imperial Japan's Human Experiments Before And During World War Two</i></a> (MA thesis). University of Central Florida. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180117093152/http://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3588&context=etd">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Imperial+Japan%27s+Human+Experiments+Before+And+During+World+War+Two&rft.inst=University+of+Central+Florida&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Vanderbrook&rft.aufirst=Alan+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fstars.library.ucf.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3588%26context%3Detd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Alibek-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alibek_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Alibek" title="Ken Alibek">Ken Alibek</a> and S. Handelman. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard_(book)" title="Biohazard (book)">Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it</a></i>. 1999. Delta (2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966" title="Special:BookSources/0385334966">0385334966</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMcGILL1983" class="citation news cs1">McGILL, PETER (Aug 21, 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theguardian.newspapers.com/article/122763034/postwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ/">"Postwar Japan: "US Backed Japan's Germ Tests on Mentally Sick"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Observer</i>. London, Greater London, England. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Postwar+Japan%3A+%22US+Backed+Japan%27s+Germ+Tests+on+Mentally+Sick%22&rft.pages=6&rft.date=1983-08-21&rft.aulast=McGILL&rft.aufirst=PETER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Ftheguardian.newspapers.com%2Farticle%2F122763034%2Fpostwar-japan-us-backed-japans-germ%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 126–134</span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Human Lab Rats: Japanese Atrocities, the Last Secret of World War II (Penthouse, May 2000)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">日本弁護士連合会『人権白書昭和43年版』日本弁護士連合会、1968年、pp. 134–136；高杉晋吾『七三一部隊細菌戦の医師を追え』徳間書店、1982年、pp. 94–111; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html">保護施設収容者に対する人権擁護に関する件（決議）</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160127043917/http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.html">Archived</a> 2016-01-27 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFNozaki2000" class="citation book cs1">Nozaki, Yoshiko (2000). <i>Textbook controversy and the production of public truth: Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges</i>. University of Wisconsin–Madison. pp. 300, 381.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+controversy+and+the+production+of+public+truth%3A+Japanese+education%2C+nationalism%2C+and+Saburo+Ienaga%27s+court+challenges&rft.pages=300%2C+381&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Nozaki&rft.aufirst=Yoshiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeiichi_Tsuneishi1995" class="citation book cs1">Keiichi Tsuneishi (1995). <i>『七三一部隊 生物兵器犯罪の真実』 講談社現代新書</i>. 講談社. p. 171. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4061492659" title="Special:BookSources/4061492659"><bdi>4061492659</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8E%E4%B8%83%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%80%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A+%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%85%B5%E5%99%A8%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E3%81%AE%E7%9C%9F%E5%AE%9F%E3%80%8F+%E8%AC%9B%E8%AB%87%E7%A4%BE%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E6%96%B0%E6%9B%B8&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=%E8%AC%9B%E8%AB%87%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=4061492659&rft.au=Keiichi+Tsuneishi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">田辺敏雄 『検証 旧日本軍の「悪行」―歪められた歴史像を見直す』 自由社 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4915237362" title="Special:BookSources/4915237362">4915237362</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 12</span>
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<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Short History of Biological Warfare (PDF) p. 27</span>
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<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf?ver=2017-08-07-142315-127">"A Short History of Biological Warfare"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 15. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531063447/https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/occasional/cswmd/CSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf%3Fver%3D2017-08-07-142315-127">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Biological+Warfare&rft.pages=15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwmdcenter.ndu.edu%2FPortals%2F68%2FDocuments%2Foccasional%2Fcswmd%2FCSWMD_OccasionalPaper-12.pdf%3Fver%3D2017-08-07-142315-127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarris" class="citation web cs1">Harris, Sheldon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210808225952/http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">"Factories of Death"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 222. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://the-eye.eu/public/concen.org/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%2C%201932-1945%2C%20and%20the%20American%20Cover-Up%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D/Sheldon%20H.%20Harris%20-%20Factories%20of%20Death%20-%20Japanese%20Biological%20Warfare%20%28pdf%29%20-%20roflcopter2110%20%5BWWRG%5D.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2021-08-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factories+of+Death&rft.pages=222&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fthe-eye.eu%2Fpublic%2Fconcen.org%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%252C%25201932-1945%252C%2520and%2520the%2520American%2520Cover-Up%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D%2FSheldon%2520H.%2520Harris%2520-%2520Factories%2520of%2520Death%2520-%2520Japanese%2520Biological%2520Warfare%2520%2528pdf%2529%2520-%2520roflcopter2110%2520%255BWWRG%255D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:3-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSuMcDonnellCheshmehzangiAbbas2021" class="citation journal cs1">Su, Zhaohui; McDonnell, Dean; Cheshmehzangi, Ali; Abbas, Jaffar; Li, Xiaoshan; Cai, Yuyang (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8141376">"The promise and perils of Unit 731 data to advance COVID-19 research"</a>. <i>BMJ Global Health</i>. <b>6</b> (5): e004772. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2020-004772">10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004772</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8141376">8141376</a></span>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34016575">34016575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ+Global+Health&rft.atitle=The+promise+and+perils+of+Unit+731+data+to+advance+COVID-19+research&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e004772&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8141376%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34016575&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmjgh-2020-004772&rft.aulast=Su&rft.aufirst=Zhaohui&rft.au=McDonnell%2C+Dean&rft.au=Cheshmehzangi%2C+Ali&rft.au=Abbas%2C+Jaffar&rft.au=Li%2C+Xiaoshan&rft.au=Cai%2C+Yuyang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8141376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDrea2006" class="citation book cs1">Drea, Edward (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf"><i>Researching Japanese War Crimes</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Archives and Records Administration for the Nazi Warcrimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Researching+Japanese+War+Crimes&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=National+Archives+and+Records+Administration+for+the+Nazi+Warcrimes+and+Japanese+Imperial+Government+Records+Interagency+Working+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Drea&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffiles%2Fiwg%2Fjapanese-war-crimes%2Fintroductory-essays.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, <i>The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173">"Japanese Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national Conflicts"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120724222632/http://japanfocus.org/-mark-selden/3173">Archived</a> 2012-07-24 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKathleen_Woods_Masalski2001" class="citation web cs1">Kathleen Woods Masalski (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spice.stanford.edu/docs/134">"Examining the Japanese History Textbook Controversies"</a>. Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180114164704/http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Examining+the+Japanese+History+Textbook+Controversies&rft.pub=Stanford+Program+on+International+and+Cross-Cultural+Education&rft.date=2001-11&rft.au=Kathleen+Woods+Masalski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fspice.stanford.edu%2Fdocs%2F134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shimbun" class="mw-redirect" title="Asahi Shimbun">Asahi Shimbun</a></i> editorial, August 30, 1997</span>
