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'{{short description|Individual who oversees and manages the recording of an artist's music}} {{Infobox Occupation | name= Record producer | image= [[File:Engineer at audio console at Danish Broadcasting Corporation.png|250px]] | caption= A recording session in Denmark | official_names= Record producer, music producer <!------------Details-------------------> | type= [[Profession]] | activity_sector= [[Music industry]] | competencies= [[Musical instrument|Instrumental skills]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard knowledge]], [[songwriting]], [[arranging]], [[vocal coach]]ing | formation= | employment_field= [[Recording studio]]s | related_occupation= [[Music executive]], [[audio engineering|recording engineer]], [[executive producer]], [[film producer]], [[Artists and repertoire|A&R]] }} A '''record producer''' or '''music producer''', unlike an [[audio engineer]], who simply operates the technology employed in a music recording's creation and refinement, is the recording project's creative and technical leader, commanding studio time and coaching artists, and in popular genres typically creates the song's very sound and structure.<ref name=":02">[[Virgil Moorefield]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=L3dpT-V6m4kC&pg=PR13 "Introduction"], ''The Producer as Composer: Shaping the Sounds of Popular Music'' (Cambridge, MA & London, UK: [[MIT Press]], 2005).</ref><ref name=":1">Richard James Burgess, ''The History of Music Production'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), [https://books.google.com/books?id=qMKiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13&dq=producer pp 12–13].</ref><ref name=":7">Allan Watson, ''Cultural Production in and Beyond the Recording Studio'' (New York: [[Routledge]], 2015), [https://books.google.com/books?id=snqQBAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA25 pp 25–27].</ref> The record producer, or simply the producer, is likened to a film director.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":7" /> The [[executive producer]], on the other hand, enables the recording project through entrepreneurship. Varying by project, the producer may also choose all of the artists,<ref>James Petulla, [https://www.recordingconnection.com/reference-library/recording-entrepreneurs/what-does-a-music-producer-do "Who is a music producer?"], ''RecordingConnection.com'', Recording Connection, 21 May 2013, reporting membership in CAPPS, the California Association of Private Postsecondary Schools.</ref> or openly perform vocals with them.<ref name=":7" /> If employing only [[Synthesizer|synthesized]] or [[Sampling (music)|sampled]] instrumentation, the producer may be the sole artist.<ref name=":7" /> Conversely, some artists do their own production.<ref name=":7" /> And some producers are their own engineers,<ref>Ian Shepherd, [https://productionadvice.co.uk/what-is-a-producer "What does a music producer do, anyway?"], ''Production.Advice.co.uk'', Production Advice, 26 Feb 2009.</ref> operating the technology across the project: preproduction, recording, [[Audio mixing (recorded music)|mixing]], and [[Audio mastering|mastering]]. Record producers' precursors were "A&R men," who likewise could blend entrepreneurial, creative, and technical roles,<ref name=":1" /> but often exercised scant creative influence,<ref name=":2" /> as record production still focused, into the 1950s, on simply improving the record's sonic match to the artists' own live performance.<ref name=":7" /> Advances in recording technology, especially the 1940s advent of [[tape recording]]—which [[Les Paul]] promptly innovated further to develop [[multitrack recording]]<ref name=":6" />—and the 1950s rise of electronic instruments, turned record production into a specialty.<ref name=":7" /> In popular music, then, producers like [[Phil Spector]], [[George Martin]], and [[Brian Eno]] led its evolution into its present use of elaborate techniques and unrealistic sounds, creating songs impossible to originate live.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":14">[[Greg Kot]], [https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20160310-what-does-a-record-producer-do "What does a record producer do?"], BBC Culture, ''[[Bbc.com|BBC.com]]'', 10 Mar 2016.</ref> After the 1980s, production's move from analog to digital further expanded possibilities.