Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Shah of the Persian Safavid Empire (1571–1629) (r. 1588–1629)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Abbas the Great<br /> عباس بزرگ
| title = [[Shahanshah]]<br>
Zell'ollah (Shadow of God)<ref>{{harvnb|Quinn|2015|loc=chpt. Shah Abbas and political legitimacy'}}</ref><br>Ṣāḥebqerān-e-ʿAlāʾ (Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction)<ref>{{harvnb|Quinn|2015|loc=chpt. Shah Abbas as the 'Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'}}</ref>
| more =
| image = ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Portrait by an unknown [[Italians|Italian]] painter
| succession = 5th [[List of kings of Persia|Safavid Shah of Iran]]
| reign = 1 October 1588{{snd}}19 January 1629
| coronation = 1588
| predecessor = [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Mohammad I]]
| successor = [[Safi of Persia|Safi]]
| birth_date = 27 January 1571
| birth_place = [[Herat]], [[Safavid Iran]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]])
| death_date = 19 January 1629 (aged 57)
| death_place = [[Mazandaran]], [[Safavid Iran]]
| burial_place = [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]], [[Kashan]], [[Iran]]
| spouse = Mahd-i-Aliya Khanum <br> Oglan Pasha Khanum <br> [[Yakhan Begum]] <br> Fakhr-i-Jahan Begum <br> [[Princess Marta of Kakheti|Princess Marta]] <br> Fatima Sultan Begum <br> Wali Ahad Khanum
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = See [[Abbas I of Persia#Offspring|below]]
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| full name =
| house = [[Safavid Dynasty|Safavid]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[Mohammad Khodabanda]]
| mother = [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]]
| religion = [[Shia Islam]]
| image_size = 230px
| burial_date =
| signature =
}}
'''Abbas the Great''' or '''Abbas I of Persia''' ({{lang-fa|شاه عباس بزرگ}}; 27 January 1571{{snd}}19 January 1629) was the 5th [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Shah]] (king) of [[Safavid Iran|Iran]], and is generally considered as one of the greatest rulers of Persian history and the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Shah Mohammad Khodabanda]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thorne|1984|p=1}}</ref>
Although Abbas would preside over the apex of Iran's military, political and economic power, he came to the throne during a troubled time for the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire]]. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the [[Qizilbash]] army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the [[Ottoman Empire]] (its archrival) and the [[Uzbeks]], exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1588, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a [[coup]] and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself.
Under his leadership, Iran developed the [[ghilman]] system where thousands of [[Circassians|Circassian]], [[Georgians|Georgian]], and [[Armenians|Armenian]] slave-soldiers joined the civil administration and the military. With the help of these newly created layers in Iranian society (initiated by his predecessors but significantly expanded during his rule), Abbas managed to eclipse the power of the Qizilbash in the civil administration, the royal house and the military. These actions, as well as his reforms of the Iranian [[Military of the Safavid dynasty|army]], enabled him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces, including [[Kakheti]] whose people he subjected to [[Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns|widescale massacres and deportations.]] By the end of the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|1603–1618 Ottoman War]], Abbas had regained possession over [[Transcaucasia]] and [[Dagestan]], as well as swaths of [[Eastern Anatolia]] and [[Mesopotamia]]; the latter two were territories which had been lost as a result of the 1555 [[Peace of Amasya]]. He also took back land from the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and the [[Mughals]] and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the [[North Caucasus]], beyond the traditional territories of Dagestan.
Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]], making the city the pinnacle of Safavid architecture. In his later years, following a court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, Abbas became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded.
==Early years==
[[File:Shah Abbas I and Vali Muhammad Khan.jpg|thumb|Shah Abbas I and his court.]]
Abbas was born in [[Herat]] (now in [[Afghanistan]], then one of the two chief cities of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]) as the third son of the royal prince [[Mohammad Khodabanda]] and his wife [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]] (known as "Mahd-i Ulya"), the daughter of the [[Marashis|Marashi]] ruler of the [[Mazandaran]] province, who claimed descent from the fourth Shi'a Imam [[Zayn al-Abidin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=71}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=42}}</ref> At the time of his birth, Abbas' grandfather [[Tahmasp I|Shah Tahmasp I]] was the Shah of Iran. Abbas' parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, the mother of the governor of Herat, [[Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=27}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu, the governor of Herat, had originally been tasked with murder of Abbas by [[Shah Ishmail]]. Before he could act, the Shah had died, thus leaving him as governor, but without fulfilling his prerequisite task.<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=259}}</ref>}} When Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas' father to stay in [[Shiraz]] where the climate was better for his fragile health. Tradition dictated that at least one prince of the royal blood had to reside in Khorasan, so Tahmasp appointed Abbas as the nominal governor of the province, despite his young age, and Abbas was left behind in Herat.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=28}}</ref>
In 1578, Abbas' father became Shah of Iran. Abbas' mother soon came to dominate the government, but she had little time for Abbas, preferring to promote the interests of his elder brother Hamza.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=29}}</ref> The queen consort antagonised leaders of the powerful [[Qizilbash]] army, who plotted against her and murdered her on 26 July 1579, reportedly for having an affair with Adil Giray, brother of the [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] khan who was held captive in Qazvin.<ref name=BN3132>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=31–32}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=255}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=73}}</ref> Mohammad was a weak sovereign, incapable of preventing Iran's main rivals, the [[Ottoman Empire]], but also the [[Uzbeks]], from invading the country or stopping factional feuding among the Qizilbash.<ref name=BN3132/><ref name=Sav76>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=76}}</ref> The young prince, Hamza, was more promising and led a campaign against the Ottomans, but he was murdered suspiciously in 1586.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=74}}</ref> Attention now turned to Abbas.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=32–33}}</ref>
At the age of 14, Abbas had come under the guardianship of Murshid Qoli Khan, one of the Qizilbash leaders in Khorasan. When a large Uzbek army invaded Khorasan in 1587, Murshid decided the time was right to overthrow Shah Mohammad.<ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=35}}</ref> He rode to the Safavid capital [[Qazvin]] with the young prince and pronounced him king on 16 October 1587.<ref>{{harvnb|Dale|2010|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=261}}</ref> Mohammad made no objection against his deposition and handed the royal insignia over to his son during the following year on 1 October 1588.<ref group=nb>There is some confusion concerning the date which Abbas assumed power. The confusion sprouts from the fact that two distinctly different, but similar, occurrences both happened in the month of October, but in different years. First, Abbas seized power in the capital of Qazvin, whilst his father was leading the troops. This occurred on 16 October 1587. Then, after his father had returned, on 1 October 1588, Shah Mohammad abdicated and gave control of the empire over to Abbas in a ceremony.</ref> Abbas was 17 years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=75}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=30}}</ref>
==Absolute monarch==
===Abbas takes control===
[[File:Shah Abbas I engraving by Dominicus Custos - Antwerp artist printer and engraver.jpg|thumb|left|''Shah 'Abbās King of the Persians''.<br />Copper engraving by [[Dominicus Custos]], from his ''Atrium heroicum Caesarum'' pub. 1600–1602.]]
The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state. The Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west (including the major city of [[Tabriz]]) and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the various factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579 and the [[grand vizier]] [[Mirza Salman Jabiri]] in 1583.
First, Abbas settled his score with his mother's killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=36}}</ref> His next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamza's widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government posts among his own friends, gradually confining Abbas to the palace.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=37}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Uzbeks continued their conquest of Khorasan. When Abbas heard they were besieging his old friend Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu in Herat, he pleaded with Murshid to take action. Fearing a rival, Murshid did nothing until the news came that Herat had fallen and the Uzbeks had slaughtered the entire population. Only then did he set out on campaign to Khorasan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=38}}</ref> But Abbas planned to avenge the death of Ali Qoli Khan and he arranged for four Qizilbash leaders to kill Murshid after a banquet on 23 July 1589. With Murshid gone, Abbas could now rule Iran in his own right.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=38–39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=50}}</ref>
Abbas decided he must re-establish order within Iran before he took on the foreign invaders. To this end he made a humiliating peace treaty – known as the [[Treaty of Istanbul (1590)|Treaty of Istanbul]] – with the Ottomans in 1589/90, ceding them the provinces of [[Azerbaijan]], [[Karabagh]], [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]], [[Dagestan]], and Qarajadagh, as well as parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Luristan]] and [[Kurdistan]]. This demeaning treaty even ceded the previous capital of [[Tabriz]] to the Ottomans.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=77}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=52}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=266}}</ref>
===Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer===
[[File:Sir Robert Shirley by Anthony Van Dyck 1622 Rome.jpg|thumb|[[Anthony Shirley]] and [[Robert Shirley]] (''pictured in 1622'') helped modernize the Persian Army.]]
The [[Qizilbash]] had provided the backbone of the [[Military of the Safavid dynasty|Safavid army]] from the very beginning of Safavid rule and they also occupied many posts in the government. As a result, effective power in the state in the early days of the dynasty was held by the Qizilbash, leaving the shah often powerless. To counterbalance their power and as a decisive answer to this problem, Abbas turned to the newly introduced members of Iranian society (an initiative put in place by Shah [[Tahmasp I]]) the ''ghulams'' (a word literally meaning "slaves"). From these newly introduced slaves, the Shah created a gunpowder force, reaching numbers up to 37,000 soldiers, completely funded by the Crown. This weakened the power that the Qizilbash had against the crown significantly as they no longer had a "military monopoly" in Persia.<ref>Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East" (Westview Press, 2013) pg 50</ref> Like the [[janissaries]] of the neighbouring [[Ottoman Empire]], these ''[[ghilman|ghulams]]'' were mainly [[Georgians]], [[Circassians]] and [[Armenians]] who had been brought into Iran ''en masse'' (by conquest and slave trade), had converted or had been converted to Islam, and had taken up service in the army, royal household or the civil administration, and were loyal only to the shah.<ref name=RE265>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=265}}</ref><ref name="ABBAS I">{{harvnb|Savory|1983}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Under Abbas' leadership this new grouping in Iranian society (also called the ''third force'')<ref>{{harvnb|Wallbank|1992|p=369}}</ref> grew in influence and power, with many thousands of ethnic [[Georgians]], [[Circassians]] and [[Armenians]] becoming an integral part of Iranian society and taking up key government, royal household and military positions.
Tahmasp I, the second Safavid shah, had realised, by looking at his own empire and that of the neighbouring Ottomans, that he faced ongoing threats from dangerous rival factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to him as the head of state. If not properly managed, these rivalries represented a serious threat to the ruler or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. For Tahmasp, the problem revolved around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qezelbāš, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune and material advancement.<ref name=Tah>{{harvnb|Mitchell|2009a}}</ref>
Therefore, between 1540 and 1555, Tahmasp conducted a series of invasions of the [[Caucasus]] region which provided battle experience for his soldiers, as well as leading to the capture of large numbers of [[Christianity|Christian]] Circassian and Georgian slaves (30,000 just in these four raids).<ref name="Tah" /> These slaves would form the basis of an Safavid military slave system.<ref>{{harvnb|Streusand|2011|p=148}}{{verification needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> These slaves would serve a similar role in their formation, implementation and use to the [[janissaries]] of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Bosworth|1989}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Their arrival in such large numbers led to the formation of a new grouping in Iranian society solely composed of ethnic Caucasians. Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until Abbas' reign, during Tahmasp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, the [[harem]] and in the civil and military administration.<ref>{{harvnb|Manz|Haneda|1990}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lapidus|2012}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref>
Learning from his grandfather, Abbas (who had been used by the vying Qizilbash factions during his youth)<ref name="ABBAS I" /> decided to encourage this new (Caucasian) grouping in Iranian society, as he realized that he must impose his authority on the Qezelbāš or remain their tool. So Abbas single-handedly encouraged the growth in influence and power of this new grouping, also called the ''third force''. It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000 to 200,000 Georgians,{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=174}}<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Monshi|1978|p=1116}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hosayn, Malekšāh|p=509}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> tens of thousands of [[Circassians]], and around 300,000 [[Armenians]]<ref>[[George Bournoutian|Bournoutian, George A.]]; [https://books.google.nl/books?id=jIvtAAAAMAAJ&q=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&dq=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBDgKahUKEwjLyJXbxvzIAhUGjnIKHd5fAuQ ''A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)''] (original from the [[University of Michigan]]) Mazda Publishers, 2002 {{ISBN|978-1568591414}} p 208</ref><ref>Aslanian, Sebouh. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=l0Kn-DMl5ZoC&pg=PA1&dq=shah+abbas+deport+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI5f3ChMX8yAIVA_FyCh3OHgFY#v=onepage&q=shah%20abbas%20deport%20300%2C000%20armenians&f=false ''From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa''] [[University of California Press]], 4 mei 2011 {{ISBN|978-0520947573}} p 1</ref> were deported from the Caucasus to Persia's heartland, with a significant number gaining responsibilities and roles in Iranian society, including some of the highest positions of the state, including the ''ghulam'' corps. Many of those deported from the Caucasus settled in various regions of Iran and became craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors and peasants within Iranian society.<ref>{{harvnb|Matthee|1999a}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref>
As part of the ghulam slave system, Abbas greatly expanded the ghulam military corps (also known as ''ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa'', tr. as "crown servants") from just a few hundred during Tahmasp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,<ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=37}}</ref> as part of a whole army division of 40,000 [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] ghulams. Abbas then reduced the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved Qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community and reducing their power. Most were eventually replaced by ghulams, whose loyalty was to the shah.
By 1595, [[Allahverdi Khan]], a [[Georgians|Georgian]], had become one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state <ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=81}}</ref> when he was appointed the Governor-General of [[fars province|Fars]], one of the richest provinces in Persia. His power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=82}}</ref> Not only did the ghulam system allowed the shah to control and manage the rival Qizilbash Turks and Persians, it also resolved budgetary problems, in the short term at least,<ref name="ABBAS I" /> as by restoring the Shah's complete control of the provinces formerly governed by the Qizilbash chiefs, the provinces' revenues now supplemented the royal treasury. From now on, government officials collected the taxes and remitted them directly to the royal treasury. In the harem, the Circassians and Georgians rapidly replaced the Turcoman factions and, as a result, gained a significant direct influence on the [[meritocratic]] Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state.<ref name="Mit69">{{harvnb|Mitchell|2011|p=69}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|pp=183–184}}</ref>
The increasing numbers of Georgians and Circassians in the Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state vied with the Qizilbash for power and as a result also became involved in court intrigues. This competition for influence saw queens (and their supporters in the harem, court and bureaucracy) compete against each other in order to get their own sons on the throne. This competition increased under Abbas and his successors which weakened the dynasty considerably.<ref name="Circassians" /> Abbas' own son and [[crown prince]], [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]], was caught in the court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, which eventually led to him being executed under Abbas' orders.
Though the ''ghulam'' system did not work as well as it had after the Safavids, the ''third force'' would continue to play a crucial role during the rest of the Safavid era and later until the fall of the [[Qajar dynasty]].<ref name="Circassians">{{harvnb|Haneda|1990|p=818}}</ref>
===Reforming the army===
Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape so that he could effectively confront his Ottoman and Uzbek enemies. During this period, the Uzbeks and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] took swaths of territory from Iran.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=9}}</ref> He also used military reorganisation as another way of side-lining the Qizilbash.<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2007|pp=134–135}}</ref> He created a standing army of many thousands of ''ghulams'' (always conscripted from ethnic Georgians and [[Circassians]]), and to a much lesser extent Iranians, to fight alongside the traditional, feudal force provided by the Qizilbash. The new army regiments' loyalty was to the Shah. The new army consisted of 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry or squires (conscripted Caucasian ''ghulams'') armed with muskets and other weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world<ref name=BBCheels>{{harvnb|Kremer|2013}}</ref>), a corps of musketeers, or ''[[Military of the Safavid dynasty#Tofangchi|tufangchiyan]]'',<ref name=RE265/> (12,000 strong) and a corp of artillery, called ''tupchiyan''<ref name=RE265/> (also 12,000 strong). In addition Abbas had a personal bodyguard, composed of Caucasian ghulams, that was increased to 3,000. This force amounted to about 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.<ref name=RE265/><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=79}}</ref><ref name=BN142>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=141–142}}</ref>
Abbas greatly increased the number of cannon at his disposal so that he could field 500 cannon in a single battle.<ref name=BN142/> Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly the English adventurers Sir [[Anthony Shirley]] and his brother [[Robert Shirley]], who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]] on an unofficial mission to persuade Persia to enter into an anti-Ottoman alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=143}}</ref>
From 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman [[Allahverdi Khan|Allāhverdī Khan]], in conjunction with Robert Shirley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which led to a further increase in the number of ''ghulams'' to 25,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=R.M.|first1=Savory|title=ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/allahverdi-khan-d-1|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=1 January 2016}}</ref>
===Consolidation of the Empire===
During the 1590s, Abbas moved to depose the provincial rulers of Persia. He started with [[Khan Ahmad Khan]], the ruler of [[Gilan]], who had disobeyed Abbas' orders when he requested that Khan Ahmad Khan's daughter [[Yakhan Begum]] marry Abbas' son, [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]], since Khan Ahmad Khan had no male successor. Khan Ahmad Khan disagreed due to the age of his daughter.<ref>{{harvnb|Starkey|2010|p=38}}</ref> This resulted in a Safavid invasion of Gilan in 1591 under the leadership of one of Abbas' favourites, [[Farhad Khan Qaramanlu]]. In 1593–94, [[Jahangir III]], the [[Paduspanid]] ruler of [[Nur, Iran|Nur]], travelled to the court of the Abbas, where he handed over his domains to him, and spend the rest of his life on an estate at [[Saveh]], which Abbas had given to him. In 1597, Abbas deposed the [[Khorshidi dynasty|Khorshidi]] ruler of [[Lar, Iran|Lar]]. One year later, [[Jahangir IV]], the Paduspanid ruler of [[Kojur]], killed two prominent Safavid nobles during a festival in [[Qazvin]]. In response, in 1598 Abbas invaded his domains and besieged Kojur. Jahangir managed to flee, but was captured and killed by a pro-Safavid Paduspanid named Hasan Lavasani.<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{harvnb|Madelung|1988|p=390}}</ref>
==Reconquest==
===War against the Uzbeks===
Abbas' first campaign with his reformed army was against the Uzbeks who had seized Khorasan and were ravaging the province. In April 1598 he went on the attack. One of the two main cities of the province, [[Mashhad]], was easily recaptured but the Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan was safely behind the walls of the other chief city, Herat. Abbas managed to lure the Uzbek army out of the town by feigning a retreat. A bloody battle ensued on 9 August 1598, in the course of which the Uzbek khan was wounded and his troops retreated (the khan was murdered by his own men during the retreat). However, during the battle, Farhad Khan had fled after being wounded and was later accused of fleeing due to cowardice. He was nevertheless forgiven by Abbas, who wanted to appoint him as the governor of Herat, which Farhad Khan refused. According to Oruch Beg, Farhad Khan's refusal made Abbas feel that he had been insulted. Due to Farhad Khan's arrogant behaviour and his suspected treason, he was seen as a threat to Abbas, so Abbas had him executed.<ref name=mat19>{{harvnb|Matthee|1999}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Abbas then converted Gilan and Mazandaran into the crown domain (''khasseh''), and appointed Allahverdi Khan as the new commander-in-chief of the Safavid army.<ref name=mat19/>
By 1599, Abbas had conquered not only Herat and Mashhad, but had moved as far east as [[Balkh]]. This would be a short-lived victory and he would eventually have to settle on controlling only some of this conquest after the new ruler of the [[Khanate of Khiva]], Baqi Muhammad Khan attempted to retake Balkh and Abbas found his troops were still no match for the Uzbeks. By 1603, the battle lines had stabilized, albeit with the loss of the majority of the Persian artillery. Abbas was able to hold onto most of Khorassan, including Herat, [[Sabzevar]], [[Farah, Afghanistan|Farah]], and [[Nisa, Iran|Nisa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=267}}</ref>
Abbas' north-east frontier was now safe for the time being and he could turn his attention to the Ottomans in the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=84}}</ref> After defeating the Uzbeks, he moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]].<ref name=EB/>
===War against the Ottomans===
{{see also|Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Capture of Baghdad (1623)}}
[[File:Shah Abbas Horse.jpg|thumb|"Abbas King of Persia", as seen by [[Sir Thomas Herbert, 1st Baronet|Thomas Herbert]] in 1627.]]
The Safavids had not yet beaten their archrival, the Ottomans, in battle. After a particularly arrogant series of demands from the Ottoman ambassador, the Shah had him seized, had his beard shaved and sent it to his master, the sultan, in Constantinople. This was effectively a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=147–148}}</ref> In the resulting conflict, Abbas first recaptured [[Nahavand]] and destroyed the fortress in the city, which the Ottomans had planned to use as an advance base for attacks on Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=85}}</ref> The next year, Abbas pretended he was setting off on a hunting expedition to Mazandaran with his men. This was merely a ruse to deceive the Ottoman spies in his court – his real target was Azerbaijan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=148–149}}</ref> He changed course for Qazvin where he assembled a large army and set off to retake Tabriz, which had been in Ottoman hands for some time.
[[File:RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Drawing of the [[Capture of Tabriz (1603)|capture of Tabriz]] and the parading before [[Shah Abbas I]] of the severed heads of Ottoman soldiers. Drawn by a European traveller, 1603.]]
For the first time, the Iranians made great use of their artillery and the town – which had been ruined by Ottoman occupation – soon fell.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=149–150}}</ref> Abbas set off to besiege [[Yerevan]], a town that had become one of the main Ottoman strongholds in the Caucasus since the Safavids had ceded it in 1590. It finally fell in June 1604 and with it the Ottomans lost the support of most Armenians, Georgians and other Caucasians. But Abbas was unsure how the new sultan, [[Ahmed I]], would respond and withdrew from the region using scorched earth tactics.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=150–151}}</ref> For a year, neither side made a move, but in 1605, Abbas sent his general [[Allahverdi Khan]] to meet Ottoman forces on the shores of [[Lake Van]]. On 6 November 1605 the Iranians, led by Abbas, scored a decisive victory over the Ottomans [[Battle of Sufiyan|at Sufiyan]], near Tabriz.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=87}}</ref> In the [[Caucasus]], during the war Abbas also managed to capture what is now [[Kabardino-Balkaria]]. The Persian victory was recognised in the [[Treaty of Nasuh Pasha]] in 1612, effectively granting them back suzerainty over most of the [[Caucasus]].
Several years of peace followed as the Ottomans carefully planned their response. But their secret training manoeuvres were observed by Iranian spies. Abbas learnt that the Ottoman plan was to invade Iran via Azerbaijan, take Tabriz then move on to [[Ardabil]] and Qazvin, which they could use as bargaining chips in exchange for other territories. The shah decided to lay a trap. He would allow the Ottomans to enter the country, then destroy them. He had Tabriz evacuated of its inhabitants while he waited at Ardabil with his army. In 1618, an Ottoman army of 100,000 led by the grand vizier, invaded and easily seized Tabriz.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=153}}</ref> The vizier sent an ambassador to the shah demanding he make peace and return the lands taken since 1602.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=154}}</ref> Abbas refused and pretended he was ready to set fire to Ardabil and retreat further inland rather than face the Ottoman army.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=155}}</ref> When the Turkish vizier heard the news, he decided to march on Ardabil right away. This was just what Abbas wanted. His army of 40,000 was hiding at a crossroads on the way and they ambushed the Ottoman army in a battle, which ended in complete victory for the Iranians.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=156}}</ref>
In 1623, Abbas decided to take back Mesopotamia, which had been lost by his grandfather Tahmasp through the [[Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=157–158}}</ref> Profiting from the confusion surrounding the accession of the new Ottoman sultan [[Murad IV]], he pretended to be making a pilgrimage to the Shi'ite shrines of Kerbala and Najaf, but used his army to seize Baghdad.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=158}}</ref> However, Abbas was then distracted by a rebellion in Georgia in 1624 led by [[Giorgi Saakadze]] thus allowing an Ottoman force to besiege Baghdad, but the Shah came to its relief the next year and crushed the Turkish army decisively.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=158–159}}</ref> In 1638, however, after Abbas' death, the Ottomans retook Baghdad, and the Iranian–Ottoman border was finalised to be roughly the same as the current Iran–Turkey and Iran–Iraq borders.