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<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWatts2002" class="citation web cs1">Watts, Jonathan (2002-08-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan">"Japan guilty of germ warfare against thousands of Chinese"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180911152228/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/28/artsandhumanities.japan">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-09-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Japan+guilty+of+germ+warfare+against+thousands+of+Chinese&rft.date=2002-08-28&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Faug%2F28%2Fartsandhumanities.japan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">「<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm">衆議院議員川田悦子君提出七三一部隊等の旧帝国陸軍防疫給水部に関する質問に対する答弁書</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130120204524/http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htm">Archived</a> 2013-01-20 at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>」 October 10, 2003.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/">"Names of 3,607 members of Imperial Japanese Army's notorious Unit 731 released by national archives"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Japan_Times" title="The Japan Times">The Japan Times</a></i>. April 16, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180418105008/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/04/16/national/history/names-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released/">Archived</a> from the original on April 18, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 17,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Names+of+3%2C607+members+of+Imperial+Japanese+Army%27s+notorious+Unit+731+released+by+national+archives&rft.date=2018-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fnews%2F2018%2F04%2F16%2Fnational%2Fhistory%2Fnames-3607-members-imperial-japanese-armys-unit-731-released%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war">"Unit 731: Japan discloses details of notorious chemical warfare division"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. April 17, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104550/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/17/japan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war">Archived</a> from the original on September 5, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 24,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Unit+731%3A+Japan+discloses+details+of+notorious+chemical+warfare+division&rft.date=2018-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fapr%2F17%2Fjapan-unit-731-imperial-army-second-world-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190528225700/https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3720697/DOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2019-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fassets.documentcloud.org%2Fdocuments%2F3720697%2FDOJ-Copy-Cooper-1998-Correspondence.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-scmp-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scmp_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-scmp_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFYe,_Josh2020" class="citation web cs1">Ye, Josh (February 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference">"Hit manga My Hero Academia removed in China over war crimes reference"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post" title="South China Morning Post">South China Morning Post</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104052/https://www.scmp.com/abacus/culture/article/3048990/hit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference">Archived</a> from the original on November 19, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=Hit+manga+My+Hero+Academia+removed+in+China+over+war+crimes+reference&rft.date=2020-02-04&rft.au=Ye%2C+Josh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fabacus%2Fculture%2Farticle%2F3048990%2Fhit-manga-my-hero-academia-removed-china-over-war-crimes-reference&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLoveridge,_Lynzee2020" class="citation web cs1">Loveridge, Lynzee (February 10, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305">"My Hero Academia Manga Updated With Villain's New Name"</a>. <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime_News_Network" title="Anime News Network">Anime News Network</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620042726/https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/interest/2020-02-10/my-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name/.156305">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Anime+News+Network&rft.atitle=My+Hero+Academia+Manga+Updated+With+Villain%27s+New+Name&rft.date=2020-02-10&rft.au=Loveridge%2C+Lynzee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.animenewsnetwork.com%2Finterest%2F2020-02-10%2Fmy-hero-academia-manga-updated-with-villain-new-name%2F.156305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historiamag.com/the-english-fuhrer-by-rory-clements/">"The English Führer by Rory Clements – Historia Magazine"</a>. <i>www.historiamag.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historiamag.com&rft.atitle=The+English+F%C3%BChrer+by+Rory+Clements+%E2%80%93+Historia+Magazine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.historiamag.com%2Fthe-english-fuhrer-by-rory-clements%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alexanderstreet.com/">"Alexander Street"</a>. <i>Alexander Street</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210926025608/https://alexanderstreet.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alexander+Street&rft.atitle=Alexander+Street&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Falexanderstreet.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115">"Collections Search"</a>. <i>collections-search.bfi.org.uk</i>. BFI – British Film Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170801233508/http://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150299115">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=collections-search.bfi.org.uk&rft.atitle=Collections+Search&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fcollections-search.bfi.org.uk%2Fweb%2FDetails%2FChoiceFilmWorks%2F150299115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnit+731" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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<ul><li>Barenblatt, Daniel. <i>A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation</i>, HarperCollins, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259" title="Special:BookSources/0060186259">0060186259</a>.</li>
<li>Barnaby, Wendy. <i>The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare</i>, Frog Ltd, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1883319854" title="Special:BookSources/1883319854">1883319854</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0756756987" title="Special:BookSources/0756756987">0756756987</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826412580" title="Special:BookSources/0826412580">0826412580</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/082641415X" title="Special:BookSources/082641415X">082641415X</a>.</li>
<li>Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. <i>Japan at war: an oral history</i>, New York: New Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1565840143" title="Special:BookSources/1565840143">1565840143</a>. Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731 and Tamura Yoshio.</li>
<li>Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. <i>The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea</i>, Indiana University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253334721" title="Special:BookSources/0253334721">0253334721</a>.</li>
<li>Felton, Mark. <i>The devil's doctors: Japanese Human Experiments on Allied Prisoners of War</i>, Pen & Sword, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1848844797" title="Special:BookSources/978-1848844797">978-1848844797</a></li>
<li>Gold, Hal. <i>Unit 731 Testimony</i>, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4900737399" title="Special:BookSources/4900737399">4900737399</a>.</li>
<li>Grunden, Walter E., <i>Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science</i>, University Press of Kansas, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700613838" title="Special:BookSources/0700613838">0700613838</a>.</li>
<li>Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. <i>Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It</i>, Random House, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0375502319" title="Special:BookSources/0375502319">0375502319</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966" title="Special:BookSources/0385334966">0385334966</a>.</li>
<li>Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. <i>A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare</i>, Random House, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812966538" title="Special:BookSources/0812966538">0812966538</a>.</li>
<li>Harris, Sheldon H. <i>Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the American Cover-Up</i>, Routledge, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415091055" title="Special:BookSources/0415091055">0415091055</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415932149" title="Special:BookSources/0415932149">0415932149</a>.</li>
<li>Lupis, Marco. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/virustre/fabbrica/fabbrica.html">Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la 'fabbrica' dei batteri killer</a>", <i>La Repubblica</i>, 14 aprile 2003,</li>
<li>Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC"><i>Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare</i></a>, Macmillan, 2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.</li>
<li>Moreno, Jonathan D. <i>Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans</i>, Routledge, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415928354" title="Special:BookSources/0415928354">0415928354</a>.</li>