<ref name=":7" /> By now, DAWS, or [[digital audio workstation]]<nowiki/>s, like [[Logic Pro]] and [[Pro Tools]], turn an ordinary computer into a production console,<ref>Jay Kadis, [https://ccrma.stanford.edu/courses/192b/ProTools-Logic%20Lec.pdf "Digital audio workstations"], ''CCRMA.Stanford.edu'', [[Center for computer research in music and acoustics|Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics]], [[Stanford University]], 2006–2013, retrieved 11 Sep 2020.</ref><ref name=":4" /> whereby a solitary novice can become a skilled producer in a thrifty home studio.<ref name=":9">Richard James Burgess, ''The History of Music Production'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=lWEUAAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA199&dq=Page+Perry 199]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=lWEUAAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA200&dq=Elliott+Massy+Rogers+Droney 200].</ref><ref name=":10">Melinda Newman, [https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/8095107/female-music-producers-industry-grammy-awards "Where are all the female music producers?"], ''Billboard.com,'' MRC Media and Info, 19 Jan 2018.</ref> In the 2010s, efforts began to increase the prevalence of producers and engineers who are women, heavily outnumbered by men and prominently accoladed only in classical music.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8">Nate Hertweck, [https://www.grammy.com/grammys/news/recording-academy-task-force-diversity-and-inclusion-announces-initiative-expand "Recording Academy Task Force On Diversity and Inclusion announces initiative to expand opportunities for female producers and engineers"], ''Grammy.com'', [[Recording Academy]], 1 Feb 2019.</ref> == Production overview == As a broad project, the creation of a music recording may be split across three specialists: the [[music executive|executive producer]], who oversees business partnerships and financing, the vocal producer or vocal arranger, who aids vocal performance via expert critique and coaching of vocal technique, and the record producer or music producer, who, often called simply the producer, directs the overall creative process of recording the song in its final mix. The record producer's roles include, but may exceed, gathering ideas, composing music, choosing [[session musician]]s, proposing changes to song arrangements, coaching the performers, controlling sessions, supervising the [[audio mixing (recorded music)|audio mixing]], and, in some cases, supervising the [[audio mastering]]. As to qualifying for a [[Grammy]] nomination, the [[The Recording Academy|Recording Academy]] defines a producer:<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>The person who has overall creative and technical control of the entire recording project, and the individual recording sessions that are part of that project. He or she is present in the recording studio or at the location recording and works directly with the artist and engineer. The producer makes creative and aesthetic decisions that realize both the artist's and label's goals in the creation of musical content. Other duties include, but are not limited to; keeping budgets and schedules, adhering to deadlines, hiring musicians, singers, studios and engineers, overseeing other staffing needs and editing (Classical projects). </blockquote> The producer often selects and collaborates with a mixing engineer, who focuses on the especially technological aspects of the recording process, namely, operating the electronic equipment and blending the raw, recorded tracks of the chosen performances, whether vocal or instrumental, into a <nowiki>''mix,'' either stereo or surround sound. Then a mastering engineer further adjusts this recording for distribution on the chosen media. A producer may work on only one or two songs or on an artist's entire album, helping develop the album'</nowiki>s overall vision. The record producers may also take on the role of executive producer, managing the budget, schedules, contracts, and negotiations. == Historical developments == === A&R men === In the 1880s, the record industry began by simply having the artist perform at a [[phonograph]]. In 1924, the trade journal ''[[Talking Machine World]]'', covering the phonography and record industry, reported that Eddie King, [[Victor Records]]' manager of the "New York [[Artists and repertoire|artist and repertoire]] department," had planned a set of recordings in Los Angeles.