===Quelling the Georgian uprisings===
[[File:თეიმურაზ I.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Teimuraz I of Kakheti]] (also known as ''Tahmuras Khan'').]]
{{see also|Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns}}
[[File:როსტომ ხანი.gif|thumb|right|170px|[[Rostom of Kartli|Rostom]] (also known as ''Rustam Khan''), viceroy of [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]], eastern Georgia, from 1633–1658.]]
Between 1614 and 1616, during the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Ottoman-Safavid War]], Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly loyal [[Georgians|Georgian]] subjects [[Luarsab II of Kartli|Luarsab II]] and [[Teimuraz I of Kakheti|Teimuraz I]] (also known as ''Tahmuras Khan'') in the [[Kingdom of Kakheti]].
In 1606, Abbas had appointed these Georgians onto the thrones of Safavid vassals [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]], at the behest of Kartlian nobles and Teimuraz's mother [[Ketevan the Martyr|Ketevan]]; both seemed like malleable youths.<ref name="Rayfield">{{cite book |last1=Rayfield |first1=Donald |title=Edge of Empires |date=2013 |publisher=Reaktion Books}}</ref> However, tensions soon arose between the Shah and the Georgian kings. In 1613, when the Shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in [[Mazandaran province|Mazandaran]], they did not appear as they feared that they would be either imprisoned or killed.<ref name=Mit69/> At this point war broke out, Iranian armies invaded the two territories in March 1614, and the two allied kings subsequently sought refuge in the Ottoman vassal [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imeretia]].<ref name="Rayfield" /> Abbas, as reported by the Safavid court historian [[Iskander Beg Munshi]], was infuriated by what was perceived as the defection of two of his most trusted subjects and ''gholams''.<ref name="Mit69" /> He deported 30,000 Kakhetian peasants to Iran, and appointed a grandson of [[Alexander II of Imereti]] to the throne of Kartli, [[Jesse of Kakheti]] (also known as "Isā Khān").<ref name="Mit69" /><ref name="Rayfield" /> Raised up at the court in [[Isfahan]] and a [[Shia Islam|Muslim]], he was perceived as fully loyal to the Shah.
Abbas threatened Imeretia with devastation if they did not give up the fugitive kings; the Imeretian, Mingrelian and Gurian rulers jointly refused his demand. Luarsab, however, surrendered voluntarily to the Shah; Abbas initially treated him well but when he learned that Luarsab and Teimuraz had offered an alliance with the Ottomans he demanded that Luarsab accept Islam. When Luarsab refused, he was thrown in prison.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615, taking advantage of a resurgence in Ottoman-Safavid hostilities, and there he defeated a Safavid force. However, when the Ottoman army postponed its invasion of the Safavids, Abbas was able to briefly send an army back to defeat Teimuraz, and redoubled his invasion after brokering a truce with the Ottomans.<ref name="Rayfield" /> Now Iranian rule was fully restored over eastern Georgia.<ref name="Mitchell 2011 70">{{harvnb|Mitchell|2011|p=70}}</ref> Subsequently, the Shah marched on [[Kutaisi]], the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring the defectors.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} In a punitive expedition to Kakhetia, his army then killed perhaps 60–70,000{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=174}}<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="Khanbaghi 2006 131">{{harvnb|Khanbaghi|2006|p=131}}</ref> or 100,000<ref name="Rayfield" /> Georgians, with twice as many more being deported to Iran, removing about two-thirds of the Kakhetian population.<ref>{{harvnb|Kacharava|2011}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Rayfield" /> More refugees were rounded up in 1617.<ref name="Rayfield" /> In 1619 Abbas appointed the loyal [[Simon II of Kartli|Simon II]] (or ''Semayun Khan'') as a puppet ruler of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule over districts where the rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.<ref name="Mit69" />
Having momentarily secured the region, Abbas took further acts of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz and Luarsab. He castrated Teimuraz's sons, who both died shortly afterwards.<ref name="Rayfield" /> He executed Luarsab in 1622, and in 1624 he had Ketevan, who had been sent to the Shah as a negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity.<ref name="ReferenceB">Suny p. 50{{Incomplete short citation|date=September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Asat'iani 1997 188">{{harvnb|Asat'iani|Bendianachvili|1997|p=188}}</ref><ref name="Rayfield" /> Teimuraz, meanwhile, sought aid from the Ottomans and Russia.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Abbas was then warned of another imminent Kakhetian uprising, so he returned to Georgia in early 1625. He lured Kakhetian soldiers on a false pretext and then began executing them. He also had plans to execute all armed Kartlians, including his own general [[Giorgi Saakadze]]; however Saakadze intercepted a courier and uncovered the plot. Saakadze then defected to the Georgians, and led a new rebellion which succeeded in throwing the Persians out of Kartli and Kakheti while crowning Teimuraz as king of both territories. Abbas counterattacked in June, won the subsequent war and dethroned Teimuraz, but lost half his army at the hands of the Georgians and was forced to accept Kartli and Kakheti only as vassal states while abandoning his plans to eliminate Christians from the area.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Even then, Saakadze and Teimuraz launched another rebellion in 1626, and were effective in clearing Iranian forces from most of the region.<ref name="Rayfield" /> Thus, the Georgian territories continued to resist Safavid encroachments until Abbas' death.<ref name="Mitchell 2011 70"/>
===Kandahar and the Mughals===
{{Main|Mughal-Safavid War (1622–1623)}}
The Safavids were traditionally allied with the Mughals in India against the Uzbeks, who coveted the province of Khorasan. The Mughal emperor [[Humayun]] had given Abbas' grandfather, Shah Tahmasp, the province of [[Kandahar]] as a reward for helping him back to his throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=120}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2003|p=263}}</ref> In 1590, profiting from the confusion in Iran, Humayun's successor [[Akbar the Great|Akbar]] seized Kandahar. Abbas continued to maintain cordial relations with the Mughals, while always asking for the return of Kandahar.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=121}}</ref> Finally, in 1620, a diplomatic incident in which the Iranian ambassador refused to bow down in front of the Emperor [[Jahangir]] led to war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=123–124}}</ref> India was embroiled in civil turmoil and Abbas found he only needed a lightning raid to take back the far easternmost town of Kandahar in 1622.
After the conquest, he was very conciliatory to Jahangir, claiming he had only taken back what was rightly his and disavowing any further territorial ambitions.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=124}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2003|p=264}}</ref> Jahangir was not appeased but he was unable to recapture the province. A childhood friend of Abbas named [[Ganj Ali Khan]] was then appointed as the governor of city, which he would govern until his death in 1624/5.{{sfn|Parizi|2000|pp=284–285}}{{sfn|Babaie|2004|p=94}}
===War against the Portuguese===
{{Main|Persia-Portugal war|Capture of Ormuz (1622)}}
[[File:Fortress of Hormuz.jpg|thumb|The island of Hormuz was captured by an Anglo-Persian force in the 1622 [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Capture of Ormuz]].]]
During the 16th century the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] had established bases in the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=159}}</ref> In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of [[Imam-Quli Khan]] [[Undiladze]] managed to expel the Portuguese from [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cole|1987|p=186}}</ref> In 1622, with the help of four English ships, [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Abbas retook]] [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] from the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=161}}</ref> He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, [[Bandar Abbas]], nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful.<ref name="Bomati 1998 162">{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=162}}</ref>
==Shah and his subjects==
===Isfahan: a new capital===
Abbas moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to the more central city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] in 1598. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, and caravansarais, Isfahan became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. As [[Roger Savory]] writes, "Not since the development of [[Baghdad]] in the eighth century A.D. by the [[Al-Mansur|Caliph al-Mansur]] had there been such a comprehensive example of town-planning in the Islamic world, and the scope and layout of the city centre clearly reflect its status as the capital of an empire."<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=96}}</ref> Isfahan became the centre of Safavid architectural achievement, with the mosques [[Shah Mosque (Isfahan)|Masjed-e Shah]] and the [[Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque|Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah]] and other monuments including the [[Ālī Qāpū|Ali Qapu]], the [[Chehel Sotoun]] palace and the [[Naghsh-i Jahan Square]].
In making Isfahan the centre of Safavid Empire, Abbas utilized the Armenian people, whom he had forcibly relocated to Isfahan from their Armenian homelands. Once they were settled, he allowed them considerable freedom and encouraged them to continue in their silk trade. Silk was an integral part of the economy and considered to be the best form of hard currency available. The Armenians had already established trade networks that allowed Abbas to strengthen Iran's economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Dale|2010|p=94}}</ref>
===Arts===
[[File:Shah Abbas Statue.jpg|thumb|The Statue of Shah Abbas, which was on display in [[Isfahan]] before the [[Iranian Revolution]]]]
Abbas' painting studios (of the Isfahan school established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Iranian history, by such illustrious painters as [[Reza Abbasi]] and Muhammad Qasim. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denoted a certain relaxation of the strictures. The portrait by Muhammad Qasim suggests that the Muslim prohibition against the consumption of wine, as well as that against male intimacy, "were more honoured in the breach than in the observance".<ref>{{harvnb|Saslow|1999|p=147}}</ref> Abbas brought in 300 Chinese potters to Iran to enhance local production of [[Persian pottery|Chinese-style ceramics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=67}}</ref>
Under Abbas' reign, [[Persian carpet|carpet weaving]] increased its role as an important part of Persian industry and culture, as wealthy Europeans started importing Persian rugs. Silk production became a monopoly of the crown, and manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics were also important exports.<ref name=EB/>
===Attitude towards religious minorities===
Like all other Safavid monarchs, Abbas was a [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite Muslim]]. He had a particular veneration for [[Imam Hussein]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=96}}</ref> In 1601, he made a pilgrimage on foot from Isfahan to Mashhad, site of the shrine of [[Ali ar-Ridha|Imam Reza]], which he restored (it had been despoiled by the Uzbeks).<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=98–99}}</ref> Since [[Sunni Islam]] was the religion of Iran's main rival, the Ottoman Empire, Abbas often [[Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism#Significant figures during the conversion process|treated Sunnis]] living in western border provinces harshly.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=111}}</ref>
[[File:Baptistère kelisa-e-vank esfahan.jpg|thumb|<center>''Kelisa-e Vank'' (the Armenian [[Vank Cathedral]]) in New Julfa</center>]]
Abbas was usually tolerant of Christianity. The Italian traveller [[Pietro della Valle]] was astonished at the Shah's knowledge of Christian history and theology and establishing diplomatic links with European Christian states was a vital part of the shah's foreign policy.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=107}}</ref> Christian [[Armenia]] was [[Persian Armenia (1502–1828)|a key Safavid province]] bordering the Ottoman Empire. From 1604 Abbas implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved the forced resettlement of up to 300,000 Armenians from their homelands.<ref name="University of California Press">{{cite book|last1=Aslanian|first1=Sebouh|title=From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|isbn=978-0520947573|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Mazda Publishers">{{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George|author-link1=George Bournoutian|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208 208]|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208}}</ref> The Armenians came primarily from the wealthy Armenian merchant town of [[Jugha]] (also known as Jolfa).<ref name="Mazda Publishers"/> Many were transferred to [[New Julfa]], a town the shah had built for the Armenians primarily meant for these Armenians from Jugha ("Old Julfa"), near his capital Isfahan.<ref name="University of California Press"/><ref name="Mazda Publishers"/> Thousands of Armenians died on the journey. Those who survived enjoyed considerable religious freedom in New Julfa, where the shah built them a new cathedral. Abbas' aim was to boost the Iranian economy by encouraging the Armenian merchants who had moved to New Julfa. As well as religious liberties, he also offered them interest-free loans and allowed the town to elect its own mayor (''kalantar'').<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=209}}</ref> Other Armenians were transferred to the provinces of [[Gilan]] and Mazandaran. These were less lucky. Abbas wanted to establish a second capital in Mazandaran, [[Farahabad, Mazandaran|Farahabad]], but the climate was unhealthy and malarial. Many settlers died and others gradually abandoned the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=104}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|Lockhart|1986|p=454}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kouymjian|2004|p=20}}</ref>
Abbas was more intolerant of Christians in Georgia, where the threat of rebellion loomed larger. Abbas frequently demanded that nobles convert to Shia Islam, and had [[Ketevan the Martyr]] tortured to death when she refused. Abbas's anger at Georgian rebelliousness also generated his plan to deport or exterminate eastern Georgia's Christians and replace them with [[Turkmens]], which has been described as "genocidal".<ref name="Rayfield" />
==Contacts with Europe==
[[File:Rolka Mechti Kuli Beg.jpg|thumb|Persian ambassador during his entry into [[Kraków]] for the wedding ceremonies of King [[Sigismund III of Poland]] in 1605.]]
Abbas' tolerance towards most Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, [[Uzun Hassan]], then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the [[Venice|Venetians]] for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe and Abbas' attitude was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller [[Anthony Jenkinson]] from his court upon hearing he was a Christian.<ref>{{harvnb|Lockhart|1953|p=347}}</ref> For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage".<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=114}}</ref>
[[File:Embassy to Europe.jpg|thumb|left|Canvas by [[Carlo Caliari|Carlo]] and [[Gabriele Caliari]] in the [[Doge's Palace]] in Venice depicting doge [[Marino Grimani (doge)|Marino Grimani]] receiving the Persian ambassadors, 1603]]
[[File:Abbas I as a new Caesar being honoured by the trumpets of fame and the Persian embassy in Allegorie de l Occasion by Frans II Francken 1628.jpg|thumb|Abbas I as a new [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)|1609–1615 Persian embassy]], in ''[[:File:Allegorie de l Occasion Frans II Francken 1628.jpg|Allégorie de l'Occasion]]'', by [[Frans II Francken]], 1628.]]
In 1599, Abbas sent his [[Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)|first diplomatic mission to Europe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=128}}</ref> The group crossed the [[Caspian Sea]] and spent the winter in [[Moscow]], before proceeding through [[Norway]], [[Germany]] (where it was received by [[Emperor Rudolf II]]) to [[Rome]] where [[Pope Clement VIII]] gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of [[Philip III of Spain]] in 1602.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=129}}</ref> Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe and Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's 1601–02 ''[[Twelfth Night]]'', for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the [[Sophy (Safavid Empire)|Sophy]]', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Shakespeare|1863|pp=258,262,282}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2010|p=210}}</ref> Persian fashions—such as shoes with [[High-heeled footwear|heels]], for men—were enthusiastically adopted by European aristocrats.<ref name=BBCheels/> Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.<ref name=BN131>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=131}}</ref>
The shah had set great store on an alliance with [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]], the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a port that had fallen into Spanish hands when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply.<ref name=BN131/> Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the Holy Roman Empire, which wanted him to make his 400,000+ Armenian subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=134–135}}</ref> Contacts with the Pope, [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Muscovy]] were no more fruitful.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=136–137}}</ref>
More came of Abbas' contacts with the English, although [[Kingdom of England|England]] had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganise the Iranian army, which proved to be pivotal for the Safavid victory in the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Ottoman-Safavid War (1603–1618)]] and the first Safavid victory in battle over their neighbouring Ottoman archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, [[Robert Shirley]], led Abbas' [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)|second diplomatic mission to Europe]] between 1609–1615. The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran and in 1622 four of its ships helped [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese]]. The capture of Ormuz gave the opportunity for the Company to develop trade with Persia, attempting to trade English [[cloth]] and other commodities for silk, with did not become very profitable due to the lack of Persian interest and small quantity of English goods.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=161–162}}</ref>
==Family tragedies and death==
[[File:Shah Abbas and Wine Boy.jpg|thumb|left|Shah Abbas in later life with a page. By Muhammad Qasim (1627).<ref name="Bomati 1998 162"/>]]
Of Abbas' five sons, three had survived past childhood, so the Safavid succession seemed secure. He was on good terms with the crown prince, [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza|Mohammed Baqir Mirza]] (born 1587; better known in the West as Safi Mirza).<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=235}}</ref> In 1614, however, during a campaign in Georgia, the shah heard rumours that the prince was conspiring against him with a leading [[Circassians|Circassian]], [[Farhad Beg Cherkes]]. Shortly after, Mohammed Baqir broke protocol during a hunt by killing a boar before the shah had a chance to put his spear in the animal. This seemed to confirm Abbas' suspicions and he sunk into melancholy; he no longer trusted any of his three sons.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=235–236}}</ref> In 1615, he decided he had no choice but to have Mohammed killed. A Circassian named [[Behbud Khan Cherkes|Behbud Beg]] executed the Shah's orders and the prince was murdered in a [[Turkish bath|hammam]] in the city of [[Resht]]. The shah almost immediately regretted his action and was plunged into grief.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=236–237}}</ref>
In 1621, Abbas fell seriously ill. His heir, Mohammed Khodabanda, thought he was on his deathbed and began to celebrate his accession to the throne with his Qizilbash supporters. But the shah recovered and punished his son by blinding him, which would disqualify him from ever taking the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=95}}</ref> The blinding was only partially successful and the prince's followers planned to smuggle him out of the country to safety with the Mughals whose aid they would use to overthrow Abbas and install Mohammed on the throne. But the plot was betrayed, the prince's followers were executed and the prince himself imprisoned in the fortress of Alamut where he would later be murdered by Abbas' successor, Shah Safi.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=240–241}}</ref>
Imam Qoli Mirza, the third and last son, then became the crown prince. Abbas groomed him carefully for the throne but, for some reason, in 1627, he had him partially blinded and imprisoned in Alamut.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=241–242}}</ref>
Unexpectedly, Abbas now chose as heir the son of Mohammed Baqir Mirza, Sam Mirza, a cruel and introverted character who was said to loathe his grandfather because of his father's murder. Nevertheless, he did succeed Shah Abbas at the age of 17 in 1629, taking the name Shah Safi. Abbas's health was poor from 1621 onwards. He died at his palace in [[Farahabad, Mazandaran|Farahabad]] on the Caspian coast in 1629 and was buried in [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I|Kashan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=243–246}}</ref>
==Character and legacy==
[[File:Shah Abbas the Great tomb.JPG|thumb|Tomb, the [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]].]]
According to [[Roger Savory]]: "Shah Abbas I possessed in abundance qualities which entitle him to be styled 'the Great'. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician whose chief characteristic was prudence. He preferred to obtain his ends by diplomacy rather than war, and showed immense patience in pursuing his objectives."<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=101}}</ref> In [[Michael Axworthy|Michael Axworthy's]] view, Abbas "was a talented administrator and military leader, and a ruthless autocrat. His reign was the outstanding creative period of the Safavid era. But the civil wars and troubles of his childhood (when many of his relatives were murdered) left him with a dark twist of suspicion and brutality at the centre of his personality."<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2007|p=134}}</ref> [[Donald Rayfield]] described him as "exceptionally perspicacious and active," but also "a murderous paranoiac when aroused."<ref name="Rayfield" />
''[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]'' rejects the view that the death of Abbas marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavid dynasty as Iran continued to prosper throughout the 17th century, but blames him for the poor statesmanship of the later Safavid shahs: "The elimination of royal princes, whether by blinding or immuring them in the harem, their exclusion from the affairs of state and from contact with the leading aristocracy of the empire and the generals, all the abuses of the princes' education, which were nothing new but which became the normal practice with Abbas at the court of Isfahan, effectively put a stop to the training of competent successors, that is to say, efficient princes prepared to meet the demands of ruling as kings."<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=278}}</ref>
Abbas was fluent in the Turkish dialect used by the Turkoman portion of the multi-ethnic [[Qizilbash]] organization, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, of the majority of the population, as well as of the court when Isfahan became the capital under his reign (1598).{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=165}}<ref name = "Cyril Glassé 2003, pg 392">Cyril Glassé (ed.), ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'', Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]]. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian"</ref> According to [[García de Silva Figueroa]], the Spanish ambassador to the Safavid court during Abbas' later reign, he heard Abbas speak [[Georgian language|Georgian]], which he had doubtlessly acquired from his [[Georgians|Georgian]] ''[[Military of the Safavid dynasty#Ghulam|gholams]]'' and concubines.{{sfn|Blow|2009|pages=166, 118}}
Abbas gained strong support from the common people.{{clarify |date=July 2019 |reason=Where?}} Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=103}}</ref> Short in stature but physically strong until his health declined in his final years, Abbas could go for long periods without needing to sleep or eat and could ride great distances. At the age of 19 Abbas shaved off his beard, keeping only his moustache, thus setting a fashion in Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=44–47}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=57–58}}</ref>
==Family==
;Consorts
*Mahd-i-Ulya Khanum (m. 1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Mustafa Mirza;
*Olgan Pasha Khanum (1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Husayn Mirza, and widow of Hamza Mirza;
*Wali Ahad Khanum (m. 1591);
*Fakhr-i-Jahan Khanum, daughter of King Bagrat VII of Kartli;
*[[Yakhan Begum]], daughter of [[Khan Ahmad Khan]] and [[Maryam Begum]];
*Tzarievna Marta, daughter of King David I of Kahkheti;
*A daughter of Rostam Khan Daghistani (m. 1607);
*A daughter of Masum Khan, Governor of Tabaristan (m. 1604 – div. 1614);
*Fatima Sultan Begum alias Peri Lala, née Tinatin, daughter of Peykar Khan of Kakheti;
*A daughter of Shaikh Haider Moksi, Governor of Maraghah (m. 1610);
;Sons
*Prince Shahzadeh [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]] (15 September 1587, [[Mashhad]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] – killed 25 January 1615, [[Rasht]], [[Gilan]]), was Governor of Mashhad 1587–1588, and of Hamadan 1591–1592. Married firstly at [[Esfahan]], 1601, Princess Fakhri-Jahan Begum, daughter of [[Ismail II]], married secondly [[Dilaram Khanum]], a [[Georgians|Georgian]]. He had issue, two sons:
**Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Abul-Naser Sam Mirza, succeeded as [[Safi of Persia|Safi]] – with Dilaram;
**Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Suleiman Mirza (killed August 1632 at [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) – with Fakhr-i-Jahan;
*Prince ''Shahzadeh'' Sultan Hasan Mirza (''b''. September 1588, [[Mazandaran]] – ''d''. 18 August 1591, [[Qazvin]]);
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Hosein Mirza (26 February 1591, [[Qazvin]] – died young);
*Prince Shahzadeh Tahmasph Mirza (died young);
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Mohammad Mirza (18 March 1591, [[Qazvin]] – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1621.