<li>Nie, Jing Bao, et al. <i>Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics</i> (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Japans-Wartime-Medical-Atrocities-Transformations/dp/0415682282/">excerpt and text search</a></li>
<li>Tsuneishi, Keiichi (November 24, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.pdf">"Unit 731 and the Japanese Imperial Army's Biological Warfare Program"</a>. <i>The Asia-Pacific Journal</i>. Volume 3, Issue 11. Article ID 2194.</li>
<li>Williams, Peter and Wallace, David. <i>Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II</i>, The Free Press, A Division of Macmillan, Inc., New York. 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0029353017" title="Special:BookSources/0029353017">0029353017</a>.</li>
<li>Yang, Yan-Jun and Tam, Yue-Him. <i>Unit 731: Laboratory of the Devil, Auschwitz of the East</i>, Fonthill Media., UK. 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1781556788" title="Special:BookSources/978-1781556788">978-1781556788</a>.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection">
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</h2>
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<b>Unit 731</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Unit_731" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Unit 731">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/iwg/">The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG)</a> – The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unit731.org/">History of the Unit 731</a> Unit 731 information site.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/">History of Japan's biological weapons program</a> – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150409024709/https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/cbw/bw.htm">History of United States' biological weapons program</a> – The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).</li>
<li><i>Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria</i>, a World Justice documentary.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071024123028/http://www.aiipowmia.com/">Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East</a> at the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived October 24, 2007) – AII POW-MIA images.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/confess/demondoc.html"><i>Army Doctor</i></a> – a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/thth/projects/thth_projects_2003_parkeun.htm"><i>Theodicy – Through the Case of "Unit 731"</i></a> by Eun Park (2003).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-08-15/us-paid-for-japanese-human-germ-warfare-data/2080618">"US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data"</a>, Australian Broadcasting Corporation News Online.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1338296,00.html"><i>Japan's sins of the past</i></a> by Justin McCurry (2004), <i>The Guardian</i>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/28/1030508070534.html">"The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731"</a> by Shane Green (2002), <i>The Age</i>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kalimao.blogspot.com/2009/12/war-crimes-never-forget.html">"War Crimes: Never Forget"</a> – review of the book <i>Unit 731</i> by Peter Williams and David Wallace</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qfy5TMbueSM"><span class="plainlinks"><i>The Truth of Unit 731: Elite medical students and human experiments</i></span></a> on <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, a documentary by NHK (2017)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://materiaislamica.com/index.php/The_Unknown_Muslim_Victims_of_Japanese_Unit_731_in_WWII_(1932%E2%80%941945)">The Unknown Victims of Japanese Unit 731 in WWII (1932–1945) and Known Experiments</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/select-documents.pdf">Select Documents on Japanese WarCrimes and Japanese Biological Warfare, 1934–2006</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://czasopisma.ltn.lodz.pl/index.php/Prace-Polonistyczne/article/view/1066">Unit 731 in Polish literature</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tv.cctv.com/2015/09/01/VIDE1441071222552557.shtml"><i>731</i></a> (2015), a documentary by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Central_Television" title="China Central Television">CCTV</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100" title="Unit 100">Unit 100</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a>)</li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unit 731</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingfang_District" title="Pingfang District">Pingfang</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_516" title="Unit 516">Unit 516</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiqihar" title="Qiqihar">Qiqihar</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_543" title="Unit 543">Unit 543</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailar_District" title="Hailar District">Hailar</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_Ei_1644" title="Unit Ei 1644">Unit Ei 1644</a> or Tama Unit (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1855" title="Unit 1855">Unit 1855</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_8604" title="Unit 8604">Unit 8604</a> or Nami Unit (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_9420" title="Unit 9420">Unit 9420</a> or Oka Unit (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a> & <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empire_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Empire_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empire_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empire of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empire_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Agriculture in the Empire of Japan">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Censorship in the Empire of Japan">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Demography of the Empire of Japan">Demographics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Economy of the Empire of Japan">Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_Japan#Prewar_period" title="Economic history of Japan">Economic history</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Education in the Empire of Japan">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics_in_Japan" title="Eugenics in Japan">Eugenics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_commerce_and_shipping_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan">Foreign commerce and shipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_production_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Industrial production in Shōwa Japan">Industrial production</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_militarism" title="Japanese militarism">Militarism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Empire_of_Japan_(1914%E2%80%931944)" title="Politics of the Empire of Japan (1914–1944)">Politics</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazoku" title="Kazoku">Kazoku</a></li></ul>
</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Imperial Seal of Japan"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/80px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/120px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg/160px-Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="990" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Meiji" title="Emperor Meiji">Meiji <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mutsuhito)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D" title="Emperor Taishō">Taishō <span style="font-size:85%;">(Yoshihito)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito" title="Hirohito">Shōwa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hirohito)</span></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Japan" title="Flag of Japan">Flag of Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rising_Sun_Flag" title="Rising Sun Flag">Rising Sun Flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_seals_of_Japan" title="National seals of Japan">National seals of Japan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan" title="Imperial Seal of Japan">Imperial Seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Seal_of_Japan" title="Government Seal of Japan">Government Seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Seal_of_Japan" title="State Seal of Japan">State Seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Seal_of_Japan" title="Privy Seal of Japan">Privy Seal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimigayo" title="Kimigayo">Kimigayo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Constitution" title="Meiji Constitution">Constitution</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter_Oath" title="Charter Oath">Charter Oath</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_on_Education" title="Imperial Rescript on Education">Imperial Rescript on Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Rule_Assistance_Association" title="Imperial Rule Assistance Association">Imperial Rule Assistance Association</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokutai" title="Kokutai">Kokutai</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokusatsu" title="Mokusatsu">Mokusatsu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Spiritual_Mobilization_Movement" title="National Spiritual Mobilization Movement">National Spiritual Mobilization Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law" title="Peace Preservation Law">Peace Preservation Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_parties_of_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political parties of the Empire of Japan">Political parties</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_of_Japan" title="Supreme Court of Judicature