<ref name=":0">Brian Ward & Patrick Huber, ''A&R Pioneers: Architects of American Roots Music on Record'' (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2018), [https://books.google.com/books?id=xVVgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41&dq=1940s+recording+supervising pp 20–21].</ref> Later, folklorist [[Archie Green]] called this perhaps the earliest printed use of ''A&R man''.<ref name=":0" /> Actually, it says neither "A&R man" nor even "A&R," an initialism perhaps coined by ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' magazine in 1946, and entering wide use in the late 1940s.<ref name=":0" /> In the 1920s and 1930s, A&R executives, like [[Ben Selvin]] at [[Columbia Records]], [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] at Victor Records, and Bob Haring at [[Brunswick Records]], supervising recording and often leading session orchestras, became the precursors of record producers.<ref name=":2">Brian Ward & Patrick Huber, ''[https://www.vanderbilt.edu/university-press/book/9780826521750 A&R Pioneers: Architects of American Roots Music on Record]'' (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2018), [https://books.google.com/books?id=xVVgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT300&dq=record+producer+producers+production pp 278–281].</ref> During the 1940s, American record labels increasingly opened official A&R departments, whose roles included supervision of recording.<ref name=":0" /> Meanwhile, recording studios owned independently, not by [[major record label]]s, opened, helping originate record producer as a specialty.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} But despite a tradition of some A&R men writing music, ''record production'' remained, strictly, merely the manufacturing of record discs.<ref name=":2" /> === Record producers === After World War II, pioneering A&R managers who transitioned influentially to record production as now understood, while sometimes owning independent labels, include [[J. Mayo Williams]] and [[John Hammond (record producer)|John Hammond]].<ref name=":2" /> Upon moving from Columbia Records to [[Mercury Records]], Hammond appointed [[Mitch Miller]] to lead Mercury's popular recordings in New York.<ref name=":2" /> Miller then produced country-pop crossover hits by [[Patti Page]] and by [[Frankie Laine]], moved from Mercury to Columbia, and became a leading A&R man of the 1950s.<ref name=":2" /> During the decade, A&R executives increasingly directed songs' sonic signatures, although many still simply teamed singers with musicians, while yet others exercised virtually no creative influence.<ref name=":2" /> The term ''record producer'' in its current meaning—the creative director of song production—appearing in a 1953 issue of ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' magazine, became widespread in the 1960s.<ref name=":2" /> Still, a formal distinction was elusive for some time more.<ref name=":2" /> A&R managers might still be creative directors, like [[William "Mickey" Stevenson]], hired by [[Berry Gordy]], at the [[Motown]] record label.<ref>Brian Ward & Patrick Huber, ''A&R Pioneers: Architects of American Roots Music on Record'' (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2018), [https://books.google.com/books?id=xVVgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT303&dq=Gordy+Stevenson p 283].</ref> === Tape recording === In 1947, the American market gained audio recording onto magnetic tape.<ref>Jim Curtis, ''Rock Eras: Interpretation of Music & Society, 1954–1984'' (Bowling Green, OH: [[Bowling Green State University]] Popular Press, 1987), [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0xAUXaBYqoC&pg=PA43&dq=world p 43].</ref> At the record industry's 1880s dawn, recording was done by [[phonograph]], etching the sonic waveform vertically ''into'' a cylinder.<ref name=":5">Richard James Burgess, ''The History of Music Production'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeISDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Les+Paul+%22sound+on+sound%22+tape pp 50–54].</ref> By the 1930s, a gramophone etched it laterally ''across'' a disc.<ref name=":3">Robert Philip, "Pianists on record in the early twentieth century", in David Rowland, ed., ''The Cambridge Companion to the Piano'' (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=kEy1MRsnVHIC&pg=PA75 75]–77.</ref> Constrained in tonal range, whether bass or treble, and in [[dynamic range]], records made a grand, concert piano sound like a small, upright piano, and maximal duration was four and a half minutes.