**Princess Gawhar Shad Begum, married to Mirza Qazi, the Shaykh-ul-Islam of Isfahan.<ref name="mystic">{{cite book|first=Kathryn|last=Babayan|title=Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran|publisher=Harvard CMES|year=2002|pages=400–1|isbn=978-0-932-88528-9}}</ref>
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Ismail Mirza (6 September 1601, [[Esfahan]] – killed 16 August 1613)
*Prince Shahzadeh Imam Qoli Amano'llah Mirza (12 November 1602, [[Esfahan]] – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1627. He had issue, one son:
**Prince Shahzadeh Najaf Qoli Mirza ({{circa}} 1625 – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]])
;Daughters
*Princess Shahzada Begum, married to Mirza Mohsin Razavi.<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue two sons;
*Princess Zubayda Begum (killed 20 February 1632), married to [[Isa Khan Safavi|Isa Khan]] Shaykhavand,<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue a daughter;
**Jahan Banu Begum, married in 1623, [[Simon II of Kartli]] son of [[Bagrat VII of Kartli]] by his wife, Queen Anna, daughter of [[Alexander II of Kakheti]]. She had issue, a daughter:
***Princess Izz-i-Sharif Begum, married to Sayyid Abdullah, son of Mirza Muhammad Shafi. she had issue, a son:
****Sayyid Muhammad Daud, married to Shahr Banu Begum, daughter of [[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman I]]. She had issue, two sons including:
*****[[Suleiman II of Persia|Suleiman II]].
*Princess Agha Begum, married to [[Khalifeh Soltan|Sultan al-Ulama Khalife Sultan]],<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue four sons and four daughters;
*Princess Havva Begum (''d''. 1617, Zanjan), married firstly to Mirza Riza Shahristani (Sadr), married secondly to Mirza Rafi al-Din Muhammad (Sadr),<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue three sons;
*Princess Shahr Banu Begum, married to Mir Abdulazim, darughah of Isfahan;<ref name="mystic"/>
*Princess Malik Nissa Begum, married to Mir Jalal Shahristani, the mutvalli of the shrine of Imam Riza.<ref name="mystic"/>
==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Abbas I, Shah of Iran'''
|2= 2. [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Muhammad Khodabanda, Shah of Iran]]
|3= 3. [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]]
|4= 4. [[Tahmasp I|Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran]]
|5= [[Sultanum Begum]]
|6= 6. Mir Abdullah Khan II [[Marashis|Marashi]], Ruler of [[Mazandaran Province|Mazandaran]]
|7= Fakhr al-Nisa Begum
|8= 8. [[Ismail I|Isma'il I, Shah of Iran]]
|9= 9. [[Tajlu Khanum]]
|10= 10. Musa Sultan Musullu
|11=
|12= 12. Sultan Mahmud [[Marashis|Marashi]]}}
==See also==
* [[Battle of DimDim]]
* [[García de Silva Figueroa]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]]
* [[Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)]]
* [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–1615)]]
* [[Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism#Abbas I of Persia|Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism]]
* [[Shah Abbas Mosque, Yerevan]]
* [[Juma Mosque of Ganja (Shah Abbas)|Shah Abbas Mosque, Ganja]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=22em}}
==References==
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* {{cite book | last = Sykes | first = Ella Constance | title = Persia and its People | url = https://archive.org/details/persiaitspeople01syke | year = 1910 | publisher = The Macmillan Company | location = New York, NY | lccn = 10001477 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Thorne | editor-first = John O. | encyclopedia = Chambers Biographical Dictionary | isbn = 0-550-18022-2 | title = Abbas I | publisher = Chambers Harrap | location = Edinburgh, UK | year = 1984 | lccn = 2010367095 }}
* {{cite book | last = Wallbank | first = Thomas Walter | title = Civilization Past & Present | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1992 | location = New York, NY | edition = 7th | isbn = 0-6733-8867-0 | lccn = 91025406 | orig-year = 1942 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Wilson | first = Richard | title = When Golden Time Convents'': Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise | journal = Shakespeare | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | date = March 2010 | pages = 209–226 | publisher = Routledge | issn = 1745-0918 | doi = 10.1080/17450911003790331 | s2cid = 191598902 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,''Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587-1629'', 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, {{ISBN|978-1595845672}}, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
* Canby, Sheila R. (ed), 2009, ''Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran'', 2009, British Museum Press, {{ISBN|9780714124520}}
* {{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Francis Barrow | author-link = Francis Barrow Pearce | year = 1920 | title = Zanzibar, the Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa | publisher = E. P. Dutton and Company | location = New York, NY | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA359 | access-date = 13 September 2014 | lccn = 20008651 }}
==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Abbas I (Persia)|Abbas I}}
{{Commons category|Abbas I of Persia}}
* ''Shah Abbās: The Remaking of Iran'', [https://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/future_exhibitions/shah_abbas.aspx The British Museum], in association with Iran Heritage Foundation, 19 February{{snd}}14 June 2009,
* John Wilson, ''Iranian treasures bound for Britain'', BBC Radio 4, 19 January 2009, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7833000/7833651.stm BBC Radio 4's live magazine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090228234847/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00gqy39 ''Front Row''] (audio report).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090509064348/http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-310/_nr-633/i.html "Shah 'Abbas: The Remaking of Iran"]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Safavid Dynasty]]||}}
{{succession box
|before = [[Mohammed Khodabanda]]
|title = [[List of kings of Persia|Shah of Persia]]|years = 1 October 1588{{snd}}19 January 1629
|after = [[Safi of Persia|Safi]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Safavid Rulers}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbas 01 Of Persia}}
[[Category:16th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:17th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia|Abbas 1]]
[[Category:Safavid monarchs|Abbas 1]]
[[Category:1571 births]]
[[Category:1629 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:People from Herat]]
[[Category:16th-century monarchs in the Middle East]]
[[Category:17th-century monarchs in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Filicides]]
[[Category:Iranian poets]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Shah of the Persian Safavid Empire (1571–1629) (r. 1588–1629)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Abbas the Great<br /> عباس بزرگ
| title = [[Shahanshah]]<br>
Zell'ollah (Shadow of God)<ref>{{harvnb|Quinn|2015|loc=chpt. Shah Abbas and political legitimacy'}}</ref><br>Ṣāḥebqerān-e-ʿAlāʾ (Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction)<ref>{{harvnb|Quinn|2015|loc=chpt. Shah Abbas as the 'Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'}}</ref>
| more =
| image = ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg fuck u who wanna do sex with me bitch fuck ???
| alt =
| caption = Portrait by an unknown [[Italians|Italian]] painter
| succession = 5th [[List of kings of Persia|Safavid Shah of Iran]]
| reign = 1 October 1588{{snd}}19 January 1629
| coronation = 1588
| predecessor = [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Mohammad I]]
| successor = [[Safi of Persia|Safi]]
| birth_date = 27 January 1571
| birth_place = [[Herat]], [[Safavid Iran]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]])
| death_date = 19 January 1629 (aged 57)
| death_place = [[Mazandaran]], [[Safavid Iran]]
| burial_place = [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]], [[Kashan]], [[Iran]]
| spouse = Mahd-i-Aliya Khanum <br> Oglan Pasha Khanum <br> [[Yakhan Begum]] <br> Fakhr-i-Jahan Begum <br> [[Princess Marta of Kakheti|Princess Marta]] <br> Fatima Sultan Begum <br> Wali Ahad Khanum
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = See [[Abbas I of Persia#Offspring|below]]
| issue-link =
| issue-pipe =
| full name =
| house = [[Safavid Dynasty|Safavid]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[Mohammad Khodabanda]]
| mother = [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]]
| religion = [[Shia Islam]]
| image_size = 230px
| burial_date =
| signature =
}}
'''Abbas the Great''' or '''Abbas I of Persia''' ({{lang-fa|شاه عباس بزرگ}}; 27 January 1571{{snd}}19 January 1629) was the 5th [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Shah]] (king) of [[Safavid Iran|Iran]], and is generally considered as one of the greatest rulers of Persian history and the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Shah Mohammad Khodabanda]].<ref>{{harvnb|Thorne|1984|p=1}}</ref>
Although Abbas would preside over the apex of Iran's military, political and economic power, he came to the throne during a troubled time for the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid Empire]]. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the [[Qizilbash]] army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the [[Ottoman Empire]] (its archrival) and the [[Uzbeks]], exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1588, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a [[coup]] and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself.
Under his leadership, Iran developed the [[ghilman]] system where thousands of [[Circassians|Circassian]], [[Georgians|Georgian]], and [[Armenians|Armenian]] slave-soldiers joined the civil administration and the military. With the help of these newly created layers in Iranian society (initiated by his predecessors but significantly expanded during his rule), Abbas managed to eclipse the power of the Qizilbash in the civil administration, the royal house and the military. These actions, as well as his reforms of the Iranian [[Military of the Safavid dynasty|army]], enabled him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces, including [[Kakheti]] whose people he subjected to [[Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns|widescale massacres and deportations.]] By the end of the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|1603–1618 Ottoman War]], Abbas had regained possession over [[Transcaucasia]] and [[Dagestan]], as well as swaths of [[Eastern Anatolia]] and [[Mesopotamia]]; the latter two were territories which had been lost as a result of the 1555 [[Peace of Amasya]]. He also took back land from the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and the [[Mughals]] and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the [[North Caucasus]], beyond the traditional territories of Dagestan.
Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]], making the city the pinnacle of Safavid architecture. In his later years, following a court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, Abbas became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded.
==Early years==
[[File:Shah Abbas I and Vali Muhammad Khan.jpg|thumb|Shah Abbas I and his court.]]
Abbas was born in [[Herat]] (now in [[Afghanistan]], then one of the two chief cities of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]) as the third son of the royal prince [[Mohammad Khodabanda]] and his wife [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]] (known as "Mahd-i Ulya"), the daughter of the [[Marashis|Marashi]] ruler of the [[Mazandaran]] province, who claimed descent from the fourth Shi'a Imam [[Zayn al-Abidin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=71}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=42}}</ref> At the time of his birth, Abbas' grandfather [[Tahmasp I|Shah Tahmasp I]] was the Shah of Iran. Abbas' parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, the mother of the governor of Herat, [[Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=27}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu, the governor of Herat, had originally been tasked with murder of Abbas by [[Shah Ishmail]]. Before he could act, the Shah had died, thus leaving him as governor, but without fulfilling his prerequisite task.<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=259}}</ref>}} When Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas' father to stay in [[Shiraz]] where the climate was better for his fragile health. Tradition dictated that at least one prince of the royal blood had to reside in Khorasan, so Tahmasp appointed Abbas as the nominal governor of the province, despite his young age, and Abbas was left behind in Herat.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=28}}</ref>
In 1578, Abbas' father became Shah of Iran. Abbas' mother soon came to dominate the government, but she had little time for Abbas, preferring to promote the interests of his elder brother Hamza.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=29}}</ref> The queen consort antagonised leaders of the powerful [[Qizilbash]] army, who plotted against her and murdered her on 26 July 1579, reportedly for having an affair with Adil Giray, brother of the [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] khan who was held captive in Qazvin.<ref name=BN3132>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=31–32}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=255}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=73}}</ref> Mohammad was a weak sovereign, incapable of preventing Iran's main rivals, the [[Ottoman Empire]], but also the [[Uzbeks]], from invading the country or stopping factional feuding among the Qizilbash.<ref name=BN3132/><ref name=Sav76>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=76}}</ref> The young prince, Hamza, was more promising and led a campaign against the Ottomans, but he was murdered suspiciously in 1586.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=74}}</ref> Attention now turned to Abbas.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=32–33}}</ref>
At the age of 14, Abbas had come under the guardianship of Murshid Qoli Khan, one of the Qizilbash leaders in Khorasan. When a large Uzbek army invaded Khorasan in 1587, Murshid decided the time was right to overthrow Shah Mohammad.<ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=29}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=35}}</ref> He rode to the Safavid capital [[Qazvin]] with the young prince and pronounced him king on 16 October 1587.<ref>{{harvnb|Dale|2010|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=261}}</ref> Mohammad made no objection against his deposition and handed the royal insignia over to his son during the following year on 1 October 1588.<ref group=nb>There is some confusion concerning the date which Abbas assumed power. The confusion sprouts from the fact that two distinctly different, but similar, occurrences both happened in the month of October, but in different years. First, Abbas seized power in the capital of Qazvin, whilst his father was leading the troops. This occurred on 16 October 1587. Then, after his father had returned, on 1 October 1588, Shah Mohammad abdicated and gave control of the empire over to Abbas in a ceremony.</ref> Abbas was 17 years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=75}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=30}}</ref>
==Absolute monarch==
===Abbas takes control===
[[File:Shah Abbas I engraving by Dominicus Custos - Antwerp artist printer and engraver.jpg|thumb|left|''Shah 'Abbās King of the Persians''.<br />Copper engraving by [[Dominicus Custos]], from his ''Atrium heroicum Caesarum'' pub. 1600–1602.]]
The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state. The Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west (including the major city of [[Tabriz]]) and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the various factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579 and the [[grand vizier]] [[Mirza Salman Jabiri]] in 1583.
First, Abbas settled his score with his mother's killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=36}}</ref> His next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamza's widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government posts among his own friends, gradually confining Abbas to the palace.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=37}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Uzbeks continued their conquest of Khorasan. When Abbas heard they were besieging his old friend Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu in Herat, he pleaded with Murshid to take action. Fearing a rival, Murshid did nothing until the news came that Herat had fallen and the Uzbeks had slaughtered the entire population. Only then did he set out on campaign to Khorasan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=38}}</ref> But Abbas planned to avenge the death of Ali Qoli Khan and he arranged for four Qizilbash leaders to kill Murshid after a banquet on 23 July 1589. With Murshid gone, Abbas could now rule Iran in his own right.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=38–39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=50}}</ref>
Abbas decided he must re-establish order within Iran before he took on the foreign invaders. To this end he made a humiliating peace treaty – known as the [[Treaty of Istanbul (1590)|Treaty of Istanbul]] – with the Ottomans in 1589/90, ceding them the provinces of [[Azerbaijan]], [[Karabagh]], [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]], [[Dagestan]], and Qarajadagh, as well as parts of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Luristan]] and [[Kurdistan]]. This demeaning treaty even ceded the previous capital of [[Tabriz]] to the Ottomans.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=77}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=52}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=266}}</ref>
===Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer===
[[File:Sir Robert Shirley by Anthony Van Dyck 1622 Rome.jpg|thumb|[[Anthony Shirley]] and [[Robert Shirley]] (''pictured in 1622'') helped modernize the Persian Army.]]
The [[Qizilbash]] had provided the backbone of the [[Military of the Safavid dynasty|Safavid army]] from the very beginning of Safavid rule and they also occupied many posts in the government. As a result, effective power in the state in the early days of the dynasty was held by the Qizilbash, leaving the shah often powerless. To counterbalance their power and as a decisive answer to this problem, Abbas turned to the newly introduced members of Iranian society (an initiative put in place by Shah [[Tahmasp I]]) the ''ghulams'' (a word literally meaning "slaves"). From these newly introduced slaves, the Shah created a gunpowder force, reaching numbers up to 37,000 soldiers, completely funded by the Crown. This weakened the power that the Qizilbash had against the crown significantly as they no longer had a "military monopoly" in Persia.<ref>Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East" (Westview Press, 2013) pg 50</ref> Like the [[janissaries]] of the neighbouring [[Ottoman Empire]], these ''[[ghilman|ghulams]]'' were mainly [[Georgians]], [[Circassians]] and [[Armenians]] who had been brought into Iran ''en masse'' (by conquest and slave trade), had converted or had been converted to Islam, and had taken up service in the army, royal household or the civil administration, and were loyal only to the shah.<ref name=RE265>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=265}}</ref><ref name="ABBAS I">{{harvnb|Savory|1983}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Under Abbas' leadership this new grouping in Iranian society (also called the ''third force'')<ref>{{harvnb|Wallbank|1992|p=369}}</ref> grew in influence and power, with many thousands of ethnic [[Georgians]], [[Circassians]] and [[Armenians]] becoming an integral part of Iranian society and taking up key government, royal household and military positions.
Tahmasp I, the second Safavid shah, had realised, by looking at his own empire and that of the neighbouring Ottomans, that he faced ongoing threats from dangerous rival factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to him as the head of state. If not properly managed, these rivalries represented a serious threat to the ruler or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. For Tahmasp, the problem revolved around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qezelbāš, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune and material advancement.<ref name=Tah>{{harvnb|Mitchell|2009a}}</ref>
Therefore, between 1540 and 1555, Tahmasp conducted a series of invasions of the [[Caucasus]] region which provided battle experience for his soldiers, as well as leading to the capture of large numbers of [[Christianity|Christian]] Circassian and Georgian slaves (30,000 just in these four raids).<ref name="Tah" /> These slaves would form the basis of an Safavid military slave system.<ref>{{harvnb|Streusand|2011|p=148}}{{verification needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> These slaves would serve a similar role in their formation, implementation and use to the [[janissaries]] of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Bosworth|1989}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Their arrival in such large numbers led to the formation of a new grouping in Iranian society solely composed of ethnic Caucasians. Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until Abbas' reign, during Tahmasp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, the [[harem]] and in the civil and military administration.<ref>{{harvnb|Manz|Haneda|1990}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lapidus|2012}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref>
Learning from his grandfather, Abbas (who had been used by the vying Qizilbash factions during his youth)<ref name="ABBAS I" /> decided to encourage this new (Caucasian) grouping in Iranian society, as he realized that he must impose his authority on the Qezelbāš or remain their tool. So Abbas single-handedly encouraged the growth in influence and power of this new grouping, also called the ''third force''. It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000 to 200,000 Georgians,{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=174}}<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|Monshi|1978|p=1116}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hosayn, Malekšāh|p=509}}{{full citation needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> tens of thousands of [[Circassians]], and around 300,000 [[Armenians]]<ref>[[George Bournoutian|Bournoutian, George A.]]; [https://books.google.nl/books?id=jIvtAAAAMAAJ&q=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&dq=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBDgKahUKEwjLyJXbxvzIAhUGjnIKHd5fAuQ ''A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)''] (original from the [[University of Michigan]]) Mazda Publishers, 2002 {{ISBN|978-1568591414}} p 208</ref><ref>Aslanian, Sebouh. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=l0Kn-DMl5ZoC&pg=PA1&dq=shah+abbas+deport+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI5f3ChMX8yAIVA_FyCh3OHgFY#v=onepage&q=shah%20abbas%20deport%20300%2C000%20armenians&f=false ''From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa''] [[University of California Press]], 4 mei 2011 {{ISBN|978-0520947573}} p 1</ref> were deported from the Caucasus to Persia's heartland, with a significant number gaining responsibilities and roles in Iranian society, including some of the highest positions of the state, including the ''ghulam'' corps. Many of those deported from the Caucasus settled in various regions of Iran and became craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors and peasants within Iranian society.<ref>{{harvnb|Matthee|1999a}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref>
As part of the ghulam slave system, Abbas greatly expanded the ghulam military corps (also known as ''ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa'', tr. as "crown servants") from just a few hundred during Tahmasp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,<ref>{{harvnb|Blow|2009|p=37}}</ref> as part of a whole army division of 40,000 [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] ghulams. Abbas then reduced the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved Qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community and reducing their power. Most were eventually replaced by ghulams, whose loyalty was to the shah.
By 1595, [[Allahverdi Khan]], a [[Georgians|Georgian]], had become one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state <ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=81}}</ref> when he was appointed the Governor-General of [[fars province|Fars]], one of the richest provinces in Persia. His power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=82}}</ref> Not only did the ghulam system allowed the shah to control and manage the rival Qizilbash Turks and Persians, it also resolved budgetary problems, in the short term at least,<ref name="ABBAS I" /> as by restoring the Shah's complete control of the provinces formerly governed by the Qizilbash chiefs, the provinces' revenues now supplemented the royal treasury. From now on, government officials collected the taxes and remitted them directly to the royal treasury. In the harem, the Circassians and Georgians rapidly replaced the Turcoman factions and, as a result, gained a significant direct influence on the [[meritocratic]] Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state.<ref name="Mit69">{{harvnb|Mitchell|2011|p=69}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|pp=183–184}}</ref>
The increasing numbers of Georgians and Circassians in the Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state vied with the Qizilbash for power and as a result also became involved in court intrigues. This competition for influence saw queens (and their supporters in the harem, court and bureaucracy) compete against each other in order to get their own sons on the throne. This competition increased under Abbas and his successors which weakened the dynasty considerably.<ref name="Circassians" /> Abbas' own son and [[crown prince]], [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]], was caught in the court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, which eventually led to him being executed under Abbas' orders.
Though the ''ghulam'' system did not work as well as it had after the Safavids, the ''third force'' would continue to play a crucial role during the rest of the Safavid era and later until the fall of the [[Qajar dynasty]].<ref name="Circassians">{{harvnb|Haneda|1990|p=818}}</ref>
===Reforming the army===
Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape so that he could effectively confront his Ottoman and Uzbek enemies. During this period, the Uzbeks and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] took swaths of territory from Iran.<ref name=EB>{{harvnb|Hoiberg|2010|p=9}}</ref> He also used military reorganisation as another way of side-lining the Qizilbash.<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2007|pp=134–135}}</ref> He created a standing army of many thousands of ''ghulams'' (always conscripted from ethnic Georgians and [[Circassians]]), and to a much lesser extent Iranians, to fight alongside the traditional, feudal force provided by the Qizilbash. The new army regiments' loyalty was to the Shah. The new army consisted of 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry or squires (conscripted Caucasian ''ghulams'') armed with muskets and other weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world<ref name=BBCheels>{{harvnb|Kremer|2013}}</ref>), a corps of musketeers, or ''[[Military of the Safavid dynasty#Tofangchi|tufangchiyan]]'',<ref name=RE265/> (12,000 strong) and a corp of artillery, called ''tupchiyan''<ref name=RE265/> (also 12,000 strong). In addition Abbas had a personal bodyguard, composed of Caucasian ghulams, that was increased to 3,000. This force amounted to about 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.<ref name=RE265/><ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=79}}</ref><ref name=BN142>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=141–142}}</ref>
Abbas greatly increased the number of cannon at his disposal so that he could field 500 cannon in a single battle.<ref name=BN142/> Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly the English adventurers Sir [[Anthony Shirley]] and his brother [[Robert Shirley]], who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]] on an unofficial mission to persuade Persia to enter into an anti-Ottoman alliance.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=143}}</ref>
From 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman [[Allahverdi Khan|Allāhverdī Khan]], in conjunction with Robert Shirley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which led to a further increase in the number of ''ghulams'' to 25,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=R.M.|first1=Savory|title=ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/allahverdi-khan-d-1|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=1 January 2016}}</ref>
===Consolidation of the Empire===
During the 1590s, Abbas moved to depose the provincial rulers of Persia. He started with [[Khan Ahmad Khan]], the ruler of [[Gilan]], who had disobeyed Abbas' orders when he requested that Khan Ahmad Khan's daughter [[Yakhan Begum]] marry Abbas' son, [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]], since Khan Ahmad Khan had no male successor. Khan Ahmad Khan disagreed due to the age of his daughter.<ref>{{harvnb|Starkey|2010|p=38}}</ref> This resulted in a Safavid invasion of Gilan in 1591 under the leadership of one of Abbas' favourites, [[Farhad Khan Qaramanlu]]. In 1593–94, [[Jahangir III]], the [[Paduspanid]] ruler of [[Nur, Iran|Nur]], travelled to the court of the Abbas, where he handed over his domains to him, and spend the rest of his life on an estate at [[Saveh]], which Abbas had given to him. In 1597, Abbas deposed the [[Khorshidi dynasty|Khorshidi]] ruler of [[Lar, Iran|Lar]]. One year later, [[Jahangir IV]], the Paduspanid ruler of [[Kojur]], killed two prominent Safavid nobles during a festival in [[Qazvin]]. In response, in 1598 Abbas invaded his domains and besieged Kojur. Jahangir managed to flee, but was captured and killed by a pro-Safavid Paduspanid named Hasan Lavasani.<ref name="iranicaonline.org">{{harvnb|Madelung|1988|p=390}}</ref>
==Reconquest==
===War against the Uzbeks===
Abbas' first campaign with his reformed army was against the Uzbeks who had seized Khorasan and were ravaging the province. In April 1598 he went on the attack. One of the two main cities of the province, [[Mashhad]], was easily recaptured but the Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan was safely behind the walls of the other chief city, Herat. Abbas managed to lure the Uzbek army out of the town by feigning a retreat. A bloody battle ensued on 9 August 1598, in the course of which the Uzbek khan was wounded and his troops retreated (the khan was murdered by his own men during the retreat). However, during the battle, Farhad Khan had fled after being wounded and was later accused of fleeing due to cowardice. He was nevertheless forgiven by Abbas, who wanted to appoint him as the governor of Herat, which Farhad Khan refused. According to Oruch Beg, Farhad Khan's refusal made Abbas feel that he had been insulted. Due to Farhad Khan's arrogant behaviour and his suspected treason, he was seen as a threat to Abbas, so Abbas had him executed.<ref name=mat19>{{harvnb|Matthee|1999}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> Abbas then converted Gilan and Mazandaran into the crown domain (''khasseh''), and appointed Allahverdi Khan as the new commander-in-chief of the Safavid army.<ref name=mat19/>
By 1599, Abbas had conquered not only Herat and Mashhad, but had moved as far east as [[Balkh]]. This would be a short-lived victory and he would eventually have to settle on controlling only some of this conquest after the new ruler of the [[Khanate of Khiva]], Baqi Muhammad Khan attempted to retake Balkh and Abbas found his troops were still no match for the Uzbeks. By 1603, the battle lines had stabilized, albeit with the loss of the majority of the Persian artillery. Abbas was able to hold onto most of Khorassan, including Herat, [[Sabzevar]], [[Farah, Afghanistan|Farah]], and [[Nisa, Iran|Nisa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=267}}</ref>
Abbas' north-east frontier was now safe for the time being and he could turn his attention to the Ottomans in the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=84}}</ref> After defeating the Uzbeks, he moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]].<ref name=EB/>
===War against the Ottomans===
{{see also|Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Capture of Baghdad (1623)}}
[[File:Shah Abbas Horse.jpg|thumb|"Abbas King of Persia", as seen by [[Sir Thomas Herbert, 1st Baronet|Thomas Herbert]] in 1627.]]