of Japan">Supreme Court of Judicature</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokubetsu_K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_Keisatsu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu">Tokkō</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonarigumi" title="Tonarigumi">Tonarigumi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Conference" title="Greater East Asia Conference">Greater East Asia Conference</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Administration<br />(ministries)</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Imperial_Household" title="Ministry of the Imperial Household">Imperial Household</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Ministry" title="Home Ministry">Home Ministry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(pre-modern_Japan)" title="Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)">War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Ministry" title="Army Ministry">Army</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Japan)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Japan)">Navy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Treasury" title="Ministry of the Treasury">Treasury</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)">Foreign Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Commerce" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce">Agriculture and Commerce</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Commerce_and_Industry_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Japan)">Commerce and Industry</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Munitions_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Munitions (Japan)">Munitions</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Colonial_Affairs_(Japan)" title="Ministry of Colonial Affairs (Japan)">Colonial Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Greater_East_Asia" title="Ministry of Greater East Asia">Greater East Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia_Development_Board" title="East Asia Development Board">East Asia Development Board (Kōain)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_structure_of_the_Imperial_Japanese_Government" title="Administrative structure of the Imperial Japanese Government">Legislative and<br />deliberative bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daij%C5%8D-kan" title="Daijō-kan">Daijō-kan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gozen_Kaigi" title="Gozen Kaigi">Gozen Kaigi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Diet#History" title="National Diet">Imperial Diet</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">Peers</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_(Japan)" title="House of Representatives (Japan)">Representatives</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters" title="Imperial General Headquarters">Imperial General Headquarters</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Rescript_to_Soldiers_and_Sailors" title="Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors">Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senjinkun_military_code" title="Senjinkun military code"><i>Senjinkun</i> military code</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_nuclear_weapon_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese nuclear weapon program">Nuclear weapons program</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">War crimes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)" title="Supreme War Council (Japan)">Supreme War Council</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conscription_in_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conscription in Japan (page does not exist)">Conscription</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_General_Staff_Office" title="Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office">General Staff</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Air Service</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Railways_and_Shipping_Section" title="Imperial Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section">Railways and Shipping</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Japan)" title="Imperial Guard (Japan)">Imperial Guard</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Way_Faction" title="Imperial Way Faction">Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_holdout" title="Japanese holdout">Japanese holdout</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan" title="Taiwan Army of Japan">Taiwan Army of Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dseiha" title="Tōseiha">Control Faction (Tōseiha)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenpeitai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenpeitai">Kenpeitai</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_General_Staff" title="Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff">General Staff</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Air Service</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Marines</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Faction" title="Fleet Faction">Fleet Faction</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_Faction" title="Treaty Faction">Treaty Faction</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boshin_War" title="Boshin War">Boshin War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Lords_Incident" title="Two Lords Incident">Two Lords Incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satsuma_Rebellion" title="Satsuma Rebellion">Satsuma Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Japanese_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Japanese Alliance">Anglo–Japanese Alliance</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)">Invasion of Taiwan (1874)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1895)" title="Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)">Invasion of Taiwan (1895)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_era" title="Taishō era">Taishō era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">World War I</a>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Japanese entry into World War I">Entry</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_intervention_in_Siberia" title="Japanese intervention in Siberia">Siberian Intervention</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Election_Law" title="General Election Law">General Election Law</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty" title="Washington Naval Treaty">Washington Naval Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria%E2%80%93Mongolia_problem" title="Manchuria–Mongolia problem">Manchuria–Mongolia problem</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Democracy" title="Taishō Democracy">Taishō Democracy</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Taishō Roman</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapani_incident" title="Tapani incident">Tapani incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truku_War" title="Truku War">Truku War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_era" title="Shōwa era">Shōwa era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_financial_crisis" title="Shōwa financial crisis">Shōwa financial crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty" title="London Naval Treaty">London Naval Treaty</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musha_Incident" title="Musha Incident">Musha Incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts" title="Soviet–Japanese border conflicts">Soviet–Japanese border conflicts</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Rape of Nanking</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact" title="Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact">Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Japan during World War II">Japan during World War II</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Colonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">Karafuto</a> (<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naichi" class="mw-redirect" title="Naichi">naichi</a></i> after 1943)</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Chōsen</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Leased_Territory" title="Kwantung Leased Territory">Kantō-shū</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Seas_Mandate" title="South Seas Mandate">Nan'yō</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Puppet states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Second Philippine Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Empire of Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Burma" title="State of Burma">State of Burma</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind" title="Azad Hind">Azad Hind</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_acquired_by_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="List of territories acquired by the Empire of Japan">Occupied territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_British_Borneo" title="Japanese occupation of British Borneo">Borneo</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma" title="Japanese occupation of Burma">Burma</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Malaya" title="Japanese occupation of Malaya">Malaya</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines" title="Japanese occupation of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore" title="Japanese occupation of Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonn%C5%8D_j%C5%8Di" title="Sonnō jōi">Sonnō jōi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukoku_ky%C5%8Dhei" title="Fukoku kyōhei">Fukoku kyōhei</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakk%C5%8D_ichiu" title="Hakkō ichiu">Hakkō ichiu</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_settlers_in_Manchuria" title="Japanese