Edit filter log

'{{short description|Creation of standards and the technical drawings}} {{distinguish|text=[[Technical draw]], a boxing term}} [[File:Technical drawing CAD.jpg|thumb|alt=Technical drawing CAD|Technical drawing CAD]] [[File:Drafter at work.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Drafter]] at work]] [[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F038800-0010, Wolfsburg, VW Autowerk.jpg|thumb|Copying technical drawings in 1973]] '''Technical drawing''', '''drafting''' or '''drawing''', is the act and [[Academic discipline|discipline]] of composing [[Plan (drawing)|drawings]] that [[Visual communication|visually communicate]] how something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in [[Manufacturing|industry]] and [[engineering]]. To make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar [[symbols]], [[Perspective (graphical)|perspectives]], [[units of measurement]], [[notation]] systems, visual styles, and [[page layout]]. Together, such [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] constitute a [[visual language]] and help to ensure that the drawing is [[unambiguous]] and relatively easy to understand. Many of the symbols and principles of technical drawing are codified in an [[international standard]] called [[ISO 128]]. The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the [[visual arts]]. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted; their meanings are multiply determined. Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.<ref name="g2000p3">{{cite book |title=Technical Drawing |edition=Fourth |last=Goetsch |first=David L. |last2=Chalk |first2=William S. |last3=Nelson |first3=John A. |year=2000 |publisher=Delmar Learning |series=Delmar Technical Graphics Series |location=[[Albany, New York|Albany]] |isbn=978-0-7668-0531-6 |oclc=39756434 |page=3 }}</ref> A [[drafter]], draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a [[drawing]] (technical or expressive). A professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting technician. ==Methods== ===Sketching=== [[File:Architekturskizze Verwaltungsgebäude Biel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sketch (drawing)|Sketch]] for a government building]] A [[Sketch (drawing)|sketch]] is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished work. In general, sketching is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time-consuming. Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of [[diagram]]s.<ref name="BoCo04">Richard Boland and Fred Collopy (2004). ''Managing as designing''. Stanford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8047-4674-5}}, p.69.</ref> These sketches, like [[metaphor]]s, are used by architects as a means of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarize their complex patterns, hereby enhancing the design process.<ref name="BoCo04"/> ===Manual or by instrument=== [[File:Zeichenmaschine.jpg|thumb|left|A drafting table]] [[File:Technical drawing instruments 1.jpg|thumb|right|Old-fashioned technical drawing instruments]] [[File:Stencils01.jpg|thumb|right|Stencils for lettering technical drawings to DIN standards]] The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a [[drawing board]]. A sliding [[straightedge]] known as a [[T-square]] is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper. "Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or [[technical pen]] along the T-square's edge. The T-square is used to hold other devices such as [[set square]]s or triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a [[drafting machine]] that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bhatt|first=N.D|title=Machine Drawing|publisher=Charotar Publication}}</ref> In addition, the drafter uses several [[technical drawing tools]] to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the [[Compass (drafting)|compasses]], used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the [[French curve]], for drawing curves. A [[Flat spline|spline]] is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of [[stagecraft]], a lighting designer will draw from the [[USITT]] standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create his own templates. This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general, drafting can be a time-consuming process. A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the [[pantograph]] (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well. In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order. Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect, or shop personnel (such as a [[machinist]]), skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task, and are always in demand to some degree. ===Computer aided design=== {{Main article|Computer-aided design}} Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of [[computer-aided design]] systems (CAD). There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical drawings: [[2D computer graphics|two dimensions]] ("2D") and [[3D computer graphics|three dimensions]] ("3D"). [[File:Construction drawing autocad.jpg|thumb|right|An example of a drawing drafted in [[AutoCAD]]]] 2D CAD systems such as [[AutoCAD]] or [[MicroStation]] replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines, circles, arcs, and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first and third angle [[orthographic projection]]s, auxiliary projections and [[Multiview orthographic projection#Section|cross-section view]]s. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide no way to check the various components will fit together. [[Image:cad crank.jpg|thumb|left|View of a CAD model of a four-[[Cylinder (engine)|cylinder]] [[Straight engine|inline]] [[crankshaft]] with [[piston]]s]] A 3D CAD system (such as [[KeyCreator]], [[Autodesk Inventor]], or [[SolidWorks]]) first produces the geometry of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of that geometry. Any orthographic, projected or sectioned view is created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings, aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled, assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture. Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. The various disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have industry recognized symbols to represent common components. [[British Standards|BS]] and [[ISO]] produce standards to show recommended practices but it is up to individuals to produce the drawings to a standard. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The only standard across engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic projections and cross-section views. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the objects can be described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many views and sections that are required to show all features of object. {{Clear}} ==Applications== ===Architecture=== [[File:Architect Anthony Murphy working on a kitchen renovation project in New Jersey.jpg|thumb|upright|To plan a renovation, this architect takes measurements which he will later enter into his [[computer-aided design]] system.]] {{Main article|Architectural drawing}} The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as [[architecture]]. To communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail drawings are used. In this field, the term ''[[Plan (drawing)|plan]]'' is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings as viewed from three feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways, windows, stairwells, etc.<ref>Jefferis, Alan; Madsen, David (2005), Architectural Drafting and Design (5th ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, {{ISBN|1-4018-6715-4}}</ref> Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's design.<ref>Goetsch et al. (2000) p. 792</ref> {{Clear left}} ===Engineering=== {{Main article|Engineering drawing}} {{See also|Mechanical engineering}} Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin ''ingenerare'', meaning "to create".<ref>Lieu, Dennis K; Sorby, Sheryl (2009), ''Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering Design'' (1st ed.), Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning, {{ISBN|978-1-4018-4249-9}}, pp. 1–2</ref> Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered items, such as manufactured parts and equipment. [[File:DIN 69893 hsk 63a drawing.png|thumb|left|[[Engineering drawing]] of a [[machine tool]] part]] Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as [[typeface]]s and line styles), size, etc. Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component. === Software engineering === [[Software engineering]] practictioners make use of diagrams for designing software. Formal standards and [[modeling language]]s such as [[Unified Modeling Language]] (UML) exist but most diagramming happens using informal ad hoc diagrams that illustrate a [[conceptual model]].<ref name="Baltes 530–541">{{Cite journal|last=Baltes|first=Sebastian|last2=Diehl|first2=Stephan|date=2014-11-11|title=Sketches and diagrams in practice|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2635868.2635891|journal=Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Foundations of Software Engineering|series=FSE 2014|location=Hong Kong, China|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=530–541|doi=10.1145/2635868.2635891|isbn=978-1-4503-3056-5|arxiv=1706.09172}}</ref> Practitioners reported that diagramming helped with analysing [[Requirements analysis|requirements]],<ref name="Baltes 530–541"/>{{Rp|539}} design, [[refactoring]], documentation, [[onboarding]], communication with stake holders.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Cherubini|first=Mauro|title=Let's go to the whiteboard: how and why software developers use drawings|date=2007-04-29|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1240624.1240714|work=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems|pages=557–566|place=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|doi=10.1145/1240624.1240714|isbn=978-1-59593-593-9|access-date=2021-09-08|last2=Venolia|first2=Gina|last3=DeLine|first3=Rob|last4=Ko|first4=Amy J.}}</ref>{{Rp|560}} Diagrams are often transient or redrawn as required. Redrawn diagrams can acts as a form of shared understanding in a team.