The Safavids had not yet beaten their archrival, the Ottomans, in battle. After a particularly arrogant series of demands from the Ottoman ambassador, the Shah had him seized, had his beard shaved and sent it to his master, the sultan, in Constantinople. This was effectively a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=147–148}}</ref> In the resulting conflict, Abbas first recaptured [[Nahavand]] and destroyed the fortress in the city, which the Ottomans had planned to use as an advance base for attacks on Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=85}}</ref> The next year, Abbas pretended he was setting off on a hunting expedition to Mazandaran with his men. This was merely a ruse to deceive the Ottoman spies in his court – his real target was Azerbaijan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=148–149}}</ref> He changed course for Qazvin where he assembled a large army and set off to retake Tabriz, which had been in Ottoman hands for some time.
[[File:RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Drawing of the [[Capture of Tabriz (1603)|capture of Tabriz]] and the parading before [[Shah Abbas I]] of the severed heads of Ottoman soldiers. Drawn by a European traveller, 1603.]]
For the first time, the Iranians made great use of their artillery and the town – which had been ruined by Ottoman occupation – soon fell.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=149–150}}</ref> Abbas set off to besiege [[Yerevan]], a town that had become one of the main Ottoman strongholds in the Caucasus since the Safavids had ceded it in 1590. It finally fell in June 1604 and with it the Ottomans lost the support of most Armenians, Georgians and other Caucasians. But Abbas was unsure how the new sultan, [[Ahmed I]], would respond and withdrew from the region using scorched earth tactics.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=150–151}}</ref> For a year, neither side made a move, but in 1605, Abbas sent his general [[Allahverdi Khan]] to meet Ottoman forces on the shores of [[Lake Van]]. On 6 November 1605 the Iranians, led by Abbas, scored a decisive victory over the Ottomans [[Battle of Sufiyan|at Sufiyan]], near Tabriz.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=87}}</ref> In the [[Caucasus]], during the war Abbas also managed to capture what is now [[Kabardino-Balkaria]]. The Persian victory was recognised in the [[Treaty of Nasuh Pasha]] in 1612, effectively granting them back suzerainty over most of the [[Caucasus]].
Several years of peace followed as the Ottomans carefully planned their response. But their secret training manoeuvres were observed by Iranian spies. Abbas learnt that the Ottoman plan was to invade Iran via Azerbaijan, take Tabriz then move on to [[Ardabil]] and Qazvin, which they could use as bargaining chips in exchange for other territories. The shah decided to lay a trap. He would allow the Ottomans to enter the country, then destroy them. He had Tabriz evacuated of its inhabitants while he waited at Ardabil with his army. In 1618, an Ottoman army of 100,000 led by the grand vizier, invaded and easily seized Tabriz.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=153}}</ref> The vizier sent an ambassador to the shah demanding he make peace and return the lands taken since 1602.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=154}}</ref> Abbas refused and pretended he was ready to set fire to Ardabil and retreat further inland rather than face the Ottoman army.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=155}}</ref> When the Turkish vizier heard the news, he decided to march on Ardabil right away. This was just what Abbas wanted. His army of 40,000 was hiding at a crossroads on the way and they ambushed the Ottoman army in a battle, which ended in complete victory for the Iranians.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=156}}</ref>
In 1623, Abbas decided to take back Mesopotamia, which had been lost by his grandfather Tahmasp through the [[Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555)]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=157–158}}</ref> Profiting from the confusion surrounding the accession of the new Ottoman sultan [[Murad IV]], he pretended to be making a pilgrimage to the Shi'ite shrines of Kerbala and Najaf, but used his army to seize Baghdad.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=158}}</ref> However, Abbas was then distracted by a rebellion in Georgia in 1624 led by [[Giorgi Saakadze]] thus allowing an Ottoman force to besiege Baghdad, but the Shah came to its relief the next year and crushed the Turkish army decisively.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=158–159}}</ref> In 1638, however, after Abbas' death, the Ottomans retook Baghdad, and the Iranian–Ottoman border was finalised to be roughly the same as the current Iran–Turkey and Iran–Iraq borders.
===Quelling the Georgian uprisings===
[[File:თეიმურაზ I.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Teimuraz I of Kakheti]] (also known as ''Tahmuras Khan'').]]
{{see also|Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns}}
[[File:როსტომ ხანი.gif|thumb|right|170px|[[Rostom of Kartli|Rostom]] (also known as ''Rustam Khan''), viceroy of [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]], eastern Georgia, from 1633–1658.]]
Between 1614 and 1616, during the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Ottoman-Safavid War]], Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly loyal [[Georgians|Georgian]] subjects [[Luarsab II of Kartli|Luarsab II]] and [[Teimuraz I of Kakheti|Teimuraz I]] (also known as ''Tahmuras Khan'') in the [[Kingdom of Kakheti]].
In 1606, Abbas had appointed these Georgians onto the thrones of Safavid vassals [[Kingdom of Kartli|Kartli]] and [[Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]], at the behest of Kartlian nobles and Teimuraz's mother [[Ketevan the Martyr|Ketevan]]; both seemed like malleable youths.<ref name="Rayfield">{{cite book |last1=Rayfield |first1=Donald |title=Edge of Empires |date=2013 |publisher=Reaktion Books}}</ref> However, tensions soon arose between the Shah and the Georgian kings. In 1613, when the Shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in [[Mazandaran province|Mazandaran]], they did not appear as they feared that they would be either imprisoned or killed.<ref name=Mit69/> At this point war broke out, Iranian armies invaded the two territories in March 1614, and the two allied kings subsequently sought refuge in the Ottoman vassal [[Kingdom of Imereti|Imeretia]].<ref name="Rayfield" /> Abbas, as reported by the Safavid court historian [[Iskander Beg Munshi]], was infuriated by what was perceived as the defection of two of his most trusted subjects and ''gholams''.<ref name="Mit69" /> He deported 30,000 Kakhetian peasants to Iran, and appointed a grandson of [[Alexander II of Imereti]] to the throne of Kartli, [[Jesse of Kakheti]] (also known as "Isā Khān").<ref name="Mit69" /><ref name="Rayfield" /> Raised up at the court in [[Isfahan]] and a [[Shia Islam|Muslim]], he was perceived as fully loyal to the Shah.
Abbas threatened Imeretia with devastation if they did not give up the fugitive kings; the Imeretian, Mingrelian and Gurian rulers jointly refused his demand. Luarsab, however, surrendered voluntarily to the Shah; Abbas initially treated him well but when he learned that Luarsab and Teimuraz had offered an alliance with the Ottomans he demanded that Luarsab accept Islam. When Luarsab refused, he was thrown in prison.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615, taking advantage of a resurgence in Ottoman-Safavid hostilities, and there he defeated a Safavid force. However, when the Ottoman army postponed its invasion of the Safavids, Abbas was able to briefly send an army back to defeat Teimuraz, and redoubled his invasion after brokering a truce with the Ottomans.<ref name="Rayfield" /> Now Iranian rule was fully restored over eastern Georgia.<ref name="Mitchell 2011 70">{{harvnb|Mitchell|2011|p=70}}</ref> Subsequently, the Shah marched on [[Kutaisi]], the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring the defectors.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} In a punitive expedition to Kakhetia, his army then killed perhaps 60–70,000{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|pages=291, 536}}{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=174}}<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="Khanbaghi 2006 131">{{harvnb|Khanbaghi|2006|p=131}}</ref> or 100,000<ref name="Rayfield" /> Georgians, with twice as many more being deported to Iran, removing about two-thirds of the Kakhetian population.<ref>{{harvnb|Kacharava|2011}}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Rayfield" /> More refugees were rounded up in 1617.<ref name="Rayfield" /> In 1619 Abbas appointed the loyal [[Simon II of Kartli|Simon II]] (or ''Semayun Khan'') as a puppet ruler of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule over districts where the rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.<ref name="Mit69" />
Having momentarily secured the region, Abbas took further acts of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz and Luarsab. He castrated Teimuraz's sons, who both died shortly afterwards.<ref name="Rayfield" /> He executed Luarsab in 1622, and in 1624 he had Ketevan, who had been sent to the Shah as a negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity.<ref name="ReferenceB">Suny p. 50{{Incomplete short citation|date=September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Asat'iani 1997 188">{{harvnb|Asat'iani|Bendianachvili|1997|p=188}}</ref><ref name="Rayfield" /> Teimuraz, meanwhile, sought aid from the Ottomans and Russia.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Abbas was then warned of another imminent Kakhetian uprising, so he returned to Georgia in early 1625. He lured Kakhetian soldiers on a false pretext and then began executing them. He also had plans to execute all armed Kartlians, including his own general [[Giorgi Saakadze]]; however Saakadze intercepted a courier and uncovered the plot. Saakadze then defected to the Georgians, and led a new rebellion which succeeded in throwing the Persians out of Kartli and Kakheti while crowning Teimuraz as king of both territories. Abbas counterattacked in June, won the subsequent war and dethroned Teimuraz, but lost half his army at the hands of the Georgians and was forced to accept Kartli and Kakheti only as vassal states while abandoning his plans to eliminate Christians from the area.<ref name="Rayfield" />
Even then, Saakadze and Teimuraz launched another rebellion in 1626, and were effective in clearing Iranian forces from most of the region.<ref name="Rayfield" /> Thus, the Georgian territories continued to resist Safavid encroachments until Abbas' death.<ref name="Mitchell 2011 70"/>
===Kandahar and the Mughals===
{{Main|Mughal-Safavid War (1622–1623)}}
The Safavids were traditionally allied with the Mughals in India against the Uzbeks, who coveted the province of Khorasan. The Mughal emperor [[Humayun]] had given Abbas' grandfather, Shah Tahmasp, the province of [[Kandahar]] as a reward for helping him back to his throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=120}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2003|p=263}}</ref> In 1590, profiting from the confusion in Iran, Humayun's successor [[Akbar the Great|Akbar]] seized Kandahar. Abbas continued to maintain cordial relations with the Mughals, while always asking for the return of Kandahar.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=121}}</ref> Finally, in 1620, a diplomatic incident in which the Iranian ambassador refused to bow down in front of the Emperor [[Jahangir]] led to war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=123–124}}</ref> India was embroiled in civil turmoil and Abbas found he only needed a lightning raid to take back the far easternmost town of Kandahar in 1622.
After the conquest, he was very conciliatory to Jahangir, claiming he had only taken back what was rightly his and disavowing any further territorial ambitions.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=124}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2003|p=264}}</ref> Jahangir was not appeased but he was unable to recapture the province. A childhood friend of Abbas named [[Ganj Ali Khan]] was then appointed as the governor of city, which he would govern until his death in 1624/5.{{sfn|Parizi|2000|pp=284–285}}{{sfn|Babaie|2004|p=94}}
===War against the Portuguese===
{{Main|Persia-Portugal war|Capture of Ormuz (1622)}}
[[File:Fortress of Hormuz.jpg|thumb|The island of Hormuz was captured by an Anglo-Persian force in the 1622 [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Capture of Ormuz]].]]
During the 16th century the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] had established bases in the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=159}}</ref> In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of [[Imam-Quli Khan]] [[Undiladze]] managed to expel the Portuguese from [[Bahrain]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cole|1987|p=186}}</ref> In 1622, with the help of four English ships, [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Abbas retook]] [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] from the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=161}}</ref> He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, [[Bandar Abbas]], nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful.<ref name="Bomati 1998 162">{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=162}}</ref>
==Shah and his subjects==
===Isfahan: a new capital===
Abbas moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to the more central city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] in 1598. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, and caravansarais, Isfahan became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. As [[Roger Savory]] writes, "Not since the development of [[Baghdad]] in the eighth century A.D. by the [[Al-Mansur|Caliph al-Mansur]] had there been such a comprehensive example of town-planning in the Islamic world, and the scope and layout of the city centre clearly reflect its status as the capital of an empire."<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=96}}</ref> Isfahan became the centre of Safavid architectural achievement, with the mosques [[Shah Mosque (Isfahan)|Masjed-e Shah]] and the [[Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque|Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah]] and other monuments including the [[Ālī Qāpū|Ali Qapu]], the [[Chehel Sotoun]] palace and the [[Naghsh-i Jahan Square]].
In making Isfahan the centre of Safavid Empire, Abbas utilized the Armenian people, whom he had forcibly relocated to Isfahan from their Armenian homelands. Once they were settled, he allowed them considerable freedom and encouraged them to continue in their silk trade. Silk was an integral part of the economy and considered to be the best form of hard currency available. The Armenians had already established trade networks that allowed Abbas to strengthen Iran's economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Dale|2010|p=94}}</ref>
===Arts===
[[File:Shah Abbas Statue.jpg|thumb|The Statue of Shah Abbas, which was on display in [[Isfahan]] before the [[Iranian Revolution]]]]
Abbas' painting studios (of the Isfahan school established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Iranian history, by such illustrious painters as [[Reza Abbasi]] and Muhammad Qasim. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denoted a certain relaxation of the strictures. The portrait by Muhammad Qasim suggests that the Muslim prohibition against the consumption of wine, as well as that against male intimacy, "were more honoured in the breach than in the observance".<ref>{{harvnb|Saslow|1999|p=147}}</ref> Abbas brought in 300 Chinese potters to Iran to enhance local production of [[Persian pottery|Chinese-style ceramics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Newman|2006|p=67}}</ref>
Under Abbas' reign, [[Persian carpet|carpet weaving]] increased its role as an important part of Persian industry and culture, as wealthy Europeans started importing Persian rugs. Silk production became a monopoly of the crown, and manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics were also important exports.<ref name=EB/>
===Attitude towards religious minorities===
Like all other Safavid monarchs, Abbas was a [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite Muslim]]. He had a particular veneration for [[Imam Hussein]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=96}}</ref> In 1601, he made a pilgrimage on foot from Isfahan to Mashhad, site of the shrine of [[Ali ar-Ridha|Imam Reza]], which he restored (it had been despoiled by the Uzbeks).<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=98–99}}</ref> Since [[Sunni Islam]] was the religion of Iran's main rival, the Ottoman Empire, Abbas often [[Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism#Significant figures during the conversion process|treated Sunnis]] living in western border provinces harshly.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=111}}</ref>
[[File:Baptistère kelisa-e-vank esfahan.jpg|thumb|<center>''Kelisa-e Vank'' (the Armenian [[Vank Cathedral]]) in New Julfa</center>]]
Abbas was usually tolerant of Christianity. The Italian traveller [[Pietro della Valle]] was astonished at the Shah's knowledge of Christian history and theology and establishing diplomatic links with European Christian states was a vital part of the shah's foreign policy.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=107}}</ref> Christian [[Armenia]] was [[Persian Armenia (1502–1828)|a key Safavid province]] bordering the Ottoman Empire. From 1604 Abbas implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved the forced resettlement of up to 300,000 Armenians from their homelands.<ref name="University of California Press">{{cite book|last1=Aslanian|first1=Sebouh|title=From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|isbn=978-0520947573|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Mazda Publishers">{{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George|author-link1=George Bournoutian|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208 208]|edition=2|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208}}</ref> The Armenians came primarily from the wealthy Armenian merchant town of [[Jugha]] (also known as Jolfa).<ref name="Mazda Publishers"/> Many were transferred to [[New Julfa]], a town the shah had built for the Armenians primarily meant for these Armenians from Jugha ("Old Julfa"), near his capital Isfahan.<ref name="University of California Press"/><ref name="Mazda Publishers"/> Thousands of Armenians died on the journey. Those who survived enjoyed considerable religious freedom in New Julfa, where the shah built them a new cathedral. Abbas' aim was to boost the Iranian economy by encouraging the Armenian merchants who had moved to New Julfa. As well as religious liberties, he also offered them interest-free loans and allowed the town to elect its own mayor (''kalantar'').<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=209}}</ref> Other Armenians were transferred to the provinces of [[Gilan]] and Mazandaran. These were less lucky. Abbas wanted to establish a second capital in Mazandaran, [[Farahabad, Mazandaran|Farahabad]], but the climate was unhealthy and malarial. Many settlers died and others gradually abandoned the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=104}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jackson|Lockhart|1986|p=454}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kouymjian|2004|p=20}}</ref>
Abbas was more intolerant of Christians in Georgia, where the threat of rebellion loomed larger. Abbas frequently demanded that nobles convert to Shia Islam, and had [[Ketevan the Martyr]] tortured to death when she refused. Abbas's anger at Georgian rebelliousness also generated his plan to deport or exterminate eastern Georgia's Christians and replace them with [[Turkmens]], which has been described as "genocidal".<ref name="Rayfield" />
==Contacts with Europe==
[[File:Rolka Mechti Kuli Beg.jpg|thumb|Persian ambassador during his entry into [[Kraków]] for the wedding ceremonies of King [[Sigismund III of Poland]] in 1605.]]
Abbas' tolerance towards most Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, [[Uzun Hassan]], then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the [[Venice|Venetians]] for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe and Abbas' attitude was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller [[Anthony Jenkinson]] from his court upon hearing he was a Christian.<ref>{{harvnb|Lockhart|1953|p=347}}</ref> For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage".<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=114}}</ref>
[[File:Embassy to Europe.jpg|thumb|left|Canvas by [[Carlo Caliari|Carlo]] and [[Gabriele Caliari]] in the [[Doge's Palace]] in Venice depicting doge [[Marino Grimani (doge)|Marino Grimani]] receiving the Persian ambassadors, 1603]]
[[File:Abbas I as a new Caesar being honoured by the trumpets of fame and the Persian embassy in Allegorie de l Occasion by Frans II Francken 1628.jpg|thumb|Abbas I as a new [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)|1609–1615 Persian embassy]], in ''[[:File:Allegorie de l Occasion Frans II Francken 1628.jpg|Allégorie de l'Occasion]]'', by [[Frans II Francken]], 1628.]]
In 1599, Abbas sent his [[Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)|first diplomatic mission to Europe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=128}}</ref> The group crossed the [[Caspian Sea]] and spent the winter in [[Moscow]], before proceeding through [[Norway]], [[Germany]] (where it was received by [[Emperor Rudolf II]]) to [[Rome]] where [[Pope Clement VIII]] gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of [[Philip III of Spain]] in 1602.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=129}}</ref> Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe and Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's 1601–02 ''[[Twelfth Night]]'', for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the [[Sophy (Safavid Empire)|Sophy]]', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Shakespeare|1863|pp=258,262,282}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2010|p=210}}</ref> Persian fashions—such as shoes with [[High-heeled footwear|heels]], for men—were enthusiastically adopted by European aristocrats.<ref name=BBCheels/> Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.<ref name=BN131>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=131}}</ref>
The shah had set great store on an alliance with [[Habsburg Spain|Spain]], the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a port that had fallen into Spanish hands when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply.<ref name=BN131/> Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the Holy Roman Empire, which wanted him to make his 400,000+ Armenian subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=134–135}}</ref> Contacts with the Pope, [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Muscovy]] were no more fruitful.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=136–137}}</ref>
More came of Abbas' contacts with the English, although [[Kingdom of England|England]] had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganise the Iranian army, which proved to be pivotal for the Safavid victory in the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|Ottoman-Safavid War (1603–1618)]] and the first Safavid victory in battle over their neighbouring Ottoman archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, [[Robert Shirley]], led Abbas' [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)|second diplomatic mission to Europe]] between 1609–1615. The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran and in 1622 four of its ships helped [[Capture of Ormuz (1622)|Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese]]. The capture of Ormuz gave the opportunity for the Company to develop trade with Persia, attempting to trade English [[cloth]] and other commodities for silk, with did not become very profitable due to the lack of Persian interest and small quantity of English goods.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=161–162}}</ref>
==Family tragedies and death==
[[File:Shah Abbas and Wine Boy.jpg|thumb|left|Shah Abbas in later life with a page. By Muhammad Qasim (1627).<ref name="Bomati 1998 162"/>]]
Of Abbas' five sons, three had survived past childhood, so the Safavid succession seemed secure. He was on good terms with the crown prince, [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza|Mohammed Baqir Mirza]] (born 1587; better known in the West as Safi Mirza).<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|p=235}}</ref> In 1614, however, during a campaign in Georgia, the shah heard rumours that the prince was conspiring against him with a leading [[Circassians|Circassian]], [[Farhad Beg Cherkes]]. Shortly after, Mohammed Baqir broke protocol during a hunt by killing a boar before the shah had a chance to put his spear in the animal. This seemed to confirm Abbas' suspicions and he sunk into melancholy; he no longer trusted any of his three sons.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=235–236}}</ref> In 1615, he decided he had no choice but to have Mohammed killed. A Circassian named [[Behbud Khan Cherkes|Behbud Beg]] executed the Shah's orders and the prince was murdered in a [[Turkish bath|hammam]] in the city of [[Resht]]. The shah almost immediately regretted his action and was plunged into grief.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=236–237}}</ref>
In 1621, Abbas fell seriously ill. His heir, Mohammed Khodabanda, thought he was on his deathbed and began to celebrate his accession to the throne with his Qizilbash supporters. But the shah recovered and punished his son by blinding him, which would disqualify him from ever taking the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=95}}</ref> The blinding was only partially successful and the prince's followers planned to smuggle him out of the country to safety with the Mughals whose aid they would use to overthrow Abbas and install Mohammed on the throne. But the plot was betrayed, the prince's followers were executed and the prince himself imprisoned in the fortress of Alamut where he would later be murdered by Abbas' successor, Shah Safi.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=240–241}}</ref>
Imam Qoli Mirza, the third and last son, then became the crown prince. Abbas groomed him carefully for the throne but, for some reason, in 1627, he had him partially blinded and imprisoned in Alamut.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=241–242}}</ref>
Unexpectedly, Abbas now chose as heir the son of Mohammed Baqir Mirza, Sam Mirza, a cruel and introverted character who was said to loathe his grandfather because of his father's murder. Nevertheless, he did succeed Shah Abbas at the age of 17 in 1629, taking the name Shah Safi. Abbas's health was poor from 1621 onwards. He died at his palace in [[Farahabad, Mazandaran|Farahabad]] on the Caspian coast in 1629 and was buried in [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I|Kashan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=243–246}}</ref>
==Character and legacy==
[[File:Shah Abbas the Great tomb.JPG|thumb|Tomb, the [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]].]]