settlers in Manchuria">Japanese settlers in Manchuria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese-run_internment_camps_during_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II">Internment camps</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%E2%80%93Japanese_industrial_co-operation_before_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Japanese industrial co-operation before World War II">German pre–World War II industrial co-operation</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinmin_no_Michi" title="Shinmin no Michi">Shinmin no Michi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Modan" title="Shōwa Modan">Shōwa Modan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_thought_in_Imperial_Japan" title="Socialist thought in Imperial Japan">Socialist thought</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwanese_Imperial_Japan_Serviceman" title="Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman">Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasukuni_Shrine" title="Yasukuni Shrine">Yasukuni Shrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Political dissidence</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_War_II" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II"><abbr title="View this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:World_War_II" title="Template talk:World War II"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_War_II" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World War II"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";background-color:#C3D6EF;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_War_II" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_World_War_II" title="Outline of World War II">Outline</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_World_War_II" title="List of military engagements of World War II">Military engagements</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_battles" title="List of World War II battles">Battles</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_operations" title="List of World War II military operations">Operations</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Leaders</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Allied leaders of World War II">Allied</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_leaders_of_World_War_II" title="Axis leaders of World War II">Axis</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanders_of_World_War_II" title="Commanders of World War II">Commanders</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties" title="World War II casualties">Casualties</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">Conferences</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_topics" title="Lists of World War II topics">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_warfare_of_World_War_II" title="Air warfare of World War II">Air warfare of World War II</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe" title="List of air operations during the Battle of Europe">In Europe</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_officer_ranks_of_World_War_II" title="Comparative officer ranks of World War II">Comparative military ranks</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_cryptography" title="World War II cryptography">Cryptography</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Declarations of war during World War II">Declarations of war</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomacy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governments_in_exile_during_World_War_II" title="List of governments in exile during World War II">Governments in exile</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Home front during World War II">Home front</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="Australian home front during World War II">Australian</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United Kingdom home front during World War II">United Kingdom</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_awards_and_decorations_of_World_War_II" title="List of military awards and decorations of World War II">Military awards</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_World_War_II_military_equipment" title="Lists of World War II military equipment">Military equipment</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">Military production</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_history_of_World_War_II" title="Naval history of World War II">Naval history</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_plunder" title="Nazi plunder">Nazi plunder</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_II" title="Opposition to World War II">Opposition</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied cooperation</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry harbour</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_war#World_War_II" title="Total war">Total war</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II" title="Strategic bombing during World War II">Strategic bombing</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_puppet_states" title="List of World War II puppet states">Puppet states</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_World_War_II" title="Art and World War II">Art and World War II</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_in_World_War_II" title="Music in World War II">Music in World War II</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_theaters_and_campaigns_of_World_War_II" title="List of theaters and campaigns of World War II">Theaters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_Theater" title="Asiatic-Pacific Theater">Asia and Pacific</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">South-East Asia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II" title="Pacific Ocean theater of World War II">North and Central Pacific</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">South-West Pacific</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">Europe</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Mediterranean and Middle East</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_campaign" title="North African campaign">North Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="Italian campaign (World War II)">Italy</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic">timeline</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)" title="American Theater (World War II)">Americas</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">Expulsion of Germans</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul"><i>Keelhaul</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Occupation of Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim"><i>Osoaviakhim</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip"><i>Paperclip</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder%E2%80%93Neisse_line" title="Oder–Neisse line">Territorial changes of Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied war crimes</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="British war crimes">British war crimes</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="United States war crimes">United States war crimes</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_war_crimes#World_War_II" title="German war crimes">German war crimes</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">forced labour</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht war crimes</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">Response</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italian war crimes</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre" title="Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Unit 731</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Prosecution</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usta%C5%A1e" title="Ustaše">Croatian war crimes</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_of_Serbs_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia">Genocide of Serbs</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Persecution of Jews</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania#The_Holocaust" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romanian war crimes</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Sexual violence</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_military_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German military brothels in World War II">German military brothels</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_camp_brothels_in_World_War_II" title="German camp brothels in World War II">Camp brothels</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Germany" title="Rape during the occupation of Germany">Rape during the occupation of Germany</a>  /  <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_occupation_of_Japan" title="Rape during the occupation of Japan">Japan</a>  /  <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_Soviet_occupation_of_Poland" title="Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_France" title="Rape during the liberation of France">Rape during the liberation of France</a>  /  <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_during_the_liberation_of_Serbia" title="Rape during the liberation of Serbia">Serbia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sook_Ching" title="Sook Ching">Sook Ching</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">Comfort women</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ianjo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ianjo">Ianjo</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila_massacre#Mass_rapes" title="Manila massacre">Rape of Manila</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marocchinate" title="Marocchinate">Marocchinate</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_by_country" title="World