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|561}} {{Clear}} ==Related fields== ===Technical illustration=== [[File:Drum set.svg|thumb|[[Technical illustration|Illustration]] of a drum set]] {{Main article|Technical illustration}} ''Technical illustration'' is the use of [[illustration]] to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or [[diagram]]s. The aim of technical illustration is "to generate expressive [[image]]s that effectively convey certain [[information]] via the visual channel to the human observer".<ref name="ViGr05">Ivan Viola and Meister E. Gröller (2005). "Smart Visibility in Visualization". In: ''Computational Aesthetics in Graphics, Visualization and Imaging''. L. Neumann et al. (Ed.)</ref> The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.industriegrafik.com/TIE1.htm |title=The Role of the Technical Illustrator in Industry |date=15 June 2002 |website=industriegrafik.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814125052/http://www.industriegrafik.com/TIE1.htm |archive-date=14 August 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 February 2009}}</ref> According to Viola (2005), "illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter".<ref name="ViGr05"/> ====Cutaway drawing==== [[File:1942 Nash Ambassador X-ray.jpg|thumb|[[Cutaway drawing]] of the [[Nash 600]], an American car of the 1940s]] {{Main article|Cutaway drawing}} A ''cutaway drawing'' is a technical illustration, in which part of the surface of a three-dimensional model is removed in order to show some of the model's interior in relation to its exterior. The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to "allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering".<ref name="DWE03">{{cite web|url=http://www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~weiskopf/publications/eg2003.pdf |title=Interactive Cutaway Illustrations |last1=Diepstraten |last2=Weiskopf |last3=Ertl |first1=J. |first2=D. |first3=T. |date=2003 |website=vis.uni-stuttgart.de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216005911/http://www.vis.uni-stuttgart.de/~weiskopf/publications/eg2003.pdf |archive-date=16 December 2005 |url-status=dead}} in {{cite journal|journal=Eurographics |title=Eurographics 2003 |editor1-last=Brunet |editor1-first=P. |editor2-last=Fellner |editor2-first=D. |volume=22 |issue=3 |publisher=The Eurographics Association and Blackwell Publishers}}</ref> {{Clear}} ==Technical drawings== ===Types=== The two types of technical drawings are based on [[graphical projection]].<ref name="g2000p3"/> This is used to create an image of a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface. ====Two-dimensional representation==== Two-dimensional representation uses [[orthographic projection]] to create an image where only two of the three dimensions of the object are seen. ====Three-dimensional representation==== In a three-dimensional representation, also referred to as a pictorial, all three dimensions of an object are visible. ===Views=== ====Multiview==== {{Main article|Multiview orthographic projection}} Multiview is a type of [[orthographic projection]]. There are two conventions for using multiview, first-angle and third-angle. In both cases, the front or main side of the object is the same. First-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they land. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90&nbsp;degrees to the right. What is seen will be drawn to the right of the front side. Third-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they are. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90&nbsp;degrees to the right. What is seen is actually the left side of the object and will be drawn to the left of the front side. ====Section==== While multiview relates to external surfaces of an object, section views show an imaginary plane cut through an object. This is often useful to show voids in an object. ====Auxiliary==== Auxiliary views utilize an additional projection plane other than the common planes in a multiview. Since the features of an object need to show the true shape and size of the object, the projection plane must be parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major axis needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly. ====Pattern==== Patterns, sometimes called developments, show the size and shape of a flat piece of material needed for later bending or folding into a three-dimensional shape.<ref>Goetsch et al. (2000), p. 341</ref> ====Exploded==== {{Main article|Exploded-view drawing}} [[Image:Gear pump exploded.png|thumb|[[Exploded-view drawing]] of a [[gear pump]]]] An ''exploded-view drawing'' is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of [[manufacturing|assembly]] of the various parts.