According to [[Roger Savory]]: "Shah Abbas I possessed in abundance qualities which entitle him to be styled 'the Great'. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician whose chief characteristic was prudence. He preferred to obtain his ends by diplomacy rather than war, and showed immense patience in pursuing his objectives."<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=101}}</ref> In [[Michael Axworthy|Michael Axworthy's]] view, Abbas "was a talented administrator and military leader, and a ruthless autocrat. His reign was the outstanding creative period of the Safavid era. But the civil wars and troubles of his childhood (when many of his relatives were murdered) left him with a dark twist of suspicion and brutality at the centre of his personality."<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2007|p=134}}</ref> [[Donald Rayfield]] described him as "exceptionally perspicacious and active," but also "a murderous paranoiac when aroused."<ref name="Rayfield" />
''[[The Cambridge History of Iran]]'' rejects the view that the death of Abbas marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavid dynasty as Iran continued to prosper throughout the 17th century, but blames him for the poor statesmanship of the later Safavid shahs: "The elimination of royal princes, whether by blinding or immuring them in the harem, their exclusion from the affairs of state and from contact with the leading aristocracy of the empire and the generals, all the abuses of the princes' education, which were nothing new but which became the normal practice with Abbas at the court of Isfahan, effectively put a stop to the training of competent successors, that is to say, efficient princes prepared to meet the demands of ruling as kings."<ref>{{harvnb|Roemer|1986|p=278}}</ref>
Abbas was fluent in the Turkish dialect used by the Turkoman portion of the multi-ethnic [[Qizilbash]] organization, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, of the majority of the population, as well as of the court when Isfahan became the capital under his reign (1598).{{sfn|Blow|2009|page=165}}<ref name = "Cyril Glassé 2003, pg 392">Cyril Glassé (ed.), ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'', Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from [[Qazvin]] to [[Isfahan]]. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian"</ref> According to [[García de Silva Figueroa]], the Spanish ambassador to the Safavid court during Abbas' later reign, he heard Abbas speak [[Georgian language|Georgian]], which he had doubtlessly acquired from his [[Georgians|Georgian]] ''[[Military of the Safavid dynasty#Ghulam|gholams]]'' and concubines.{{sfn|Blow|2009|pages=166, 118}}
Abbas gained strong support from the common people.{{clarify |date=July 2019 |reason=Where?}} Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan.<ref>{{harvnb|Savory|1980|p=103}}</ref> Short in stature but physically strong until his health declined in his final years, Abbas could go for long periods without needing to sleep or eat and could ride great distances. At the age of 19 Abbas shaved off his beard, keeping only his moustache, thus setting a fashion in Iran.<ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=44–47}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bomati|Nahavandi|1998|pp=57–58}}</ref>
==Family==
;Consorts
*Mahd-i-Ulya Khanum (m. 1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Mustafa Mirza;
*Olgan Pasha Khanum (1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Husayn Mirza, and widow of Hamza Mirza;
*Wali Ahad Khanum (m. 1591);
*Fakhr-i-Jahan Khanum, daughter of King Bagrat VII of Kartli;
*[[Yakhan Begum]], daughter of [[Khan Ahmad Khan]] and [[Maryam Begum]];
*Tzarievna Marta, daughter of King David I of Kahkheti;
*A daughter of Rostam Khan Daghistani (m. 1607);
*A daughter of Masum Khan, Governor of Tabaristan (m. 1604 – div. 1614);
*Fatima Sultan Begum alias Peri Lala, née Tinatin, daughter of Peykar Khan of Kakheti;
*A daughter of Shaikh Haider Moksi, Governor of Maraghah (m. 1610);
;Sons
*Prince Shahzadeh [[Mohammad Baqer Mirza]] (15 September 1587, [[Mashhad]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] – killed 25 January 1615, [[Rasht]], [[Gilan]]), was Governor of Mashhad 1587–1588, and of Hamadan 1591–1592. Married firstly at [[Esfahan]], 1601, Princess Fakhri-Jahan Begum, daughter of [[Ismail II]], married secondly [[Dilaram Khanum]], a [[Georgians|Georgian]]. He had issue, two sons:
**Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Abul-Naser Sam Mirza, succeeded as [[Safi of Persia|Safi]] – with Dilaram;
**Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Suleiman Mirza (killed August 1632 at [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) – with Fakhr-i-Jahan;
*Prince ''Shahzadeh'' Sultan Hasan Mirza (''b''. September 1588, [[Mazandaran]] – ''d''. 18 August 1591, [[Qazvin]]);
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Hosein Mirza (26 February 1591, [[Qazvin]] – died young);
*Prince Shahzadeh Tahmasph Mirza (died young);
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Mohammad Mirza (18 March 1591, [[Qazvin]] – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1621.
**Princess Gawhar Shad Begum, married to Mirza Qazi, the Shaykh-ul-Islam of Isfahan.<ref name="mystic">{{cite book|first=Kathryn|last=Babayan|title=Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran|publisher=Harvard CMES|year=2002|pages=400–1|isbn=978-0-932-88528-9}}</ref>
*Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Ismail Mirza (6 September 1601, [[Esfahan]] – killed 16 August 1613)
*Prince Shahzadeh Imam Qoli Amano'llah Mirza (12 November 1602, [[Esfahan]] – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]]) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1627. He had issue, one son:
**Prince Shahzadeh Najaf Qoli Mirza ({{circa}} 1625 – killed August 1632, [[Alamut]], [[Qazvin]])
;Daughters
*Princess Shahzada Begum, married to Mirza Mohsin Razavi.<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue two sons;
*Princess Zubayda Begum (killed 20 February 1632), married to [[Isa Khan Safavi|Isa Khan]] Shaykhavand,<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue a daughter;
**Jahan Banu Begum, married in 1623, [[Simon II of Kartli]] son of [[Bagrat VII of Kartli]] by his wife, Queen Anna, daughter of [[Alexander II of Kakheti]]. She had issue, a daughter:
***Princess Izz-i-Sharif Begum, married to Sayyid Abdullah, son of Mirza Muhammad Shafi. she had issue, a son:
****Sayyid Muhammad Daud, married to Shahr Banu Begum, daughter of [[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman I]]. She had issue, two sons including:
*****[[Suleiman II of Persia|Suleiman II]].
*Princess Agha Begum, married to [[Khalifeh Soltan|Sultan al-Ulama Khalife Sultan]],<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue four sons and four daughters;
*Princess Havva Begum (''d''. 1617, Zanjan), married firstly to Mirza Riza Shahristani (Sadr), married secondly to Mirza Rafi al-Din Muhammad (Sadr),<ref name="mystic"/> and had issue three sons;
*Princess Shahr Banu Begum, married to Mir Abdulazim, darughah of Isfahan;<ref name="mystic"/>
*Princess Malik Nissa Begum, married to Mir Jalal Shahristani, the mutvalli of the shrine of Imam Riza.<ref name="mystic"/>
==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Abbas I, Shah of Iran'''
|2= 2. [[Mohammad Khodabanda|Muhammad Khodabanda, Shah of Iran]]
|3= 3. [[Khayr al-Nisa Begum]]
|4= 4. [[Tahmasp I|Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran]]
|5= [[Sultanum Begum]]
|6= 6. Mir Abdullah Khan II [[Marashis|Marashi]], Ruler of [[Mazandaran Province|Mazandaran]]
|7= Fakhr al-Nisa Begum
|8= 8. [[Ismail I|Isma'il I, Shah of Iran]]
|9= 9. [[Tajlu Khanum]]
|10= 10. Musa Sultan Musullu
|11=
|12= 12. Sultan Mahmud [[Marashis|Marashi]]}}
==See also==
* [[Battle of DimDim]]
* [[García de Silva Figueroa]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I]]
* [[Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)]]
* [[Persian embassy to Europe (1609–1615)]]
* [[Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism#Abbas I of Persia|Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism]]
* [[Shah Abbas Mosque, Yerevan]]
* [[Juma Mosque of Ganja (Shah Abbas)|Shah Abbas Mosque, Ganja]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=22em}}
==References==
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* {{cite book | last = Roemer | first = H. R. | editor1-last = Jackson | editor1-first = Peter | editor2-last = Lockhart | editor2-first = Lawrence | title = The Cambridge History of Iran | volume = 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods | chapter = 5: The Safavid Period | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 0-5212-0094-6 | lccn = 67012845 | year = 1986 }}
* {{cite book | last = Saslow | first = James M. | title = Pictures and Passions: A History of Homosexuality in the Visual Arts | chapter = Asia and Islam: Ancient Cultures, Modern Conflicts | publisher = Viking | year = 1999 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-6708-5953-2 | lccn = 99019960 | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/picturespassions00sasl | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/picturespassions00sasl }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Savory |first=Roger M. |editor-last=Yarshater |editor-first=Ehsan |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=London, UK |isbn=0-7100-9090-0 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-i |title='Abbās (I) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |volume=I: Āb - Anāhid |year=1983 |pages=71–75 |lccn=84673402 |access-date=24 May 2015 |archive-date=7 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507165410/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-i |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last = Savory | first = Roger M. | title = Iran under the Safavids | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK | year = 1980 | isbn = 0-521-22483-7 | lccn = 78073817 }}
* {{cite book|last=Shakespeare |first=William |editor1-last=Clark |editor1-first=William George |editor2-last=Wright |editor2-first=William Aldis |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdid=book-e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdot=1 |title=The Works of William Shakespeare |volume=III |publisher=Macmillan and Company |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1863 |lccn=20000243 |access-date=24 May 2015 |archive-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119144022/https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdid=book-e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdot=1 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last = Starkey | first = Paul | editor-last = Allen | editor-first = Roger | title = Essays in Arabic Literary Biography | chapter = Tawfīq Yūsuf Awwād (1911–1989) | volume = 3: 1850–1950 | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | location = Wiesbaden, Germany | year = 2010 | issn = 0938-9024 | isbn = 978-3-447-06141-4 | lccn = 2010359879 }}
* {{cite book | last = Streusand | first = Douglas E. | title = Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals | year = 2011 | publisher = Westview Press | location = Boulder, CO | isbn = 978-0-8133-1359-7 | lccn = 2010024984 }}{{verification needed|date=May 2015}}
* {{cite book | last = Sykes | first = Ella Constance | title = Persia and its People | url = https://archive.org/details/persiaitspeople01syke | year = 1910 | publisher = The Macmillan Company | location = New York, NY | lccn = 10001477 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last = Thorne | editor-first = John O. | encyclopedia = Chambers Biographical Dictionary | isbn = 0-550-18022-2 | title = Abbas I | publisher = Chambers Harrap | location = Edinburgh, UK | year = 1984 | lccn = 2010367095 }}
* {{cite book | last = Wallbank | first = Thomas Walter | title = Civilization Past & Present | publisher = HarperCollins | year = 1992 | location = New York, NY | edition = 7th | isbn = 0-6733-8867-0 | lccn = 91025406 | orig-year = 1942 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Wilson | first = Richard | title = When Golden Time Convents'': Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise | journal = Shakespeare | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | date = March 2010 | pages = 209–226 | publisher = Routledge | issn = 1745-0918 | doi = 10.1080/17450911003790331 | s2cid = 191598902 }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,''Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587-1629'', 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, {{ISBN|978-1595845672}}, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
* Canby, Sheila R. (ed), 2009, ''Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran'', 2009, British Museum Press, {{ISBN|9780714124520}}
* {{cite book | last = Pearce | first = Francis Barrow | author-link = Francis Barrow Pearce | year = 1920 | title = Zanzibar, the Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa | publisher = E. P. Dutton and Company | location = New York, NY | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA359 | access-date = 13 September 2014 | lccn = 20008651 }}
==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Abbas I (Persia)|Abbas I}}
{{Commons category|Abbas I of Persia}}
* ''Shah Abbās: The Remaking of Iran'', [https://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/future_exhibitions/shah_abbas.aspx The British Museum], in association with Iran Heritage Foundation, 19 February{{snd}}14 June 2009,
* John Wilson, ''Iranian treasures bound for Britain'', BBC Radio 4, 19 January 2009, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7833000/7833651.stm BBC Radio 4's live magazine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090228234847/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00gqy39 ''Front Row''] (audio report).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090509064348/http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-310/_nr-633/i.html "Shah 'Abbas: The Remaking of Iran"]
{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Safavid Dynasty]]||}}
{{succession box
|before = [[Mohammed Khodabanda]]
|title = [[List of kings of Persia|Shah of Persia]]|years = 1 October 1588{{snd}}19 January 1629
|after = [[Safi of Persia|Safi]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Safavid Rulers}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbas 01 Of Persia}}
[[Category:16th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:17th-century Iranian people]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia|Abbas 1]]
[[Category:Safavid monarchs|Abbas 1]]
[[Category:1571 births]]
[[Category:1629 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:People from Herat]]
[[Category:16th-century monarchs in the Middle East]]
[[Category:17th-century monarchs in the Middle East]]
[[Category:Filicides]]
[[Category:Iranian poets]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Shah of the Persian Safavid Empire (1571–1629) (r. 1588–1629)</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Shahanshah</div>
<table class="infobox vcard" style="width:22em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="fn" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background-color: #cbe; font-size: 125%">Abbas the Great<br /> عباس بزرگ</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahanshah">Shahanshah</a><br /></i>
Zell'ollah (Shadow of God)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><br />Ṣāḥebqerān-e-ʿAlāʾ (Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><i></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="photo" style="text-align:center"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Upload?wpDestFile=ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg_fuck_u_who_wanna_do_sex_with_me_bitch_fuck_%3F%3F%3F" class="new" title="File:ShahAbbasPortraitFromItalianPainter.jpg fuck u who wanna do sex with me bitch fuck ???">230px</a><div style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by an unknown <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> painter</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #e4dcf6;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em">5th <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">Safavid Shah of Iran</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row">Reign</th><td>1 October 1588 – 19 January 1629</td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">Coronation</a></th><td>1588</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Predecessor</th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad I</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Successor</th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safi_of_Persia" title="Safi of Persia">Safi</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #e4dcf6;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row">Born</th><td>27 January 1571<br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a> (modern-day <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Died</th><td>19 January 1629 (aged 57)<br /><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Burial</th><td><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Shah_Abbas_I" title="Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I">Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashan" title="Kashan">Kashan</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Consort</th><td>Mahd-i-Aliya Khanum <br /> Oglan Pasha Khanum <br /> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhan_Begum" title="Yakhan Begum">Yakhan Begum</a> <br /> Fakhr-i-Jahan Begum <br /> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Marta_of_Kakheti" title="Princess Marta of Kakheti">Princess Marta</a> <br /> Fatima Sultan Begum <br /> Wali Ahad Khanum</td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Issue</th><td>See <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia#Offspring" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">below</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Dynasty">Safavid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Father</th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad Khodabanda</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Mother</th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khayr_al-Nisa_Begum" title="Khayr al-Nisa Begum">Khayr al-Nisa Begum</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Religion</th><td><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Abbas the Great</b> or <b>Abbas I of Persia</b> (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">شاه عباس بزرگ</span>‎; 27 January 1571 – 19 January 1629) was the 5th <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> (king) of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Iran</a>, and is generally considered as one of the greatest rulers of Persian history and the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Shah Mohammad Khodabanda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although Abbas would preside over the apex of Iran's military, political and economic power, he came to the throne during a troubled time for the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid Empire</a>. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> (its archrival) and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a>, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1588, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup">coup</a> and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself.
</p><p>Under his leadership, Iran developed the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghilman</a> system where thousands of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> slave-soldiers joined the civil administration and the military. With the help of these newly created layers in Iranian society (initiated by his predecessors but significantly expanded during his rule), Abbas managed to eclipse the power of the Qizilbash in the civil administration, the royal house and the military. These actions, as well as his reforms of the Iranian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">army</a>, enabled him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces, including <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakheti" title="Kakheti">Kakheti</a> whose people he subjected to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_I%27s_Kakhetian_and_Kartlian_campaigns" title="Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns">widescale massacres and deportations.</a> By the end of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">1603–1618 Ottoman War</a>, Abbas had regained possession over <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcaucasia" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, as well as swaths of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Anatolia">Eastern Anatolia</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>; the latter two were territories which had been lost as a result of the 1555 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a>. He also took back land from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughals">Mughals</a> and expanded Iranian rule and influence in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, beyond the traditional territories of Dagestan.
</p><p>Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, making the city the pinnacle of Safavid architecture. In his later years, following a court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, Abbas became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_years"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Early years</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Absolute_monarch"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Absolute monarch</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Abbas_takes_control"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Abbas takes control</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Reducing_the_power_of_the_Qizilbash_and_the_completion_of_the_Caucasian_layer"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Reforming_the_army"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Reforming the army</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Consolidation_of_the_Empire"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Consolidation of the Empire</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Reconquest"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Reconquest</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#War_against_the_Uzbeks"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">War against the Uzbeks</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#War_against_the_Ottomans"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">War against the Ottomans</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Quelling_the_Georgian_uprisings"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Quelling the Georgian uprisings</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Kandahar_and_the_Mughals"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Kandahar and the Mughals</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#War_against_the_Portuguese"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">War against the Portuguese</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Shah_and_his_subjects"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Shah and his subjects</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Isfahan:_a_new_capital"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Isfahan: a new capital</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Arts"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Arts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Attitude_towards_religious_minorities"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Attitude towards religious minorities</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Contacts_with_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Contacts with Europe</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Family_tragedies_and_death"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Family tragedies and death</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Character_and_legacy"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Character and legacy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Family"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Family</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Ancestry"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Ancestry</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_years">Early years</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg/440px-Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1856" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_I_and_Vali_Muhammad_Khan.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Shah Abbas I and his court.</div></div></div>
<p>Abbas was born in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> (now in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, then one of the two chief cities of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>) as the third son of the royal prince <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad Khodabanda</a> and his wife <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khayr_al-Nisa_Begum" title="Khayr al-Nisa Begum">Khayr al-Nisa Begum</a> (known as "Mahd-i Ulya"), the daughter of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marashis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marashis">Marashi</a> ruler of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a> province, who claimed descent from the fourth Shi'a Imam <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayn_al-Abidin" class="mw-redirect" title="Zayn al-Abidin">Zayn al-Abidin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> At the time of his birth, Abbas' grandfather <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Shah Tahmasp I</a> was the Shah of Iran. Abbas' parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, the mother of the governor of Herat, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali-Qoli_Khan_Shamlu" title="Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu">Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[nb 1]</a></sup> When Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas' father to stay in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a> where the climate was better for his fragile health. Tradition dictated that at least one prince of the royal blood had to reside in Khorasan, so Tahmasp appointed Abbas as the nominal governor of the province, despite his young age, and Abbas was left behind in Herat.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1578, Abbas' father became Shah of Iran. Abbas' mother soon came to dominate the government, but she had little time for Abbas, preferring to promote the interests of his elder brother Hamza.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a></sup> The queen consort antagonised leaders of the powerful <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> army, who plotted against her and murdered her on 26 July 1579, reportedly for having an affair with Adil Giray, brother of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Tatar</a> khan who was held captive in Qazvin.<sup id="cite_ref-BN3132_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN3132-11">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a></sup> Mohammad was a weak sovereign, incapable of preventing Iran's main rivals, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, but also the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a>, from invading the country or stopping factional feuding among the Qizilbash.<sup id="cite_ref-BN3132_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN3132-11">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sav76_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sav76-14">[13]</a></sup> The young prince, Hamza, was more promising and led a campaign against the Ottomans, but he was murdered suspiciously in 1586.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a></sup> Attention now turned to Abbas.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>At the age of 14, Abbas had come under the guardianship of Murshid Qoli Khan, one of the Qizilbash leaders in Khorasan. When a large Uzbek army invaded Khorasan in 1587, Murshid decided the time was right to overthrow Shah Mohammad.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a></sup> He rode to the Safavid capital <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> with the young prince and pronounced him king on 16 October 1587.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a></sup> Mohammad made no objection against his deposition and handed the royal insignia over to his son during the following year on 1 October 1588.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[nb 2]</a></sup> Abbas was 17 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Absolute_monarch">Absolute monarch</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Absolute monarch">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Abbas_takes_control">Abbas takes control</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Abbas takes control">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/440px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1164" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><i>Shah 'Abbās King of the Persians</i>.<br />Copper engraving by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominicus_Custos" title="Dominicus Custos">Dominicus Custos</a>, from his <i>Atrium heroicum Caesarum</i> pub. 1600–1602.</div></div></div>
<p>The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state. The Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west (including the major city of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>) and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the various factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579 and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_vizier" title="Grand vizier">grand vizier</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza_Salman_Jabiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirza Salman Jabiri">Mirza Salman Jabiri</a> in 1583.
</p><p>First, Abbas settled his score with his mother's killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a></sup> His next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamza's widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government posts among his own friends, gradually confining Abbas to the palace.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a></sup> Meanwhile, the Uzbeks continued their conquest of Khorasan. When Abbas heard they were besieging his old friend Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu in Herat, he pleaded with Murshid to take action. Fearing a rival, Murshid did nothing until the news came that Herat had fallen and the Uzbeks had slaughtered the entire population. Only then did he set out on campaign to Khorasan.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a></sup> But Abbas planned to avenge the death of Ali Qoli Khan and he arranged for four Qizilbash leaders to kill Murshid after a banquet on 23 July 1589. With Murshid gone, Abbas could now rule Iran in his own right.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas decided he must re-establish order within Iran before he took on the foreign invaders. To this end he made a humiliating peace treaty – known as the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Istanbul_(1590)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Istanbul (1590)">Treaty of Istanbul</a> – with the Ottomans in 1589/90, ceding them the provinces of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karabagh" class="mw-redirect" title="Karabagh">Karabagh</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, and Qarajadagh, as well as parts of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luristan" class="mw-redirect" title="Luristan">Luristan</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a>. This demeaning treaty even ceded the previous capital of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> to the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reducing_the_power_of_the_Qizilbash_and_the_completion_of_the_Caucasian_layer">Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg/220px-Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg/330px-Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg/440px-Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="700" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Robert_Shirley_by_Anthony_Van_Dyck_1622_Rome.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Shirley" title="Anthony Shirley">Anthony Shirley</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a> (<i>pictured in 1622</i>) helped modernize the Persian Army.</div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> had provided the backbone of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">Safavid army</a> from the very beginning of Safavid rule and they also occupied many posts in the government. As a result, effective power in the state in the early days of the dynasty was held by the Qizilbash, leaving the shah often powerless. To counterbalance their power and as a decisive answer to this problem, Abbas turned to the newly introduced members of Iranian society (an initiative put in place by Shah <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a>) the <i>ghulams</i> (a word literally meaning "slaves"). From these newly introduced slaves, the Shah created a gunpowder force, reaching numbers up to 37,000 soldiers, completely funded by the Crown. This weakened the power that the Qizilbash had against the crown significantly as they no longer had a "military monopoly" in Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></sup> Like the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a> of the neighbouring <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, these <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghulams</a></i> were mainly <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> who had been brought into Iran <i>en masse</i> (by conquest and slave trade), had converted or had been converted to Islam, and had taken up service in the army, royal household or the civil administration, and were loyal only to the shah.<sup id="cite_ref-RE265_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RE265-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABBAS_I-34">[32]</a></sup> Under Abbas' leadership this new grouping in Iranian society (also called the <i>third force</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a></sup> grew in influence and power, with many thousands of ethnic <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> becoming an integral part of Iranian society and taking up key government, royal household and military positions.