<ref name=":3" /> Selections and performance were often altered accordingly.<ref name=":3" /> And playing this disc—the wax master—destroyed it.<ref name=":3" /> The finality often caused anxiety that restrained performance to prevent error.<ref name=":3" /> In the 1940s, during World War II, the Germans refined audio recording onto magnetic tape—uncapping recording duration and allowing immediate playback, rerecording, and editing<ref name=":3" />—a technology that premised emergence of record producers in their current roles.<ref name=":3" /> === Multitrack recording === Early in the recording industry, a record was attained by simply having all of the artists perform together live in one take.<ref name=":5" /> In 1945,<ref name=":6">Brent Hurtig with J. D. Sharp, ''Multi-Track Recording for Musicians: The Complete Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners and Reference for Professionals'' (Cupertino, CA: GPI Publications, 1988 / Van Nuys, CA: [[Alfred Publishing]], 1988), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ByJG1iwUHBAC&pg=PA8&dq=Paul+%22sound+on+sound%22+tape+head pp 8–10].</ref> by recording a musical element while playing a previously recorded record, [[Les Paul]] developed a recording technique called "sound on sound."<ref name=":5" /> By this, the final recording could be built piece by piece and tailored, effecting an editing process.<ref name=":5" /> In one case, Paul produced a song via 500 recorded discs.<ref name=":5" /> But, besides the tedium of this process, it serially degraded the sound quality of previously recorded elements, rerecorded as ambient sound.<ref name=":5" /> Yet in 1948, Paul adopted tape recording, enabling truly multitrack recording by a new technique, "[[overdubbing]]."<ref name=":5" /> To enable overdubbing, Paul revised the tape recorder itself by adding a second playback head, and terming it the ''preview head''.<ref name=":6" /> Joining the preexisting recording head, erase head, and playback head, the preview head allows the artist to hear the extant recording over headphones playing it in synchrony, "in sync," with the present performance being recorded alone on an isolated track.<ref name=":6" /> This isolation of multiple tracks enables countless mixing possibilities. Producers began recording initially only the "bed tracks"—the [[rhythm section]], including the [[bassline]], drums, and rhythm guitar—whereas vocals and instrument solos could be added later. A [[horn section]], for example, could record week later, and a [[string section]] another week later. A singer could perform her own backup vocals, or a guitarist could play 15 layers. === Electronic instruments === [[File:MFQ with Phil Spector.jpg|thumb|right|[[Phil Spector]] producing [[Modern Folk Quartet]], 1966]]Across the 1960s, popular music increasingly switched from acoustic instruments, like piano, [[upright bass]], [[acoustic guitar]], and [[brass instrument]]s, to electronic instruments, like [[electric guitar]]s, [[Keyboard (musical instrument)|keyboards]], and [[synthesizer]]s, employing [[instrument amplifier]]s and speakers. These could mimic acoustic instruments or create utterly new sounds. Soon, by combining the capabilities of tape, multitrack recording, and electronic instruments, producers like [[Phil Spector]], [[George Martin]], and [[Joe Meek]] rendered sounds unattainable live.<ref name=":14" /> Similarly, in [[jazz fusion]], [[Teo Macero]], producing [[Miles Davis]]'s 1970 album ''[[Bitches Brew]]'', spliced sections of extensive improvisation sessions. === Performer-producer === In the 1960s, rock acts like [[the Beatles]], [[the Rolling Stones]],<ref>Reportedly self-produced entirely are the Rolling Stones' Decca recordings</ref> and [[the Kinks]] produced some of their own songs, although many such songs are officially credited to specialist producers.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} Yet especially influential was the Beach Boys, whose band leader [[Brian Wilson]] took over from his father Murry within a couple of years after the band's commercial breakthrough. By 1964, Wilson had taken Spector's techniques to unseen sophistication.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} Wilson alone produced all Beach Boy recordings between 1963 and 1967.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} Using multiple studios and multiple attempts of instrumental and vocal tracks, Wilson selected the best combinations of performance and audio quality, and used tape editing to assemble a composite performance.