<ref name="US PTO05">{{cite web|url=http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/#drawing |title=General Information Concerning Patents § 1.84 Standards for drawings |date=January 2005 |access-date=13 February 2009 |website=[[United States Patent and Trademark Office|USPTO.gov]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130105045/http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/#drawing |archive-date=30 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-[[dimension]]al exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled [[explosion]] emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated relative distances away from their original locations. An exploded view drawing (EVD) can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems, the component closest to the center is usually assembled first or is the main part inside which the other parts are assembled. The EVD can also help to represent the disassembly of parts, where those on the outside are normally removed first.<ref>Michael E. Brumbach, Jeffrey A. Clade (2003). ''Industrial Maintenance''. Cengage Learning, 2003 {{ISBN|0-7668-2695-3}}, p.65</ref> ===Standards and conventions=== ====Basic drafting paper sizes==== {{Main article|Paper size}} There have been many standard sizes of [[paper]] at different times and in different countries, but today most of the world uses the international standard (A4 and its siblings). North America uses its own sizes. <gallery> Image:A size illustration2 with letter and legal.svg|ISO "A series" paper sizes used in most countries of the world Image:ANSI size illustration.svg|ANSI paper sizes used in North America </gallery> ===Patent drawing=== [[File:Wright brothers patent plans 1908.jpg|thumb|The [[Wright brothers]]' [[patent drawing]]s for their aeroplane (1908)]] {{Main article|Patent drawing}} The applicant for a [[patent]] will be required by [[law]] to furnish a [[drawing]] of the [[invention]] if or when the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention with the job. This drawing must be filed with the application. This includes practically all inventions except [[wikt:composition|composition]]s of matter or [[Industrial process|process]]es, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes.<ref name="US PTO05"/> The drawing must show every feature of the invention [[specification|specified]] in the claims and is required by the [[patent office]] rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues and the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.<ref name="US PTO05"/> ===Sets of technical drawings=== ====Working drawings for production==== [[Working drawing]]s are the set of technical drawings used during the manufacturing phase of a product.<ref>Ralph W. Liebing (1999). ''Architectural working drawings''. John Wiley and Sons, 1999. {{ISBN|0-471-34876-7}}.</ref> In architecture, these include [[civil drawing]]s, [[architectural drawing]]s, [[structural drawing]]s, [[mechanical systems drawing]]s, [[electrical drawing]]s, and [[plumbing drawing]]s. ====Assembly drawings==== Assembly drawings show how different parts go together, identify those parts by number, and have a parts list, often referred to as a bill of materials.<ref>Goetsch et al. (2000), p. 613</ref> In a technical service manual, this type of drawing may be referred to as an [[exploded view drawing]] or diagram. These parts may be used in engineering. ====As-fitted drawings==== Also called ''As-Built drawings'' or ''As-made drawings''. '''As-fitted drawings''' represent a record of the completed works, literally 'as fitted'. These are based upon the ''working drawings'' and updated to reflect any changes or alterations undertaken during construction or manufacture.<ref name="BusinessDictionary.com 2017">{{cite web|title=as-built drawings| website=BusinessDictionary.com | date=2017-12-26 | url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/as-built-drawings.html | access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203090423/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/as-built-drawings.html |archive-date=3 December 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * [[Circuit diagram]] * [[Linear scale]] * [[Reprography]] * [[Schematic diagram]] * [[Shop drawing]] * [[Technical communication]] * [[Technical lettering]] * [[Specification (technical standard)]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * [[Peter J. Booker]] (1963). ''A History of Engineering Drawing''. London: Northgate. * [[Franz Maria Feldhaus]] (1963). ''The History of Technical Drawing'' * Wolfgang Lefèvre ed. (2004). ''Picturing Machines 1400–1700: How technical drawings shaped early engineering practice.'' MIT Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-262-12269-3}} ==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/diagrams.htm Historical technical diagrams and drawings] at NASA. * [http://www.cadazz.com/cad-software-history.htm A history of CAD] * [http://www.draftsperson.net/index.php?title=Category:Drafting_Standards Drafting Standards] * [https://pavel-samuta.livejournal.com/9815.html?utm_source=ljsharing&utm_medium=social:Designations on drawings in mechanical engineering and metalworking.] {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}} {{visualization}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Technical drawing| ]] [[Category:Architecture occupations]] [[Category:Engineering occupations]] [[Category:Infographics]]'