</p><p>Tahmasp I, the second Safavid shah, had realised, by looking at his own empire and that of the neighbouring Ottomans, that he faced ongoing threats from dangerous rival factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to him as the head of state. If not properly managed, these rivalries represented a serious threat to the ruler or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. For Tahmasp, the problem revolved around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qezelbāš, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune and material advancement.<sup id="cite_ref-Tah_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tah-36">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Therefore, between 1540 and 1555, Tahmasp conducted a series of invasions of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region which provided battle experience for his soldiers, as well as leading to the capture of large numbers of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> Circassian and Georgian slaves (30,000 just in these four raids).<sup id="cite_ref-Tah_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tah-36">[34]</a></sup> These slaves would form the basis of an Safavid military slave system.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a></sup> These slaves would serve a similar role in their formation, implementation and use to the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a> of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a></sup> Their arrival in such large numbers led to the formation of a new grouping in Iranian society solely composed of ethnic Caucasians. Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until Abbas' reign, during Tahmasp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> and in the civil and military administration.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a></sup>
</p><p>Learning from his grandfather, Abbas (who had been used by the vying Qizilbash factions during his youth)<sup id="cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABBAS_I-34">[32]</a></sup> decided to encourage this new (Caucasian) grouping in Iranian society, as he realized that he must impose his authority on the Qezelbāš or remain their tool. So Abbas single-handedly encouraged the growth in influence and power of this new grouping, also called the <i>third force</i>. It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000 to 200,000 Georgians,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-41">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-42">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-43">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a></sup> tens of thousands of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, and around 300,000 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a></sup> were deported from the Caucasus to Persia's heartland, with a significant number gaining responsibilities and roles in Iranian society, including some of the highest positions of the state, including the <i>ghulam</i> corps. Many of those deported from the Caucasus settled in various regions of Iran and became craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors and peasants within Iranian society.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a></sup>
As part of the ghulam slave system, Abbas greatly expanded the ghulam military corps (also known as <i>ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa</i>, tr. as "crown servants") from just a few hundred during Tahmasp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a></sup> as part of a whole army division of 40,000 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasian</a> ghulams. Abbas then reduced the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved Qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community and reducing their power. Most were eventually replaced by ghulams, whose loyalty was to the shah.
</p><p>By 1595, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allahverdi Khan</a>, a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>, had become one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state <sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a></sup> when he was appointed the Governor-General of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fars_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars province">Fars</a>, one of the richest provinces in Persia. His power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a></sup> Not only did the ghulam system allowed the shah to control and manage the rival Qizilbash Turks and Persians, it also resolved budgetary problems, in the short term at least,<sup id="cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABBAS_I-34">[32]</a></sup> as by restoring the Shah's complete control of the provinces formerly governed by the Qizilbash chiefs, the provinces' revenues now supplemented the royal treasury. From now on, government officials collected the taxes and remitted them directly to the royal treasury. In the harem, the Circassians and Georgians rapidly replaced the Turcoman factions and, as a result, gained a significant direct influence on the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a> Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state.<sup id="cite_ref-Mit69_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mit69-51">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a></sup>
</p><p>The increasing numbers of Georgians and Circassians in the Safavid bureaucracy and the court of the Safavid state vied with the Qizilbash for power and as a result also became involved in court intrigues. This competition for influence saw queens (and their supporters in the harem, court and bureaucracy) compete against each other in order to get their own sons on the throne. This competition increased under Abbas and his successors which weakened the dynasty considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-Circassians_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Circassians-53">[51]</a></sup> Abbas' own son and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_prince" title="Crown prince">crown prince</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Baqer_Mirza" title="Mohammad Baqer Mirza">Mohammad Baqer Mirza</a>, was caught in the court intrigue involving several leading Circassians, which eventually led to him being executed under Abbas' orders.
</p><p>Though the <i>ghulam</i> system did not work as well as it had after the Safavids, the <i>third force</i> would continue to play a crucial role during the rest of the Safavid era and later until the fall of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Circassians_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Circassians-53">[51]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reforming_the_army">Reforming the army</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reforming the army">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape so that he could effectively confront his Ottoman and Uzbek enemies. During this period, the Uzbeks and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> took swaths of territory from Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-54">[52]</a></sup> He also used military reorganisation as another way of side-lining the Qizilbash.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a></sup> He created a standing army of many thousands of <i>ghulams</i> (always conscripted from ethnic Georgians and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>), and to a much lesser extent Iranians, to fight alongside the traditional, feudal force provided by the Qizilbash. The new army regiments' loyalty was to the Shah. The new army consisted of 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry or squires (conscripted Caucasian <i>ghulams</i>) armed with muskets and other weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world<sup id="cite_ref-BBCheels_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCheels-56">[54]</a></sup>), a corps of musketeers, or <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty#Tofangchi" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">tufangchiyan</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-RE265_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RE265-33">[31]</a></sup> (12,000 strong) and a corp of artillery, called <i>tupchiyan</i><sup id="cite_ref-RE265_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RE265-33">[31]</a></sup> (also 12,000 strong). In addition Abbas had a personal bodyguard, composed of Caucasian ghulams, that was increased to 3,000. This force amounted to about 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-RE265_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RE265-33">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BN142_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN142-58">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas greatly increased the number of cannon at his disposal so that he could field 500 cannon in a single battle.<sup id="cite_ref-BN142_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN142-58">[56]</a></sup> Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly the English adventurers Sir <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Shirley" title="Anthony Shirley">Anthony Shirley</a> and his brother <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a>, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex">Earl of Essex</a> on an unofficial mission to persuade Persia to enter into an anti-Ottoman alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a></sup>
</p><p>From 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allāhverdī Khan</a>, in conjunction with Robert Shirley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which led to a further increase in the number of <i>ghulams</i> to 25,000.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Consolidation_of_the_Empire">Consolidation of the Empire</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consolidation of the Empire">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>During the 1590s, Abbas moved to depose the provincial rulers of Persia. He started with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Ahmad_Khan" title="Khan Ahmad Khan">Khan Ahmad Khan</a>, the ruler of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a>, who had disobeyed Abbas' orders when he requested that Khan Ahmad Khan's daughter <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhan_Begum" title="Yakhan Begum">Yakhan Begum</a> marry Abbas' son, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Baqer_Mirza" title="Mohammad Baqer Mirza">Mohammad Baqer Mirza</a>, since Khan Ahmad Khan had no male successor. Khan Ahmad Khan disagreed due to the age of his daughter.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a></sup> This resulted in a Safavid invasion of Gilan in 1591 under the leadership of one of Abbas' favourites, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhad_Khan_Qaramanlu" title="Farhad Khan Qaramanlu">Farhad Khan Qaramanlu</a>. In 1593–94, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir_III" title="Jahangir III">Jahangir III</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paduspanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Paduspanid">Paduspanid</a> ruler of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur,_Iran" title="Nur, Iran">Nur</a>, travelled to the court of the Abbas, where he handed over his domains to him, and spend the rest of his life on an estate at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saveh" title="Saveh">Saveh</a>, which Abbas had given to him. In 1597, Abbas deposed the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi</a> ruler of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lar,_Iran" title="Lar, Iran">Lar</a>. One year later, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir_IV" title="Jahangir IV">Jahangir IV</a>, the Paduspanid ruler of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojur" title="Kojur">Kojur</a>, killed two prominent Safavid nobles during a festival in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>. In response, in 1598 Abbas invaded his domains and besieged Kojur. Jahangir managed to flee, but was captured and killed by a pro-Safavid Paduspanid named Hasan Lavasani.<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-62">[60]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Reconquest">Reconquest</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reconquest">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="War_against_the_Uzbeks">War against the Uzbeks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: War against the Uzbeks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Abbas' first campaign with his reformed army was against the Uzbeks who had seized Khorasan and were ravaging the province. In April 1598 he went on the attack. One of the two main cities of the province, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, was easily recaptured but the Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan was safely behind the walls of the other chief city, Herat. Abbas managed to lure the Uzbek army out of the town by feigning a retreat. A bloody battle ensued on 9 August 1598, in the course of which the Uzbek khan was wounded and his troops retreated (the khan was murdered by his own men during the retreat). However, during the battle, Farhad Khan had fled after being wounded and was later accused of fleeing due to cowardice. He was nevertheless forgiven by Abbas, who wanted to appoint him as the governor of Herat, which Farhad Khan refused. According to Oruch Beg, Farhad Khan's refusal made Abbas feel that he had been insulted. Due to Farhad Khan's arrogant behaviour and his suspected treason, he was seen as a threat to Abbas, so Abbas had him executed.<sup id="cite_ref-mat19_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mat19-63">[61]</a></sup> Abbas then converted Gilan and Mazandaran into the crown domain (<i>khasseh</i>), and appointed Allahverdi Khan as the new commander-in-chief of the Safavid army.<sup id="cite_ref-mat19_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mat19-63">[61]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1599, Abbas had conquered not only Herat and Mashhad, but had moved as far east as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>. This would be a short-lived victory and he would eventually have to settle on controlling only some of this conquest after the new ruler of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a>, Baqi Muhammad Khan attempted to retake Balkh and Abbas found his troops were still no match for the Uzbeks. By 1603, the battle lines had stabilized, albeit with the loss of the majority of the Persian artillery. Abbas was able to hold onto most of Khorassan, including Herat, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabzevar" title="Sabzevar">Sabzevar</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farah,_Afghanistan" title="Farah, Afghanistan">Farah</a>, and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisa,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisa, Iran">Nisa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas' north-east frontier was now safe for the time being and he could turn his attention to the Ottomans in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup> After defeating the Uzbeks, he moved his capital from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-54">[52]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="War_against_the_Ottomans">War against the Ottomans</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: War against the Ottomans">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Baghdad_(1623)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Baghdad (1623)">Capture of Baghdad (1623)</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1c/Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="455" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_Horse.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>"Abbas King of Persia", as seen by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Herbert,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Thomas Herbert, 1st Baronet">Thomas Herbert</a> in 1627.</div></div></div>
<p>The Safavids had not yet beaten their archrival, the Ottomans, in battle. After a particularly arrogant series of demands from the Ottoman ambassador, the Shah had him seized, had his beard shaved and sent it to his master, the sultan, in Constantinople. This was effectively a declaration of war.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a></sup> In the resulting conflict, Abbas first recaptured <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahavand" title="Nahavand">Nahavand</a> and destroyed the fortress in the city, which the Ottomans had planned to use as an advance base for attacks on Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup> The next year, Abbas pretended he was setting off on a hunting expedition to Mazandaran with his men. This was merely a ruse to deceive the Ottoman spies in his court – his real target was Azerbaijan.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup> He changed course for Qazvin where he assembled a large army and set off to retake Tabriz, which had been in Ottoman hands for some time.
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg/180px-RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="213" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg/270px-RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg/360px-RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="953" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RecaptureOfTabrizByShahAbbas1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Drawing of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Tabriz_(1603)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Tabriz (1603)">capture of Tabriz</a> and the parading before <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Abbas_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas I">Shah Abbas I</a> of the severed heads of Ottoman soldiers. Drawn by a European traveller, 1603.</div></div></div>
<p>For the first time, the Iranians made great use of their artillery and the town – which had been ruined by Ottoman occupation – soon fell.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a></sup> Abbas set off to besiege <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a>, a town that had become one of the main Ottoman strongholds in the Caucasus since the Safavids had ceded it in 1590. It finally fell in June 1604 and with it the Ottomans lost the support of most Armenians, Georgians and other Caucasians. But Abbas was unsure how the new sultan, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_I" title="Ahmed I">Ahmed I</a>, would respond and withdrew from the region using scorched earth tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a></sup> For a year, neither side made a move, but in 1605, Abbas sent his general <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allahverdi Khan</a> to meet Ottoman forces on the shores of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Van" title="Lake Van">Lake Van</a>. On 6 November 1605 the Iranians, led by Abbas, scored a decisive victory over the Ottomans <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sufiyan" title="Battle of Sufiyan">at Sufiyan</a>, near Tabriz.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup> In the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, during the war Abbas also managed to capture what is now <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabardino-Balkaria" title="Kabardino-Balkaria">Kabardino-Balkaria</a>. The Persian victory was recognised in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nasuh_Pasha" title="Treaty of Nasuh Pasha">Treaty of Nasuh Pasha</a> in 1612, effectively granting them back suzerainty over most of the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>.
</p><p>Several years of peace followed as the Ottomans carefully planned their response. But their secret training manoeuvres were observed by Iranian spies. Abbas learnt that the Ottoman plan was to invade Iran via Azerbaijan, take Tabriz then move on to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a> and Qazvin, which they could use as bargaining chips in exchange for other territories. The shah decided to lay a trap. He would allow the Ottomans to enter the country, then destroy them. He had Tabriz evacuated of its inhabitants while he waited at Ardabil with his army. In 1618, an Ottoman army of 100,000 led by the grand vizier, invaded and easily seized Tabriz.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a></sup> The vizier sent an ambassador to the shah demanding he make peace and return the lands taken since 1602.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a></sup> Abbas refused and pretended he was ready to set fire to Ardabil and retreat further inland rather than face the Ottoman army.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a></sup> When the Turkish vizier heard the news, he decided to march on Ardabil right away. This was just what Abbas wanted. His army of 40,000 was hiding at a crossroads on the way and they ambushed the Ottoman army in a battle, which ended in complete victory for the Iranians.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1623, Abbas decided to take back Mesopotamia, which had been lost by his grandfather Tahmasp through the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman-Safavid_War_(1532%E2%80%931555)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555)">Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a></sup> Profiting from the confusion surrounding the accession of the new Ottoman sultan <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a>, he pretended to be making a pilgrimage to the Shi'ite shrines of Kerbala and Najaf, but used his army to seize Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a></sup> However, Abbas was then distracted by a rebellion in Georgia in 1624 led by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgi_Saakadze" title="Giorgi Saakadze">Giorgi Saakadze</a> thus allowing an Ottoman force to besiege Baghdad, but the Shah came to its relief the next year and crushed the Turkish army decisively.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a></sup> In 1638, however, after Abbas' death, the Ottomans retook Baghdad, and the Iranian–Ottoman border was finalised to be roughly the same as the current Iran–Turkey and Iran–Iraq borders.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Quelling_the_Georgian_uprisings">Quelling the Georgian uprisings</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Quelling the Georgian uprisings">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png/200px-%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png/300px-%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="384" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96_I.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teimuraz_I_of_Kakheti" title="Teimuraz I of Kakheti">Teimuraz I of Kakheti</a> (also known as <i>Tahmuras Khan</i>).</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_I%27s_Kakhetian_and_Kartlian_campaigns" title="Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns">Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/170px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="374" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/255px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/340px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3904" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostom_of_Kartli" title="Rostom of Kartli">Rostom</a> (also known as <i>Rustam Khan</i>), viceroy of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a>, eastern Georgia, from 1633–1658.</div></div></div>
<p>Between 1614 and 1616, during the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">Ottoman-Safavid War</a>, Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly loyal <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> subjects <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luarsab_II_of_Kartli" title="Luarsab II of Kartli">Luarsab II</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teimuraz_I_of_Kakheti" title="Teimuraz I of Kakheti">Teimuraz I</a> (also known as <i>Tahmuras Khan</i>) in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kingdom of Kakheti</a>.
</p><p>In 1606, Abbas had appointed these Georgians onto the thrones of Safavid vassals <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kakheti</a>, at the behest of Kartlian nobles and Teimuraz's mother <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketevan_the_Martyr" title="Ketevan the Martyr">Ketevan</a>; both seemed like malleable youths.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> However, tensions soon arose between the Shah and the Georgian kings. In 1613, when the Shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran province">Mazandaran</a>, they did not appear as they feared that they would be either imprisoned or killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Mit69_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mit69-51">[49]</a></sup> At this point war broke out, Iranian armies invaded the two territories in March 1614, and the two allied kings subsequently sought refuge in the Ottoman vassal <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Imeretia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Abbas, as reported by the Safavid court historian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iskander_Beg_Munshi" class="mw-redirect" title="Iskander Beg Munshi">Iskander Beg Munshi</a>, was infuriated by what was perceived as the defection of two of his most trusted subjects and <i>gholams</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mit69_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mit69-51">[49]</a></sup> He deported 30,000 Kakhetian peasants to Iran, and appointed a grandson of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Imereti" title="Alexander II of Imereti">Alexander II of Imereti</a> to the throne of Kartli, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_of_Kakheti" title="Jesse of Kakheti">Jesse of Kakheti</a> (also known as "Isā Khān").<sup id="cite_ref-Mit69_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mit69-51">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Raised up at the court in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> and a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Muslim</a>, he was perceived as fully loyal to the Shah.
</p><p>Abbas threatened Imeretia with devastation if they did not give up the fugitive kings; the Imeretian, Mingrelian and Gurian rulers jointly refused his demand. Luarsab, however, surrendered voluntarily to the Shah; Abbas initially treated him well but when he learned that Luarsab and Teimuraz had offered an alliance with the Ottomans he demanded that Luarsab accept Islam. When Luarsab refused, he was thrown in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615, taking advantage of a resurgence in Ottoman-Safavid hostilities, and there he defeated a Safavid force. However, when the Ottoman army postponed its invasion of the Safavids, Abbas was able to briefly send an army back to defeat Teimuraz, and redoubled his invasion after brokering a truce with the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Now Iranian rule was fully restored over eastern Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2011_70_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2011_70-80">[78]</a></sup> Subsequently, the Shah marched on <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutaisi" title="Kutaisi">Kutaisi</a>, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring the defectors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In a punitive expedition to Kakhetia, his army then killed perhaps 60–70,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-41">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-42">[40]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-43">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khanbaghi_2006_131_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khanbaghi_2006_131-81">[79]</a></sup> or 100,000<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Georgians, with twice as many more being deported to Iran, removing about two-thirds of the Kakhetian population.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> More refugees were rounded up in 1617.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> In 1619 Abbas appointed the loyal <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_II_of_Kartli" title="Simon II of Kartli">Simon II</a> (or <i>Semayun Khan</i>) as a puppet ruler of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule over districts where the rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.<sup id="cite_ref-Mit69_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mit69-51">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>Having momentarily secured the region, Abbas took further acts of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz and Luarsab. He castrated Teimuraz's sons, who both died shortly afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> He executed Luarsab in 1622, and in 1624 he had Ketevan, who had been sent to the Shah as a negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-83">[81]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Asat'iani_1997_188_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asat'iani_1997_188-84">[82]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Teimuraz, meanwhile, sought aid from the Ottomans and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas was then warned of another imminent Kakhetian uprising, so he returned to Georgia in early 1625. He lured Kakhetian soldiers on a false pretext and then began executing them. He also had plans to execute all armed Kartlians, including his own general <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgi_Saakadze" title="Giorgi Saakadze">Giorgi Saakadze</a>; however Saakadze intercepted a courier and uncovered the plot. Saakadze then defected to the Georgians, and led a new rebellion which succeeded in throwing the Persians out of Kartli and Kakheti while crowning Teimuraz as king of both territories. Abbas counterattacked in June, won the subsequent war and dethroned Teimuraz, but lost half his army at the hands of the Georgians and was forced to accept Kartli and Kakheti only as vassal states while abandoning his plans to eliminate Christians from the area.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p>Even then, Saakadze and Teimuraz launched another rebellion in 1626, and were effective in clearing Iranian forces from most of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup> Thus, the Georgian territories continued to resist Safavid encroachments until Abbas' death.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_2011_70_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell_2011_70-80">[78]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Kandahar_and_the_Mughals">Kandahar and the Mughals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kandahar and the Mughals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal-Safavid_War_(1622%E2%80%931623)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal-Safavid War (1622–1623)">Mughal-Safavid War (1622–1623)</a></div>
<p>The Safavids were traditionally allied with the Mughals in India against the Uzbeks, who coveted the province of Khorasan. The Mughal emperor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a> had given Abbas' grandfather, Shah Tahmasp, the province of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> as a reward for helping him back to his throne.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a></sup> In 1590, profiting from the confusion in Iran, Humayun's successor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Akbar the Great">Akbar</a> seized Kandahar. Abbas continued to maintain cordial relations with the Mughals, while always asking for the return of Kandahar.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a></sup> Finally, in 1620, a diplomatic incident in which the Iranian ambassador refused to bow down in front of the Emperor <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> led to war.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a></sup> India was embroiled in civil turmoil and Abbas found he only needed a lightning raid to take back the far easternmost town of Kandahar in 1622.
</p><p>After the conquest, he was very conciliatory to Jahangir, claiming he had only taken back what was rightly his and disavowing any further territorial ambitions.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a></sup> Jahangir was not appeased but he was unable to recapture the province. A childhood friend of Abbas named <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganj_Ali_Khan" title="Ganj Ali Khan">Ganj Ali Khan</a> was then appointed as the governor of city, which he would govern until his death in 1624/5.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParizi2000284–285_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParizi2000284–285-91">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabaie200494_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabaie200494-92">[90]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="War_against_the_Portuguese">War against the Portuguese</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: War against the Portuguese">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia-Portugal_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia-Portugal war">Persia-Portugal war</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Ormuz_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Ormuz (1622)">Capture of Ormuz (1622)</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg/220px-Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg/330px-Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg/440px-Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="510" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Hormuz.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The island of Hormuz was captured by an Anglo-Persian force in the 1622 <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Ormuz_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Ormuz (1622)">Capture of Ormuz</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>During the 16th century the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> had established bases in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a></sup> In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam-Quli_Khan" title="Imam-Quli Khan">Imam-Quli Khan</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undiladze" title="Undiladze">Undiladze</a> managed to expel the Portuguese from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a></sup> In 1622, with the help of four English ships, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Ormuz_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Ormuz (1622)">Abbas retook</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormuz_Island" title="Hormuz Island">Hormuz</a> from the Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a></sup> He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Bandar Abbas</a>, nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful.<sup id="cite_ref-Bomati_1998_162_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bomati_1998_162-96">[94]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Shah_and_his_subjects">Shah and his subjects</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shah and his subjects">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Isfahan:_a_new_capital">Isfahan: a new capital</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Isfahan: a new capital">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Abbas moved his capital from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to the more central city of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a> in 1598. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, and caravansarais, Isfahan became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. As <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a> writes, "Not since the development of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in the eighth century A.D. by the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Caliph al-Mansur</a> had there been such a comprehensive example of town-planning in the Islamic world, and the scope and layout of the city centre clearly reflect its status as the capital of an empire."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a></sup> Isfahan became the centre of Safavid architectural achievement, with the mosques <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosque_(Isfahan)" title="Shah Mosque (Isfahan)">Masjed-e Shah</a> and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Lotf_Allah_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque">Masjed-e Sheykh Lotfollah</a> and other monuments including the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%AB" title="Ālī Qāpū">Ali Qapu</a>, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chehel_Sotoun" title="Chehel Sotoun">Chehel Sotoun</a> palace and the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naghsh-i_Jahan_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Naghsh-i Jahan Square">Naghsh-i Jahan Square</a>.