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} === Digital production === The 1980s advent of digital recording, replacing analog recording, mostly eliminated "tape hiss" and, in a separate matter, introduced a perceived "pristine" sound, but also a perceived loss of a "warm" sound, with bass better rounded, of analog recordings.<ref name=":13">David Simmons, ''Analog Recording: Using Analog Gear in Today's Home Studio'' (San Francisco: [[Backbeat Books]], 2006), [https://www.google.com/books/edition/Analog_Recording/gYuMOUYwgvIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=tape+digital+analog&pg=PA26 pp 26–27].</ref> In any case, during the 1990s, digital production reached affordable home computers via production software. By now, recording and mixing are often centralized in DAWs, [[digital audio workstation]]s—for example, [[Pro Tools]], [[Logic Pro]], [[Ableton Live|Ableton]], [[Steinberg Cubase|Cubase]], [[Reason_(software)|Reason]], and [[FL Studio]]—for which third parties' plugins effect [[Virtual Studio Technology|virtual studio technology]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Digital Audio Workstations|url=https://ccrma.stanford.edu/courses/192b/ProTools-Logic%20Lec.pdf|access-date=2016-05-15|website=Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics|publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> DAWs fairly standard in the industry are Logic Pro and Pro Tools.<ref name=":4">Kiesha Joseph, [http://blog.first.edu/audio-recording-software-avid-pro-tools-vs-apple-logic-pro-x "Audio recording software: Avid Pro Tools vs. Apple Log Pro X"], ''Blog.First.edu'', F.I.R.S.T. Institute, 11 Feb 2016, whose webpage footer reports, "Accredited by ACCET", perhaps the [[Accrediting Council for Continuing Education and Training]].</ref> Physical devices involved include the main mixer, [[MIDI]] controllers to communicate among equipment, the recording device itself, and perhaps effects gear that is outboard. As production technology has drastically changed, so have the knowledge demands.<ref>Amandine Pras, Caroline Cance & Catherine Guastavino, [[doi:10.1080/09298215.2013.848903|"Record producers' best practices for artistic direction—from light coaching to deeper collaboration with musicians"]], ''[[Journal of New Music Research]]'', 2013 Dec 13;'''42'''(4):381–395.</ref> Now a task mainly of the audio engineer, who is not necessarily the record producer, tracking is the act of recording audio to a DAW. Yet recording ''per se'' is sometimes still done onto tape, rather, despite its lesser signal-to-noise ratio, SNR.<ref name=":13" /> Quality tape, at least half an inch wide and traveling 15 inches per second, limits audible hiss to silent sections.<ref name=":13" /> Also more forgiving, tape's magnetic limitation helps smooth dynamic peaks that overshoot the medium's ceiling on signal level.<ref name=":13" /> With tape, the signal can be too "hot" by nearly 15 decibels without causing "[[Clipping (audio)|clipping]]," the harsh and ruinous distortion that digital recordings sustain at any excess signal level.<ref name=":13" /> Thus, some producers precede the digital workflow with tape recording.<ref name=":13" /> Still, some experts contend that digital workflows, increasing automation by newer processes and newer instruments, tend to impair creative control or sonic control.<ref>Albin Zak III, book review: ''Strange Sounds: Music, Technology, and culture'' (Routledge, 2011), by Timothy D. Taylor, in ''Current Musicology'', pp 159–180 [unknown year, volume, issue].</ref> On the other hand, digital production enables sheer novices, even teenagers at home, to learn production autonomously.<ref name=":9" /> Some have attained professional competence before ever working with an artist.<ref name=":10" /> [[File:Brian Wilson 1976 crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Brian Wilson]] at a [[mixing board]] in [[Brother Studios]], 1976]] == Women in producing == [[File:Audio mixer faders.jpg|thumb|upright|Mixing console]]In a 2018 study, a sample of 300 popular songs' producers found one female for every 49 males.<ref>Stacy L. Smith, Marc Choueiti & Katherine Pieper with Ariana Case, Sylvia Villanueva, Ozodi Onyeabor & Dorga Kim, [http://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/inclusion-in-the-recording-studio.pdf "Inclusion in the recording studio? Gender and race/ethnicity of artists, songwriters & producers across 600 popular songs from 2012–2017"], Annenberg Inclusion Initiative, 25 Jan 2018.