War II by country">Participants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Australia_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Australia during World War II">Australia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Brazil#World_War_II" title="Military history of Brazil">Brazil</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Bulgarian coup d'état">from September 1944</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_II" title="Canada in World War II">Canada</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba_during_World_War_II" title="Cuba during World War II">Cuba</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)">Czechoslovakia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II" title="Denmark in World War II">Denmark</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Ethiopia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini_in_World_War_II" title="Eswatini in World War II">Eswatini</a> (formerly Swaziland)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">from September 1944</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_during_World_War_II" title="France during World War II">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Greece_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Greece during World War II">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II" title="India in World War II">India</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Co-belligerent_Army" title="Italian Co-belligerent Army">Italy</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">from September 1943</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_in_World_War_II" title="Luxembourg in World War II">Luxembourg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Mexico#World_War_II" title="Military history of Mexico">Mexico</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Netherlands during World War II">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Newfoundland_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Newfoundland during World War II">Newfoundland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_New_Zealand_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of New Zealand during World War II">New Zealand</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Philippines_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the Philippines during World War II">Philippines</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="History of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1944 Romanian coup d'état">from August 1944</a>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_in_World_War_II" title="Sierra Leone in World War II">Sierra Leone</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_South_Africa_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of South Africa during World War II">South Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia_in_World_War_II" title="Southern Rhodesia in World War II">Southern Rhodesia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Soviet Union</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuva_in_World_War_II" title="Tuva in World War II">Tuva</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II">United Kingdom</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire_in_World_War_II" title="British Empire in World War II">British Empire</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">United States</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II" title="Puerto Ricans in World War II">Puerto Rico</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" title="World War II in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania protectorate</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgaria during World War II">Bulgaria</a> (until September 1944)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II" title="Finland in World War II">Finland</a> (until September 1944)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_in_World_War_II" title="Hungary in World War II">Hungary</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army" title="Indian National Army">Free India</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II" title="French Indochina in World War II">French Indochina</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Italy</a> (until September 1943)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic" title="Second Philippine Republic">Philippines</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_in_World_War_II" title="Romania in World War II">Romania</a> (until August 1944)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_Republic_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Slovak Republic (1939–1945)">Slovakia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand_in_World_War_II" title="Thailand in World War II">Thailand</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_powers_during_World_War_II" title="Neutral powers during World War II">Neutral powers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_neutrality_during_World_War_II" title="Irish neutrality during World War II">Ireland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal_during_World_War_II" title="Portugal during World War II">Portugal</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain_during_World_War_II" title="Spain during World War II">Spain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_during_World_War_II" title="Sweden during World War II">Sweden</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland_during_the_World_Wars" title="Switzerland during the World Wars">Switzerland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City_during_World_War_II" title="Vatican City during World War II">Vatican City</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance during World War II">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Albania" title="World War II in Albania">Albania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_resistance" title="Austrian resistance">Austria</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_resistance_movement_during_World_War_II" title="Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II">Bulgaria</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia">Czech lands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_resistance_movement" title="Danish resistance movement">Denmark</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies#Underground_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_anti-German_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931944" title="Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944">Estonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbegnoch" title="Arbegnoch">Ethiopia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="German resistance to Nazism">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_resistance" title="Greek resistance">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong#Anti-Japanese_resistance" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Italy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_dissidence_in_the_Empire_of_Japan#Dissidence_during_World_War_II" title="Political dissidence in the Empire of Japan">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jews</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Liberation_Army" title="Korean Liberation Army">Korean Liberation Army</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Volunteer_Army" title="Korean Volunteer Army">Korean Volunteer Army</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_anti-Nazi_resistance_movement_1941%E2%80%931945" title="Latvian anti-Nazi resistance movement 1941–1945">Latvia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_Lithuania_during_World_War_II" title="Resistance in Lithuania during World War II">Lithuania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_Resistance" title="Luxembourg Resistance">Luxembourg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Peoples%27_Anti-Japanese_Army" title="Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army">Malaya</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_resistance" title="Dutch resistance">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast China</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_resistance_movement" title="Norwegian resistance movement">Norway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_resistance_against_Japan" title="Philippine resistance against Japan">Philippines</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_anti-communist_resistance_movement" title="Romanian anti-communist resistance movement">Romania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Thai_Movement" title="Free Thai Movement">Thailand</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_partisans" title="Soviet partisans">Soviet Union</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_National_Uprising" title="Slovak National Uprising">Slovakia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">Western Ukraine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Vietnam</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_Qu%E1%BB%91c_D%C3%A2n_%C4%90%E1%BA%A3ng" title="Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng">Quốc dân Đảng</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Nam_C%C3%A1ch_m%E1%BB%87nh_%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng_minh_H%E1%BB%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Nam Cách mệnh Đồng minh Hội">Đồng minh Hội</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Minh" title="Viet Minh">Việt Minh</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans" title="Yugoslav Partisans">Yugoslavia</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">POWs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">German