</p><p>In making Isfahan the centre of Safavid Empire, Abbas utilized the Armenian people, whom he had forcibly relocated to Isfahan from their Armenian homelands. Once they were settled, he allowed them considerable freedom and encouraged them to continue in their silk trade. Silk was an integral part of the economy and considered to be the best form of hard currency available. The Armenians had already established trade networks that allowed Abbas to strengthen Iran's economy.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Arts">Arts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg/440px-Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_Statue.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Statue of Shah Abbas, which was on display in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> before the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></div></div></div>
<p>Abbas' painting studios (of the Isfahan school established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Iranian history, by such illustrious painters as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a> and Muhammad Qasim. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denoted a certain relaxation of the strictures. The portrait by Muhammad Qasim suggests that the Muslim prohibition against the consumption of wine, as well as that against male intimacy, "were more honoured in the breach than in the observance".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a></sup> Abbas brought in 300 Chinese potters to Iran to enhance local production of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_pottery" title="Persian pottery">Chinese-style ceramics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a></sup>
</p><p>Under Abbas' reign, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">carpet weaving</a> increased its role as an important part of Persian industry and culture, as wealthy Europeans started importing Persian rugs. Silk production became a monopoly of the crown, and manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics were also important exports.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-54">[52]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Attitude_towards_religious_minorities">Attitude towards religious minorities</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Attitude towards religious minorities">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Like all other Safavid monarchs, Abbas was a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ite Muslim</a>. He had a particular veneration for <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam_Hussein" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Hussein">Imam Hussein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a></sup> In 1601, he made a pilgrimage on foot from Isfahan to Mashhad, site of the shrine of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ar-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ar-Ridha">Imam Reza</a>, which he restored (it had been despoiled by the Uzbeks).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a></sup> Since <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> was the religion of Iran's main rival, the Ottoman Empire, Abbas often <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_from_Sunnism_to_Shiism#Significant_figures_during_the_conversion_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism">treated Sunnis</a> living in western border provinces harshly.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg/220px-Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg/330px-Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg/440px-Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baptist%C3%A8re_kelisa-e-vank_esfahan.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><center><i>Kelisa-e Vank</i> (the Armenian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vank_Cathedral" title="Vank Cathedral">Vank Cathedral</a>) in New Julfa</center></div></div></div>
<p>Abbas was usually tolerant of Christianity. The Italian traveller <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_della_Valle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro della Valle">Pietro della Valle</a> was astonished at the Shah's knowledge of Christian history and theology and establishing diplomatic links with European Christian states was a vital part of the shah's foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a></sup> Christian <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> was <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Armenia_(1502%E2%80%931828)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia (1502–1828)">a key Safavid province</a> bordering the Ottoman Empire. From 1604 Abbas implemented a "scorched earth" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved the forced resettlement of up to 300,000 Armenians from their homelands.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_California_Press_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_California_Press-105">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazda_Publishers-106">[104]</a></sup> The Armenians came primarily from the wealthy Armenian merchant town of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jugha">Jugha</a> (also known as Jolfa).<sup id="cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazda_Publishers-106">[104]</a></sup> Many were transferred to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Julfa" title="New Julfa">New Julfa</a>, a town the shah had built for the Armenians primarily meant for these Armenians from Jugha ("Old Julfa"), near his capital Isfahan.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_California_Press_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_California_Press-105">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mazda_Publishers-106">[104]</a></sup> Thousands of Armenians died on the journey. Those who survived enjoyed considerable religious freedom in New Julfa, where the shah built them a new cathedral. Abbas' aim was to boost the Iranian economy by encouraging the Armenian merchants who had moved to New Julfa. As well as religious liberties, he also offered them interest-free loans and allowed the town to elect its own mayor (<i>kalantar</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a></sup> Other Armenians were transferred to the provinces of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a> and Mazandaran. These were less lucky. Abbas wanted to establish a second capital in Mazandaran, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farahabad,_Mazandaran" title="Farahabad, Mazandaran">Farahabad</a>, but the climate was unhealthy and malarial. Many settlers died and others gradually abandoned the city.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas was more intolerant of Christians in Georgia, where the threat of rebellion loomed larger. Abbas frequently demanded that nobles convert to Shia Islam, and had <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketevan_the_Martyr" title="Ketevan the Martyr">Ketevan the Martyr</a> tortured to death when she refused. Abbas's anger at Georgian rebelliousness also generated his plan to deport or exterminate eastern Georgia's Christians and replace them with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a>, which has been described as "genocidal".<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Contacts_with_Europe">Contacts with Europe</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Contacts with Europe">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg/220px-Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg/330px-Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg/440px-Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="666" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rolka_Mechti_Kuli_Beg.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Persian ambassador during his entry into <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> for the wedding ceremonies of King <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigismund_III_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund III of Poland">Sigismund III of Poland</a> in 1605.</div></div></div>
<p>Abbas' tolerance towards most Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzun_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzun Hassan">Uzun Hassan</a>, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetians</a> for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe and Abbas' attitude was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Jenkinson" title="Anthony Jenkinson">Anthony Jenkinson</a> from his court upon hearing he was a Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a></sup> For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage".<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Embassy_to_Europe.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/220px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/330px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/440px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2130" data-file-height="1496" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Embassy_to_Europe.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Canvas by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Caliari" title="Carlo Caliari">Carlo</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Caliari" title="Gabriele Caliari">Gabriele Caliari</a> in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace" title="Doge's Palace">Doge's Palace</a> in Venice depicting doge <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marino_Grimani_(doge)" title="Marino Grimani (doge)">Marino Grimani</a> receiving the Persian ambassadors, 1603</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/220px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/330px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/440px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2652" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Abbas I as a new <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a> being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1609%E2%80%9315)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)">1609–1615 Persian embassy</a>, in <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" title="File:Allegorie de l Occasion Frans II Francken 1628.jpg">Allégorie de l'Occasion</a></i>, by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_II_Francken" class="mw-redirect" title="Frans II Francken">Frans II Francken</a>, 1628.</div></div></div>
<p>In 1599, Abbas sent his <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1599%E2%80%931602)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)">first diplomatic mission to Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a></sup> The group crossed the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> and spent the winter in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, before proceeding through <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (where it was received by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Rudolf_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Rudolf II">Emperor Rudolf II</a>) to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> where <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII" title="Pope Clement VIII">Pope Clement VIII</a> gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III of Spain</a> in 1602.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a></sup> Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe and Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's 1601–02 <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night" title="Twelfth Night">Twelfth Night</a></i>, for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophy_(Safavid_Empire)" title="Sophy (Safavid Empire)">Sophy</a>', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a></sup> Persian fashions—such as shoes with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-heeled_footwear" class="mw-redirect" title="High-heeled footwear">heels</a>, for men—were enthusiastically adopted by European aristocrats.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCheels_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCheels-56">[54]</a></sup> Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.<sup id="cite_ref-BN131_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN131-117">[115]</a></sup>
</p><p>The shah had set great store on an alliance with <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a>, the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a port that had fallen into Spanish hands when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">English East India Company</a> before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply.<sup id="cite_ref-BN131_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN131-117">[115]</a></sup> Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the Holy Roman Empire, which wanted him to make his 400,000+ Armenian subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a></sup> Contacts with the Pope, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Poland</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscovy" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscovy">Muscovy</a> were no more fruitful.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>More came of Abbas' contacts with the English, although <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganise the Iranian army, which proved to be pivotal for the Safavid victory in the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">Ottoman-Safavid War (1603–1618)</a> and the first Safavid victory in battle over their neighbouring Ottoman archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a>, led Abbas' <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1609%E2%80%9315)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)">second diplomatic mission to Europe</a> between 1609–1615. The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran and in 1622 four of its ships helped <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Ormuz_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Ormuz (1622)">Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese</a>. The capture of Ormuz gave the opportunity for the Company to develop trade with Persia, attempting to trade English <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloth">cloth</a> and other commodities for silk, with did not become very profitable due to the lack of Persian interest and small quantity of English goods.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Family_tragedies_and_death">Family tragedies and death</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Family tragedies and death">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="376" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="626" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_and_Wine_Boy.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Shah Abbas in later life with a page. By Muhammad Qasim (1627).<sup id="cite_ref-Bomati_1998_162_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bomati_1998_162-96">[94]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Of Abbas' five sons, three had survived past childhood, so the Safavid succession seemed secure. He was on good terms with the crown prince, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Baqer_Mirza" title="Mohammad Baqer Mirza">Mohammed Baqir Mirza</a> (born 1587; better known in the West as Safi Mirza).<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a></sup> In 1614, however, during a campaign in Georgia, the shah heard rumours that the prince was conspiring against him with a leading <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhad_Beg_Cherkes" title="Farhad Beg Cherkes">Farhad Beg Cherkes</a>. Shortly after, Mohammed Baqir broke protocol during a hunt by killing a boar before the shah had a chance to put his spear in the animal. This seemed to confirm Abbas' suspicions and he sunk into melancholy; he no longer trusted any of his three sons.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a></sup> In 1615, he decided he had no choice but to have Mohammed killed. A Circassian named <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behbud_Khan_Cherkes" title="Behbud Khan Cherkes">Behbud Beg</a> executed the Shah's orders and the prince was murdered in a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_bath" title="Turkish bath">hammam</a> in the city of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resht" class="mw-redirect" title="Resht">Resht</a>. The shah almost immediately regretted his action and was plunged into grief.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a></sup>
</p><p>In 1621, Abbas fell seriously ill. His heir, Mohammed Khodabanda, thought he was on his deathbed and began to celebrate his accession to the throne with his Qizilbash supporters. But the shah recovered and punished his son by blinding him, which would disqualify him from ever taking the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a></sup> The blinding was only partially successful and the prince's followers planned to smuggle him out of the country to safety with the Mughals whose aid they would use to overthrow Abbas and install Mohammed on the throne. But the plot was betrayed, the prince's followers were executed and the prince himself imprisoned in the fortress of Alamut where he would later be murdered by Abbas' successor, Shah Safi.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>Imam Qoli Mirza, the third and last son, then became the crown prince. Abbas groomed him carefully for the throne but, for some reason, in 1627, he had him partially blinded and imprisoned in Alamut.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a></sup>
</p><p>Unexpectedly, Abbas now chose as heir the son of Mohammed Baqir Mirza, Sam Mirza, a cruel and introverted character who was said to loathe his grandfather because of his father's murder. Nevertheless, he did succeed Shah Abbas at the age of 17 in 1629, taking the name Shah Safi. Abbas's health was poor from 1621 onwards. He died at his palace in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farahabad,_Mazandaran" title="Farahabad, Mazandaran">Farahabad</a> on the Caspian coast in 1629 and was buried in <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Shah_Abbas_I" title="Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I">Kashan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Character_and_legacy">Character and legacy</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Character and legacy">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG/220px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG/330px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG/440px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_the_Great_tomb.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Tomb, the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Shah_Abbas_I" title="Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I">Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>According to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a>: "Shah Abbas I possessed in abundance qualities which entitle him to be styled 'the Great'. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician whose chief characteristic was prudence. He preferred to obtain his ends by diplomacy rather than war, and showed immense patience in pursuing his objectives."<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a></sup> In <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Axworthy" title="Michael Axworthy">Michael Axworthy's</a> view, Abbas "was a talented administrator and military leader, and a ruthless autocrat. His reign was the outstanding creative period of the Safavid era. But the civil wars and troubles of his childhood (when many of his relatives were murdered) left him with a dark twist of suspicion and brutality at the centre of his personality."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a></sup> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Rayfield" title="Donald Rayfield">Donald Rayfield</a> described him as "exceptionally perspicacious and active," but also "a murderous paranoiac when aroused."<sup id="cite_ref-Rayfield_79-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rayfield-79">[77]</a></sup>
</p><p><i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Iran" title="The Cambridge History of Iran">The Cambridge History of Iran</a></i> rejects the view that the death of Abbas marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavid dynasty as Iran continued to prosper throughout the 17th century, but blames him for the poor statesmanship of the later Safavid shahs: "The elimination of royal princes, whether by blinding or immuring them in the harem, their exclusion from the affairs of state and from contact with the leading aristocracy of the empire and the generals, all the abuses of the princes' education, which were nothing new but which became the normal practice with Abbas at the court of Isfahan, effectively put a stop to the training of competent successors, that is to say, efficient princes prepared to meet the demands of ruling as kings."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas was fluent in the Turkish dialect used by the Turkoman portion of the multi-ethnic <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> organization, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, of the majority of the population, as well as of the court when Isfahan became the capital under his reign (1598).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-131">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392-132">[130]</a></sup> According to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Silva_Figueroa" title="García de Silva Figueroa">García de Silva Figueroa</a>, the Spanish ambassador to the Safavid court during Abbas' later reign, he heard Abbas speak <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, which he had doubtlessly acquired from his <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> <i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty#Ghulam" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">gholams</a></i> and concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009166,_118_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009166,_118-133">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>Abbas gained strong support from the common people.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Where? (July 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a></sup> Short in stature but physically strong until his health declined in his final years, Abbas could go for long periods without needing to sleep or eat and could ride great distances. At the age of 19 Abbas shaved off his beard, keeping only his moustache, thus setting a fashion in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Family">Family</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Family">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<dl><dt>Consorts</dt></dl>
<ul><li>Mahd-i-Ulya Khanum (m. 1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Mustafa Mirza;</li>
<li>Olgan Pasha Khanum (1587), daughter of Shahzada Sultan Husayn Mirza, and widow of Hamza Mirza;</li>
<li>Wali Ahad Khanum (m. 1591);</li>
<li>Fakhr-i-Jahan Khanum, daughter of King Bagrat VII of Kartli;</li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhan_Begum" title="Yakhan Begum">Yakhan Begum</a>, daughter of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Ahmad_Khan" title="Khan Ahmad Khan">Khan Ahmad Khan</a> and <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryam_Begum" title="Maryam Begum">Maryam Begum</a>;</li>
<li>Tzarievna Marta, daughter of King David I of Kahkheti;</li>
<li>A daughter of Rostam Khan Daghistani (m. 1607);</li>
<li>A daughter of Masum Khan, Governor of Tabaristan (m. 1604 – div. 1614);</li>
<li>Fatima Sultan Begum alias Peri Lala, née Tinatin, daughter of Peykar Khan of Kakheti;</li>
<li>A daughter of Shaikh Haider Moksi, Governor of Maraghah (m. 1610);</li></ul>
<dl><dt>Sons</dt></dl>
<ul><li>Prince Shahzadeh <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Baqer_Mirza" title="Mohammad Baqer Mirza">Mohammad Baqer Mirza</a> (15 September 1587, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> – killed 25 January 1615, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasht" title="Rasht">Rasht</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a>), was Governor of Mashhad 1587–1588, and of Hamadan 1591–1592. Married firstly at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esfahan" class="mw-redirect" title="Esfahan">Esfahan</a>, 1601, Princess Fakhri-Jahan Begum, daughter of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail II</a>, married secondly <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilaram_Khanum" title="Dilaram Khanum">Dilaram Khanum</a>, a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>. He had issue, two sons:
<ul><li>Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Abul-Naser Sam Mirza, succeeded as <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safi_of_Persia" title="Safi of Persia">Safi</a> – with Dilaram;</li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Suleiman Mirza (killed August 1632 at <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>) – with Fakhr-i-Jahan;</li></ul></li>
<li>Prince <i>Shahzadeh</i> Sultan Hasan Mirza (<i>b</i>. September 1588, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a> – <i>d</i>. 18 August 1591, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>);</li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Hosein Mirza (26 February 1591, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> – died young);</li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Tahmasph Mirza (died young);</li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Mohammad Mirza (18 March 1591, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> – killed August 1632, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1621.
<ul><li>Princess Gawhar Shad Begum, married to Mirza Qazi, the Shaykh-ul-Islam of Isfahan.<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup></li></ul></li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Sultan Ismail Mirza (6 September 1601, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esfahan" class="mw-redirect" title="Esfahan">Esfahan</a> – killed 16 August 1613)</li>
<li>Prince Shahzadeh Imam Qoli Amano'llah Mirza (12 November 1602, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esfahan" class="mw-redirect" title="Esfahan">Esfahan</a> – killed August 1632, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>) Blinded on the orders of his father, 1627. He had issue, one son:
<ul><li>Prince Shahzadeh Najaf Qoli Mirza (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1625 – killed August 1632, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamut" title="Alamut">Alamut</a>, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>)</li></ul></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Daughters</dt></dl>
<ul><li>Princess Shahzada Begum, married to Mirza Mohsin Razavi.<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup> and had issue two sons;</li>
<li>Princess Zubayda Begum (killed 20 February 1632), married to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa_Khan_Safavi" title="Isa Khan Safavi">Isa Khan</a> Shaykhavand,<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup> and had issue a daughter;
<ul><li>Jahan Banu Begum, married in 1623, <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_II_of_Kartli" title="Simon II of Kartli">Simon II of Kartli</a> son of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagrat_VII_of_Kartli" title="Bagrat VII of Kartli">Bagrat VII of Kartli</a> by his wife, Queen Anna, daughter of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Kakheti" title="Alexander II of Kakheti">Alexander II of Kakheti</a>. She had issue, a daughter:
<ul><li>Princess Izz-i-Sharif Begum, married to Sayyid Abdullah, son of Mirza Muhammad Shafi. she had issue, a son:
<ul><li>Sayyid Muhammad Daud, married to Shahr Banu Begum, daughter of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Suleiman I of Persia">Suleiman I</a>. She had issue, two sons including:
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_II_of_Persia" title="Suleiman II of Persia">Suleiman II</a>.</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>Princess Agha Begum, married to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifeh_Soltan" title="Khalifeh Soltan">Sultan al-Ulama Khalife Sultan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup> and had issue four sons and four daughters;</li>
<li>Princess Havva Begum (<i>d</i>. 1617, Zanjan), married firstly to Mirza Riza Shahristani (Sadr), married secondly to Mirza Rafi al-Din Muhammad (Sadr),<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup> and had issue three sons;</li>
<li>Princess Shahr Banu Begum, married to Mir Abdulazim, darughah of Isfahan;<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup></li>
<li>Princess Malik Nissa Begum, married to Mir Jalal Shahristani, the mutvalli of the shrine of Imam Riza.<sup id="cite_ref-mystic_137-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mystic-137">[135]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancestry">Ancestry</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ancestry">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886387087">.mw-parser-output table.ahnentafel{border-collapse:separate;border-spacing:0;line-height:130%}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel tr{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-t{border-top:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-b{border-bottom:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}</style><div class="noresize"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="margin:0.3em auto;clear:none;min-width:60em;width:auto;font-size:88%;border:1px solid #aaa"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.3em 0.2em 4.3em;background:none;width:auto">Ancestors of Abbas the Great</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center"><table class="ahnentafel" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="28" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="13"> </td><td rowspan="12" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="5"> </td><td rowspan="4" colspan="2"> </td><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">8. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Isma'il I, Shah of Iran</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">4. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I, Shah of Iran</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">9. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajlu_Khanum" title="Tajlu Khanum">Tajlu Khanum</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;">2. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Muhammad Khodabanda, Shah of Iran</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">10. Musa Sultan Musullu</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanum_Begum" title="Sultanum Begum">Sultanum Begum</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fcc;">1. <b>Abbas I, Shah of Iran</b></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="11"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="24" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">12. Sultan Mahmud <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marashis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marashis">Marashi</a></td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">6. Mir Abdullah Khan II <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marashis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marashis">Marashi</a>, Ruler of <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran_Province" title="Mazandaran Province">Mazandaran</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;">3. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khayr_al-Nisa_Begum" title="Khayr al-Nisa Begum">Khayr al-Nisa Begum</a></td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="9"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="8" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">Fakhr al-Nisa Begum</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_DimDim" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of DimDim">Battle of DimDim</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Silva_Figueroa" title="García de Silva Figueroa">García de Silva Figueroa</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Shah_Abbas_I" title="Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I">Mausoleum of Shah Abbas I</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1599%E2%80%931602)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)">Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1609%E2%80%931615)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1609–1615)">Persian embassy to Europe (1609–1615)</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_from_Sunnism_to_Shiism#Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism">Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Abbas_Mosque,_Yerevan" title="Shah Abbas Mosque, Yerevan">Shah Abbas Mosque, Yerevan</a></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juma_Mosque_of_Ganja_(Shah_Abbas)" class="mw-redirect" title="Juma Mosque of Ganja (Shah Abbas)">Shah Abbas Mosque, Ganja</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ali Qoli Khan Shamlu, the governor of Herat, had originally been tasked with murder of Abbas by <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shah_Ishmail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shah Ishmail (page does not exist)">Shah Ishmail</a>. Before he could act, the Shah had died, thus leaving him as governor, but without fulfilling his prerequisite task.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is some confusion concerning the date which Abbas assumed power. The confusion sprouts from the fact that two distinctly different, but similar, occurrences both happened in the month of October, but in different years. First, Abbas seized power in the capital of Qazvin, whilst his father was leading the troops. This occurred on 16 October 1587. Then, after his father had returned, on 1 October 1588, Shah Mohammad abdicated and gave control of the empire over to Abbas in a ceremony.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuinn2015">Quinn 2015</a>, chpt. Shah Abbas and political legitimacy'</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuinn2015">Quinn 2015</a>, chpt. Shah Abbas as the 'Supreme Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction'</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThorne1984">Thorne 1984</a>, p. 1</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 71</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewman2006">Newman 2006</a>, p. 42</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 259</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 28</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 29</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BN3132-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BN3132_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BN3132_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 31–32</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 255</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 73</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sav76-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sav76_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 76</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 74</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 32–33</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 29</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 35</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDale2010">Dale 2010</a>, p. 92</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 261</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 75</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 30</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 36</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 37</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 38</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 38–39</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewman2006">Newman 2006</a>, p. 50</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 77</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewman2006">Newman 2006</a>, p. 52</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 266</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cleveland, William L. "A History of the Modern Middle East" (Westview Press, 2013) pg 50</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RE265-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RE265_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RE265_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RE265_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RE265_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 265</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ABBAS_I-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABBAS_I_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1983">Savory 1983</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWallbank1992">Wallbank 1992</a>, p. 369</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Tah-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tah_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tah_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell2009a">Mitchell 2009a</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 148<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (May 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBosworth1989">Bosworth 1989</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFManzHaneda1990">Manz & Haneda 1990</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLapidus2012">Lapidus 2012</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMikaberidze2015">Mikaberidze 2015</a>, pp. 291, 536.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 174.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonshi1978">Monshi 1978</a>, p. 1116</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHosayn,_Malekšāh">Hosayn, Malekšāh</a>, p. 509<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHosayn,_Malekšāh (<a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed (May 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bournoutian" title="George Bournoutian">Bournoutian, George A.</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=jIvtAAAAMAAJ&q=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&dq=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBDgKahUKEwjLyJXbxvzIAhUGjnIKHd5fAuQ"><i>A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)</i></a> (original from the <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>) Mazda Publishers, 2002 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1568591414" title="Special:BookSources/978-1568591414">978-1568591414</a> p 208</span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aslanian, Sebouh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=l0Kn-DMl5ZoC&pg=PA1&dq=shah+abbas+deport+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI5f3ChMX8yAIVA_FyCh3OHgFY#v=onepage&q=shah%20abbas%20deport%20300%2C000%20armenians&f=false"><i>From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa</i></a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 4 mei 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520947573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520947573">978-0520947573</a> p 1</span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthee1999a">Matthee 1999a</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 37</span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 81</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 82</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mit69-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mit69_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mit69_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mit69_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mit69_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mit69_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 69</span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, pp. 183–184</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Circassians-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Circassians_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Circassians_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaneda1990">Haneda 1990</a>, p. 818</span>
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<li id="cite_note-EB-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoiberg2010">Hoiberg 2010</a>, p. 9</span>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAxworthy2007">Axworthy 2007</a>, pp. 134–135</span>
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<li id="cite_note-BBCheels-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBCheels_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCheels_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKremer2013">Kremer 2013</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 79</span>
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<li id="cite_note-BN142-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BN142_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BN142_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 141–142</span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 143</span>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFR.M." class="citation web cs1">R.M., Savory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/allahverdi-khan-d-1">"ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.atitle=ALL%C4%80HVERD%C4%AA+KHAN+%281%29&rft.aulast=R.M.&rft.aufirst=Savory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fallahverdi-khan-d-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarkey2010">Starkey 2010</a>, p. 38</span>
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<li id="cite_note-iranicaonline.org-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMadelung1988">Madelung 1988</a>, p. 390</span>
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<li id="cite_note-mat19-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mat19_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mat19_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthee1999">Matthee 1999</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 267</span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 84</span>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 147–148</span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 85</span>