</ref> Earlier in the decade, Wendy Page, a woman and prominent producer, reasoned that record labels, dominated by males, have been "mistrustful of giving a woman the reins of an immense, creative project like making a record."<ref name=":9" /> Page nonetheless remarked, "The difficulties are usually very short-lived. Once people realize that you can do your job, sexism tends to lower its ugly head."<ref name=":9" /> For example, [[Wilma Cozart Fine]] produced hundreds of recordings for [[Mercury Records]]. In any case, during 2019, the [[The Recording Academy|Recording Academy]] launched an initiative to increase the numbers of women.<ref name=":8" /> Artists and producers agreeing, thereby, to consider at least two women for each producer or engineer position range from [[Cardi B]] and [[Taylor Swift]] to [[Maroon 5]] and [[Quincy Jones]], among over 200 others.<ref name=":8" /> In classical music, three women have won Grammy awards for best producer, and in 2015, [[Judith Sherman]] won a fifth time.<ref name=":10" /> Yet in nonclassical, no woman has ever won [[Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical|Producer of the Year]], an award begun in 1975.<ref name=":10" /> After [[Lauren Christy]]'s 2004 nomination, the next for a woman was [[Linda Perry]]'s 2019 nomination.<ref name=":11">Elias Leight, [https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/linda-perry-grammy-nomination-producer-year-766036 "Linda Perry's Grammy nomination 'is a win for all women producers and engineers' "], ''[[Rollingstone.com|RollingStone.com]]'', Rolling Stone, LLC, 7 Dec 2018.</ref> On why no female had ever won it, Perry commented, "I just don't think there are that many women interested."<ref name=":10" /> Still, many female artists have produced their own albums.<ref>Some are [[Sheryl Crow]], [[Tori Amos]], [[Taylor Swift]], [[Mariah Carey]], [[Beyoncé]], [[Toni Braxton]], [[Lady Gaga]], [[Pink (singer)|Pink]], [[Adele]], [[Lauryn Hill]], [[Bjork|Björk]], [[FKA Twigs]], [[Grimes (musician)|Grimes]], [[Kate Bush]], and [[Missy Elliott]]. </ref> Artists including [[Kate Bush]], [[Madonna]], [[Janet Jackson]], [[Beyoncé]], [[Taylor Swift]], and [[Lorde]] have produced or coproduced.<ref name=":9" /><ref>Chris Casetti, [http://www.vh1.com/news/306607/triple-threats-13-female-singers-who-write-and-produce-their-own-work "Triple threats: 13 female singers who write and produce their own work"], ''VH1 News'', online, Viacom International Inc., 21 Mar 2017.</ref> Among specialist producers female, [[Sylvia Moy]] was the first at [[Motown]], [[Gail Davies]] ws the first on Nashville's [[Music Row]], and [[Ethel Gabriel]], with [[RCA Records|RCA]], was the first at a [[major record label]]. [[Lillian McMurry]], owning a label, produced historically significant [[blues]] records. More recently, [[Missy Elliott]] produced hip hop, and [[Sylvia Massy]] produced rock.<ref name=":9" /> == See also == {{portal|Business and economics|Music}} * [[Audio engineering]] * [[Electronic music]] * [[Hip hop production]] * [[Music executive]] * [[Musician]] == Notes == {{reflist|group=nb}} == References == {{reflist|30em}} == Further reading == * Gibson, David and [[Maestro Curtis]]. "The Art of Producing". 1st. Ed. USA. ArtistPro Publishing, 2004. {{ISBN|1-931140-44-8}} * [[Richard James Burgess|Burgess, Richard James.]] ''The Art of Music Production''. 4th Ed. UK. Music Sales, 2005. {{ISBN|1-84449-431-4}} * {{cite book|ref=harv|editor-last=Edmondson|editor-first=Jacqueline|title=Music in American Life: An Encyclopedia of the Songs, Styles, Stars, and Stories that Shaped our Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQPXAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-39348-8}} * Hewitt, Michael. ''Music Theory for Computer Musicians''. 1st Ed. USA. Cengage Learning, 2008. {{ISBN|1598635034}} * Gronow, Pekka and Ilpo Saunio (1998). ''An International History of the Recording Industry''. Cited in Moorefield (2005). * Moorefield, Virgil (2005). ''The Producer as Composer: Shaping the Sounds of Popular Music''. * Olsen, Eric et al. (1999). ''The Encyclopedia of Record Producers.'' {{ISBN|978-0-8230-7607-9}} * Zak, Albin. ''The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. {{Music industry}} {{Music production}} {{Music topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Record Producer}} [[Category:Record producers| ]] [[Category:Music production]]'