prisoners</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_Azerbaijan" title="German prisoners of war in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_States" title="German prisoners of war in the United States">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II" title="Japanese prisoners of war in World War II">Japanese prisoners</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap">Soviet prisoners</span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_prisoners_of_war_in_Finland" title="Soviet prisoners of war in Finland">Finland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">atrocities by Germans</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_prisoners-of-war_in_the_Soviet_Union_after_1939" title="Polish prisoners-of-war in the Soviet Union after 1939">Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union">Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of World War II">Timeline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Prelude" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Prelude</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="Events preceding World War II in Asia">Asia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="Events preceding World War II in Europe">Europe</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)" title="Timeline of World War II (1939)">1939</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Poland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">Battle of South Guangxi</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Atlantic</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">First Battle of Changsha</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)" title="Timeline of World War II (1940)">1940</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Denmark_(1940)" title="German invasion of Denmark (1940)">German invasion of Denmark (1940)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_campaign" title="Norwegian campaign">Norwegian campaign</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Luxembourg" title="German invasion of Luxembourg">German invasion of Luxembourg</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Belgium</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">France</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign" title="Western Desert campaign">North Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II" title="French West Africa in World War II">West Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_British_Somaliland" title="Italian invasion of British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Moldova</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Indochina</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass"><i>Compass</i></a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)" title="Timeline of World War II (1941)">1941</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)" title="East African campaign (World War II)">East Africa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Shanggao</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">Greece</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Crete</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Iraq</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Soviet Union</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_War" title="Summer War">Summer War</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation_War" title="Continuation War">Finland</a> (<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Silver_Fox" title="Operation Silver Fox">Silver Fox</a></i>)</span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Uprising_in_Lithuania" title="June Uprising in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign" title="Syria–Lebanon campaign">Syria and Lebanon</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kiev_(1941)" title="Battle of Kiev (1941)">Kiev</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran" title="Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran">Iran</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Leningrad</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Gorky</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow" title="Battle of Moscow">Moscow</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">Sevastopol</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Philippines</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">Second Battle of Changsha</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malaya</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Borneo_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)">Borneo (1941–1942)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Greece)" title="Great Famine (Greece)">Greek famine of 1941–1944</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)" title="Timeline of World War II (1942)">1942</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Burma</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">Third Battle of Changsha</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Java_Sea" title="Battle of the Java Sea">Java Sea</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Gazala</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dutch_Harbor" title="Battle of Dutch Harbor">Dutch Harbor</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Attu" title="Japanese occupation of Attu"> Attu (occupation)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Kiska" title="Japanese occupation of Kiska">Kiska</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Midway</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rzhev,_summer_1942" title="Battle of Rzhev, summer 1942">Rzhev</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Blue" title="Case Blue">Blue</a></i></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Stalingrad</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Singapore">Singapore</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">El Alamein</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign" title="Guadalcanal campaign">Guadalcanal</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch"><i>Torch</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_famine_of_1942%E2%80%931943" title="Chinese famine of 1942–1943">Chinese famine of 1942–1943</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)" title="Timeline of World War II (1943)">1943</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk" title="Battle of Kursk">Kursk</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk_operation" title="Smolensk operation">Smolensk</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Gorky_in_World_War_II#June_1943" title="Bombing of Gorky in World War II">Gorky</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Attu" title="Battle of Attu"> Attu</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Sicily</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cottage" title="Operation Cottage"><i>Cottage</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dnieper" title="Battle of the Dnieper">Lower Dnieper</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Italy</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert and Marshall Islands</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine of 1943</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)" title="Timeline of World War II (1944)">1944</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a> / <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio" title="Battle of Anzio">Anzio</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Narva_(1944)" title="Battle of Narva (1944)">Narva</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Korsun%E2%80%93Cherkassy" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Korsun–Cherkassy">Korsun–Cherkassy</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tempest" title="Operation Tempest"><i>Tempest</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go"><i>Ichi-Go</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord"><i>Overlord</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings"><i>Neptune</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Mariana and Palau</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bagration" title="Operation Bagration"><i>Bagration</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lvov%E2%80%93Sandomierz_offensive" title="Lvov–Sandomierz offensive">Western Ukraine</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg_Line" title="Battle of Tannenberg Line">Tannenberg Line</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Jassy%E2%80%93Kishinev_offensive" title="Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive">Eastern Romania</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade_offensive" title="Belgrade offensive">Belgrade</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">Paris</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon"><i>Dragoon</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Line" title="Gothic Line">Gothic Line</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden" title="Operation Market Garden"><i>Market Garden</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn_offensive" title="Tallinn offensive">Estonia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow" title="Operation Crossbow"><i>Crossbow</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive" title="Combined Bomber Offensive"><i>Pointblank</i></a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_War" title="Lapland War">Lapland</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–1945)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Leyte</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrmian_Front" title="Syrmian Front">Syrmian Front</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_offensive" title="Budapest offensive">Hungary</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest" title="Siege of