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<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 148–149</span>
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<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 149–150</span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 150–151</span>
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<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 87</span>
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<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 153</span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 154</span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 155</span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 156</span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 157–158</span>
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<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 158</span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 158–159</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Rayfield-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rayfield_79-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRayfield2013" class="citation book cs1">Rayfield, Donald (2013). <i>Edge of Empires</i>. Reaktion Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edge+of+Empires&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Rayfield&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Mitchell_2011_70-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_2011_70_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_2011_70_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 70</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Khanbaghi_2006_131-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khanbaghi_2006_131_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhanbaghi2006">Khanbaghi 2006</a>, p. 131</span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKacharava2011">Kacharava 2011</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suny p. 50<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CITESHORT" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CITESHORT"><span title="More information is required to link this short citation to its long citation. (September 2014)">incomplete short citation</span></a></i>]</sup></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Asat'iani_1997_188-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Asat'iani_1997_188_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997">Asat'iani & Bendianachvili 1997</a>, p. 188</span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 120</span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEraly2003">Eraly 2003</a>, p. 263</span>
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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 121</span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 123–124</span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 124</span>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEraly2003">Eraly 2003</a>, p. 264</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParizi2000284–285-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParizi2000284–285_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParizi2000">Parizi 2000</a>, pp. 284–285.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabaie200494-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBabaie200494_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBabaie2004">Babaie 2004</a>, p. 94.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCole1987">Cole 1987</a>, p. 186</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bomati_1998_162-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bomati_1998_162_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bomati_1998_162_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 162</span>
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<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNewman2006">Newman 2006</a>, p. 67</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 96</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 98–99</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 111</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 107</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-University_of_California_Press-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_California_Press_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_California_Press_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAslanian2011" class="citation book cs1">Aslanian, Sebouh (2011). <i>From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa</i>. California: University of California Press. p. 1. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520947573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520947573"><bdi>978-0520947573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Indian+Ocean+to+the+Mediterranean%3A+The+Global+Trade+Networks+of+Armenian+Merchants+from+New+Julfa&rft.place=California&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0520947573&rft.aulast=Aslanian&rft.aufirst=Sebouh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Mazda_Publishers-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mazda_Publishers_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBournoutian2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bournoutian" title="George Bournoutian">Bournoutian, George</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208"><i>A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)</i></a> (2 ed.). Mazda Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208">208</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1568591414" title="Special:BookSources/978-1568591414"><bdi>978-1568591414</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Armenian+People%3A+%28from+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present%29&rft.pages=208&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Mazda+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1568591414&rft.aulast=Bournoutian&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00geor%2Fpage%2F208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 209</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 104</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJacksonLockhart1986">Jackson & Lockhart 1986</a>, p. 454</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKouymjian2004">Kouymjian 2004</a>, p. 20</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockhart1953">Lockhart 1953</a>, p. 347</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 114</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 128</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 129</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShakespeare1863">Shakespeare 1863</a>, pp. 258,262,282</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2010">Wilson 2010</a>, p. 210</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BN131-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BN131_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BN131_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 131</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 134–135</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 136–137</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 161–162</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 235</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 235–236</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 236–237</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 95</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 240–241</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 241–242</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 243–246</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 101</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAxworthy2007">Axworthy 2007</a>, p. 134</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 278</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 165.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Glassé (ed.), <i>The New Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6">0-7591-0190-6</a>, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009166,_118-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009166,_118_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 166, 118.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 103</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 44–47</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 57–58</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mystic-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mystic_137-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBabayan2002" class="citation book cs1">Babayan, Kathryn (2002). <i>Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Early Modern Iran</i>. Harvard CMES. pp. 400–1. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932-88528-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932-88528-9"><bdi>978-0-932-88528-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mystics%2C+Monarchs%2C+and+Messiahs%3A+Cultural+Landscapes+of+Early+Modern+Iran&rft.pages=400-1&rft.pub=Harvard+CMES&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-932-88528-9&rft.aulast=Babayan&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r994654864">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns dl,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ol,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="column-count: 2;">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997" class="citation book cs1">Asat'iani, Nodar; Bendianachvili, Alexandre (1997). <i>Histoire de la Géorgie</i> [<i>History of Georgia</i>] (in French). Paris, France: L'Harmattan. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-7384-6186-7" title="Special:BookSources/2-7384-6186-7"><bdi>2-7384-6186-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/98159624">98159624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+G%C3%A9orgie&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pub=L%27Harmattan&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98159624&rft.isbn=2-7384-6186-7&rft.aulast=Asat%27iani&rft.aufirst=Nodar&rft.au=Bendianachvili%2C+Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAxworthy2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Axworthy" title="Michael Axworthy">Axworthy, Michael</a> (2007). <i>Empire of the Mind: A History of Iran</i>. London, UK: C. Hurst and Co. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8506-5871-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8506-5871-9"><bdi>978-1-8506-5871-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2008399438">2008399438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+the+Mind%3A+A+History+of+Iran&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+and+Co.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008399438&rft.isbn=978-1-8506-5871-9&rft.aulast=Axworthy&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBabaie2004" class="citation book cs1">Babaie, Sussan; et al. (2004). <i>Slaves of the Shah: New Elites of Safavid Iran</i>. Library of Middle East History. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8606-4721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8606-4721-5"><bdi>978-1-8606-4721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+of+the+Shah%3A+New+Elites+of+Safavid+Iran&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.series=Library+of+Middle+East+History&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-8606-4721-5&rft.aulast=Babaie&rft.aufirst=Sussan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBlow2009" class="citation book cs1">Blow, David (2009). <i>Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend</i>. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-989-8"><bdi>978-1-84511-989-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2009464064">2009464064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shah+Abbas%3A+The+Ruthless+King+Who+Became+an+Iranian+Legend&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009464064&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-989-8&rft.aulast=Blow&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998" class="citation book cs1">Bomati, Yves; Nahavandi, Houchang (1998). <i>Shah Abbas, Empereur de Perse: 1587–1629</i> [<i>Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia: 1587–1629</i>] (in French). Paris, France: Perrin. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-2620-1131-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-2620-1131-1"><bdi>2-2620-1131-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/99161812">99161812</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shah+Abbas%2C+Empereur+de+Perse%3A+1587%E2%80%931629&rft.place=Paris%2C+France&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99161812&rft.isbn=2-2620-1131-1&rft.aulast=Bomati&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft.au=Nahavandi%2C+Houchang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1989" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bosworth, C. E. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v">"Barda and Barda-Dāri v. Military Slavery in Islamic Iran"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. III: Ātaš – Beyhaqi. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 774–776. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0"><bdi>0-7100-9090-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84673402">84673402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517011518/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Barda+and+Barda-D%C4%81ri+v.+Military+Slavery+in+Islamic+Iran&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=774-776&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84673402&rft.isbn=0-7100-9090-0&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbarda-v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFCole1987" class="citation journal cs1">Cole, Juan R. I. (May 1987). "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shi'ism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <b>19</b> (2): 177–203. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0020743800031834">10.1017/s0020743800031834</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Rival+Empires+of+Trade+and+Imami+Shi%27ism+in+Eastern+Arabia%2C+1300%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=177-203&rft.date=1987-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0020743800031834&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Juan+R.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDale2010" class="citation book cs1">Dale, Stephen Frederic (2010). <i>The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-69142-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-69142-0"><bdi>978-0-521-69142-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010278301">2010278301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Muslim+Empires+of+the+Ottomans%2C+Safavids%2C+and+Mughals&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010278301&rft.isbn=978-0-521-69142-0&rft.aulast=Dale&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHaneda1990" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Haneda, Masahi (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517014742/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">"Čarkas: ii. Under the Safavids"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. IV: Bāyjū – Carpets. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 818–819. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">the original</a> on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C4%8Carkas%3A+ii.+Under+the+Safavids&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=818-819&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Haneda&rft.aufirst=Masahi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fcarkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHoiberg2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency">"Abbas I (Persia)"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. I: A-Ak – Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8"><bdi>978-1-59339-837-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2008934270">2008934270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbas+I+%28Persia%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008934270&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-837-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopaedia2009ency&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJacksonLockhart1986" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Lawrence, eds. (1986). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5212-0094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-5212-0094-6"><bdi>0-5212-0094-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/67012845">67012845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67012845&rft.isbn=0-5212-0094-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKacharava2011" class="citation web cs1">Kacharava, Eka (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farig.org/images/stories/pdfs/research-alaverdi-part1.pdf">"Alaverdy Eparchy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Friends of Academic Research in Georgia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518110420/http://farig.org/images/stories/pdfs/research-alaverdi-part1.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Friends+of+Academic+Research+in+Georgia&rft.atitle=Alaverdy+Eparchy&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kacharava&rft.aufirst=Eka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Ffarig.org%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fpdfs%2Fresearch-alaverdi-part1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKremer2013" class="citation web cs1">Kremer, William (25 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21151350">"Why Did Men Stop Wearing High Heels?"</a>. <i>BBC News Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140817160312/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21151350">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Magazine&rft.atitle=Why+Did+Men+Stop+Wearing+High+Heels%3F&rft.date=2013-01-25&rft.aulast=Kremer&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-21151350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2012" class="citation book cs1">Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2012). <i>A Global History of Pre-modern Islamic Societies</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-3298-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5217-3298-7"><bdi>978-0-5217-3298-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2011043732">2011043732</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+History+of+Pre-modern+Islamic+Societies&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011043732&rft.isbn=978-0-5217-3298-7&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLockhart1953" class="citation book cs1">Lockhart, Lawrence (1953). Arberry, Arthur John (ed.). <i>The Legacy of Persia</i>. The Legacy Series. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/53002314">53002314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Persia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.series=The+Legacy+Series&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F53002314&rft.aulast=Lockhart&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1988" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Madelung, W. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baduspanids">"Baduspanids"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. III: Ātaš – Bayhaqī. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 385–391. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9121-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9121-4"><bdi>0-7100-9121-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84673402">84673402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141117073329/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baduspanids">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Baduspanids&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=385-391&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84673402&rft.isbn=0-7100-9121-4&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbaduspanids&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFManzHaneda1990" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Manz, Beatrice; Haneda, Masashi (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517014742/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">"Čarkas"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 816–819. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">the original</a> on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C4%8Carkas&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=816-819&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Manz&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rft.au=Haneda%2C+Masashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fcarkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMatthee2011" class="citation book cs1">Matthee, Rudi (2011). <i>Persia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan</i>. International Library of Iranian Studies. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8451-1745-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8451-1745-0"><bdi>978-1-8451-1745-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persia+in+Crisis%3A+Safavid+Decline+and+the+Fall+of+Isfahan&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.series=International+Library+of+Iranian+Studies&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-8451-1745-0&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMatthee1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Matthee, Rudi (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/farhad-khan-qaramanlu-rokn-al-saltana">"Farhād Khan Qaramānlū, Rokn-al-Saltana"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. IX: Ethé – Fish. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0"><bdi>0-7100-9090-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84673402">84673402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517032045/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/farhad-khan-qaramanlu-rokn-al-saltana">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Farh%C4%81d+Khan+Qaram%C4%81nl%C5%AB%2C+Rokn-al-Saltana&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84673402&rft.isbn=0-7100-9090-0&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Ffarhad-khan-qaramanlu-rokn-al-saltana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMatthee1999a" class="citation book cs1">Matthee, Rudolph P. (1999a). <i>The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5216-4131-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-5216-4131-4"><bdi>0-5216-4131-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/99012830">99012830</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Trade+in+Safavid+Iran%3A+Silk+for+Silver%2C+1600%E2%80%931730&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99012830&rft.isbn=0-5216-4131-4&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudolph+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze" title="Alexander Mikaberidze">Mikaberidze, Alexander</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ&q=sakhltukhutsesi"><i>Historical Dictionary of Georgia</i></a> (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442241466" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442241466"><bdi>978-1442241466</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Georgia&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1442241466&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJNNQCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsakhltukhutsesi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2011" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Colin P., ed. (2011). <i>New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society</i>. Milton Park, UK: Routledge. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4157-7462-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4157-7462-8"><bdi>978-0-4157-7462-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010032352">2010032352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Safavid+Iran%3A+Empire+and+Society&rft.place=Milton+Park%2C+UK&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010032352&rft.isbn=978-0-4157-7462-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2009" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Colin P. (2009). <i>The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric</i>. Persian Studies. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8577-1588-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8577-1588-3"><bdi>978-0-8577-1588-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010292168">2010292168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practice+of+Politics+in+Safavid+Iran%3A+Power%2C+Religion+and+Rhetoric&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.series=Persian+Studies&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010292168&rft.isbn=978-0-8577-1588-3&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Colin+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2009a" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Colin P. (2009a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tahmasp-i">"Ṭahmāsp I"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2330-4804">2330-4804</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517061306/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tahmasp-i">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%ACahm%C4%81sp+I&rft.date=2009&rft.issn=2330-4804&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Colin+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Ftahmasp-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMonshi1978" class="citation book cs1">Monshi, Eskandar Beg (1978). <i>Tārīk̲-e ʻālamārā-ye ʻAbbāsī</i> [<i>The History of Shah 'Abbas the Great</i>]. Persian Heritage (in Arabic and English). Translated by Savory, Roger M. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8915-8296-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8915-8296-7"><bdi>0-8915-8296-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/78020663">78020663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C4%81r%C4%ABk%CC%B2-e+%CA%BB%C4%81lam%C4%81r%C4%81-ye+%CA%BBAbb%C4%81s%C4%AB&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.series=Persian+Heritage&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78020663&rft.isbn=0-8915-8296-7&rft.aulast=Monshi&rft.aufirst=Eskandar+Beg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFNewman2006" class="citation book cs1">Newman, Andrew J. (2006). <i>Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire</i>. Library of Middle East History. London, UK: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86064-667-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-86064-667-0"><bdi>1-86064-667-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safavid+Iran%3A+Rebirth+of+a+Persian+Empire&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.series=Library+of+Middle+East+History&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-86064-667-0&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFParizi2000" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Parizi, Mohammad-Ebrahim Bastani (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ganj-ali-khan">"Ganj-ʿAlī Khan"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. X: Fisheries – Gindaros. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 284–285. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0"><bdi>0-7100-9090-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84673402">84673402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517034231/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ganj-ali-khan">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ganj-%CA%BFAl%C4%AB+Khan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=284-285&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84673402&rft.isbn=0-7100-9090-0&rft.aulast=Parizi&rft.aufirst=Mohammad-Ebrahim+Bastani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fganj-ali-khan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFQuinn2015" class="citation book cs1">Quinn, Sholeh (2015). <i>Shah Abbas: The King who Refashioned Iran</i>. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780745688" title="Special:BookSources/9781780745688"><bdi>9781780745688</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shah+Abbas%3A+The+King+who+Refashioned+Iran&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781780745688&rft.aulast=Quinn&rft.aufirst=Sholeh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRoemer1986" class="citation book cs1">Roemer, H. R. (1986). "5: The Safavid Period". In Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Lawrence (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5212-0094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-5212-0094-6"><bdi>0-5212-0094-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/67012845">67012845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5%3A+The+Safavid+Period&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67012845&rft.isbn=0-5212-0094-6&rft.aulast=Roemer&rft.aufirst=H.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSaslow1999" class="citation book cs1">Saslow, James M. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/picturespassions00sasl">"Asia and Islam: Ancient Cultures, Modern Conflicts"</a>. <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/picturespassions00sasl"><i>Pictures and Passions: A History of Homosexuality in the Visual Arts</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Viking. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6708-5953-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-6708-5953-2"><bdi>0-6708-5953-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/99019960">99019960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Asia+and+Islam%3A+Ancient+Cultures%2C+Modern+Conflicts&rft.btitle=Pictures+and+Passions%3A+A+History+of+Homosexuality+in+the+Visual+Arts&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99019960&rft.isbn=0-6708-5953-2&rft.aulast=Saslow&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpicturespassions00sasl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSavory1983" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Savory, Roger M. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-i">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">'</span>Abbās (I)"</a>. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. I: Āb - Anāhid. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 71–75. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9090-0"><bdi>0-7100-9090-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/84673402">84673402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507165410/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-i">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Abb%C4%81s+%28I%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=71-75&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F84673402&rft.isbn=0-7100-9090-0&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fabbas-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSavory1980" class="citation book cs1">Savory, Roger M. (1980). <i>Iran under the Safavids</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22483-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-22483-7"><bdi>0-521-22483-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/78073817">78073817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+under+the+Safavids&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78073817&rft.isbn=0-521-22483-7&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFShakespeare1863" class="citation book cs1">Shakespeare, William (1863). Clark, William George; Wright, William Aldis (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdid=book-e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdot=1"><i>The Works of William Shakespeare</i></a>. <b>III</b>. Cambridge, UK: Macmillan and Company. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/20000243">20000243</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151119144022/https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdid=book-e1Q8AQAAIAAJ&rdot=1">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+William+Shakespeare&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Company&rft.date=1863&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F20000243&rft.aulast=Shakespeare&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fplay.google.com%2Fstore%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%3Fid%3De1Q8AQAAIAAJ%26rdid%3Dbook-e1Q8AQAAIAAJ%26rdot%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStarkey2010" class="citation book cs1">Starkey, Paul (2010). "Tawfīq Yūsuf Awwād (1911–1989)". In Allen, Roger (ed.). <i>Essays in Arabic Literary Biography</i>. 3: 1850–1950. Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06141-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06141-4"><bdi>978-3-447-06141-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0938-9024">0938-9024</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010359879">2010359879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tawf%C4%ABq+Y%C5%ABsuf+Aww%C4%81d+%281911%E2%80%931989%29&rft.btitle=Essays+in+Arabic+Literary+Biography&rft.place=Wiesbaden%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=0938-9024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010359879&rft.isbn=978-3-447-06141-4&rft.aulast=Starkey&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFStreusand2011" class="citation book cs1">Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). <i>Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals</i>. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1359-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-1359-7"><bdi>978-0-8133-1359-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010024984">2010024984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Gunpowder+Empires%3A+Ottomans%2C+Safavids%2C+and+Mughals&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010024984&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-1359-7&rft.aulast=Streusand&rft.aufirst=Douglas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (May 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSykes1910" class="citation book cs1">Sykes, Ella Constance (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persiaitspeople01syke"><i>Persia and its People</i></a>. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/10001477">10001477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persia+and+its+People&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F10001477&rft.aulast=Sykes&rft.aufirst=Ella+Constance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersiaitspeople01syke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFThorne1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thorne, John O., ed. (1984). "Abbas I". <i>Chambers Biographical Dictionary</i>. Edinburgh, UK: Chambers Harrap. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-550-18022-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-550-18022-2"><bdi>0-550-18022-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/2010367095">2010367095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbas+I&rft.btitle=Chambers+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.place=Edinburgh%2C+UK&rft.pub=Chambers+Harrap&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2010367095&rft.isbn=0-550-18022-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWallbank1992" class="citation book cs1">Wallbank, Thomas Walter (1992) [1942]. <i>Civilization Past & Present</i> (7th ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-6733-8867-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-6733-8867-0"><bdi>0-6733-8867-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/91025406">91025406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilization+Past+%26+Present&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91025406&rft.isbn=0-6733-8867-0&rft.aulast=Wallbank&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWilson2010" class="citation journal cs1">Wilson, Richard (March 2010). "When Golden Time Convents<i>: Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise". </i>Shakespeare<i>. Routledge. <b>6</b> (2): 209–226. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17450911003790331">10.1080/17450911003790331</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1745-0918">1745-0918</a>. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191598902">191598902</a>.</i></cite><i><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Shakespeare&rft.atitle=When+Golden+Time+Convents%3A+Twelfth+Night+and+Shakespeare%27s+Eastern+Promise&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-226&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191598902%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1745-0918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17450911003790331&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></i></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li>Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,<i>Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia,1587-1629</i>, 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1595845672" title="Special:BookSources/978-1595845672">978-1595845672</a>, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.</li>
<li>Canby, Sheila R. (ed), 2009, <i>Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran</i>, 2009, British Museum Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780714124520" title="Special:BookSources/9780714124520">9780714124520</a></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPearce1920" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Barrow_Pearce" title="Francis Barrow Pearce">Pearce, Francis Barrow</a> (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRzAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA359"><i>Zanzibar, the Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa</i></a>. New York, NY: E. P. Dutton and Company. <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//lccn.loc.gov/20008651">20008651</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zanzibar%2C+the+Island+Metropolis+of+Eastern+Africa&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=E.+P.+Dutton+and+Company&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F20008651&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Francis+Barrow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frp.liu233w.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXRRzAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbas+the+Great" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbas_the_Great&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of a <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Abbas_I_(Persia)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Abbas I (Persia)">Abbas I</a></b></i>.</td></tr>
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<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></td>
<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Abbas I of Persia"><span style="">Abbas I of Persia</span></a></b></i>.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul><li><i>Shah Abbās: The Remaking of Iran</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/future_exhibitions/shah_abbas.aspx">The British Museum</a>, in association with Iran Heritage Foundation, 19 February – 14 June 2009,</li>
<li>John Wilson, <i>Iranian treasures bound for Britain</i>, BBC Radio 4, 19 January 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_7833000/7833651.stm">BBC Radio 4's live magazine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228234847/http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/b00gqy39"><i>Front Row</i></a> (audio report).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090509064348/http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-310/_nr-633/i.html">"Shah 'Abbas: The Remaking of Iran"</a></li></ul>
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<td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Abbas the Great </div><div><b><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Dynasty">Safavid Dynasty</a></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<br /><span style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Khodabanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Khodabanda">Mohammed Khodabanda</a></span>
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<td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">Shah of Persia</a></b><br />1 October 1588 – 19 January 1629
</td>
<td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<br /><span style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safi_of_Persia" title="Safi of Persia">Safi</a></span>
</td></tr>
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<ul><li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> <small>(1501–1524)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a> <small>(1524–1576)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail II</a> <small>(1576–1577)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad Khodabanda</a> <small>(1577–1587)</small></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbas I</a> <small>(1587–1629)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safi_of_Persia" title="Safi of Persia">Safi</a> <small>(1629–1642)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Abbas II</a> <small>(1642–1666)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_of_Persia" title="Suleiman of Persia">Suleiman I</a> <small>(1666–1694)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Husayn" title="Sultan Husayn">Sultan Husayn</a> <small>(1694-1722)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_II" title="Tahmasp II">Tahmasp II</a> <small>(1722–1732)</small></li>
<li><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_III" title="Abbas III">Abbas III</a> <small>(1732–1736)</small></li></ul>
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<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TDV%C4%B0A_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="TDVİA (identifier)">TDVİA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/abbas-i">abbas-i</a></span></span></li>
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<li><span class="nowrap"> <a href="/https/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldCat_Identities_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCat Identities (identifier)">WorldCat Identities</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80034374">lccn-n80034374</a></span></li></ul>
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