Budapest">Budapest</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–1945)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bodenplatte" title="Operation Bodenplatte"><i>Bodenplatte</i></a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_famine_of_1944%E2%80%931945" title="Dutch famine of 1944–1945">Dutch famine of 1944–1945</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.5em;background-color:#DCDCDC;vertical-align:top;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)" title="Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)">1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_offensive" title="Vistula–Oder offensive">Vistula–Oder</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1945)" title="Battle of Manila (1945)">Manila</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">Western invasion of Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Okinawa</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Guangxi</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">West Hunan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_1945_offensive_in_Italy" title="Spring 1945 offensive in Italy">Italy (Spring 1945)</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Berlin</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague_offensive" title="Prague offensive">Czechoslovakia</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">Surrender of Germany</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">document</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raid_on_Taipei" title="Raid on Taipei">Taipei</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardment of Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Debate</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></span></li></ul></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_famine_of_1945" title="Vietnamese famine of 1945">Vietnamese famine of 1945</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></span>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Declaration" title="Potsdam Declaration">Potsdam Declaration</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">document</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">End of World War II in Asia</a></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><b><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg/16px-Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg/24px-Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg/32px-Heinkel_He_111_during_the_Battle_of_Britain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="676" /></span></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World_War_II" title="Portal:World War II">World War II portal</a></b></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></b></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of World War II">Bibliography</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II" title="Category:World War II">Category</a></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:World_War_II" title="Portal:World War II">Portal</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biological_warfare_and_bioterrorism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Bioterrorism" title="Template:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Bioterrorism" title="Template talk:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bioterrorism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bioterrorism"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biological_warfare_and_bioterrorism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological warfare</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">bioterrorism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biological_warfare">Unit 731</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Rajneeshee_bioterror_attack" title="1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack">1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_California_medfly_attack" title="1989 California medfly attack">1989 California medfly attack</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_anthrax_attacks" title="2001 anthrax attacks">2001 anthrax attacks</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_Green_ricin_plot" title="Wood Green ricin plot">Wood Green ricin plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_ricin_letters" title="2003 ricin letters">2003 ricin letters</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2013_ricin_letters" title="April 2013 ricin letters">2013 ricin letters</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prevention<br />and response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia_Group" title="Australia Group">Australia Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Health_Security" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Health Security">Center for Health Security</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europe_Convention_on_the_Prevention_of_Terrorism" title="Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism">Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency" title="Defense Threat Reduction Agency">Defense Threat Reduction Agency</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Health_Security_Initiative" title="Global Health Security Initiative">Global Health Security Initiative</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Threat_Unit_(European_Commission)" class="mw-redirect" title="Health Threat Unit (European Commission)">Health Threat Unit</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_Response_Network" title="Laboratory Response Network">Laboratory Response Network</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Biodefense_Analysis_and_Countermeasures_Center" title="National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center">National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Advisory_Board_for_Biosecurity" title="National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity">National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Disarmament_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs">United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Medical_Research_Institute_of_Infectious_Diseases" title="United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases">United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">Anthrax</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkholderia_pseudomallei" title="Burkholderia pseudomallei">Burkholderia pseudomallei</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlamydophila_psittaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila psittaci">Chlamydophila psittaci</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxiella_burnetii" title="Coxiella burnetii">Coxiella burnetii</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a></li>
<li>Equine encephalitis <small>(<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern equine encephalitis virus">Eastern</a></small></li>
<li><small><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">Western</a></small></li>
<li><small><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan</a>)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">Glanders</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legionnaires%27_disease" title="Legionnaires' disease">Legionnaires' disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">Marburg virus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">Mold</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Plague</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella_enterica" title="Salmonella enterica">Salmonella enterica</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">Salmonellosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">Salmonella typhi</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">Typhus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fever</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agro-terrorism" title="Agro-terrorism">Agro-terrorism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_hoaxes" title="Anthrax hoaxes">Anthrax hoaxes</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychochemical_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychochemical weapon">Psychochemical weapons</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocontainment" title="Biocontainment">Biocontainment</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare_in_popular_culture" title="Biological warfare in popular culture">Biological warfare in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_decontamination" title="Human decontamination">Decontamination</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomological_warfare" title="Entomological warfare">Entomological warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infectious disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxin</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_Weapons_Convention" title="Biological Weapons Convention">Biological Weapons Convention</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1540" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Bioterrorism">Wiktionary definition</a></li>
<li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bioterrorism">Wikimedia Commons</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Bioterrorism" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Bioterrorism">Wikisource</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378835#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378835#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q378835#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/131371456">VIAF</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007597126805171">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82080077">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/001279860">Japan</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/200255169">IdRef</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1698458074' |
